GRADE 11

BIOLOGY
Genetic Processes
Class 2
Agenda

Lesson 2

Take up • Mendel’s Experiments

Class 1 • Law of Segregation
Homework • Allele
• Monohybrid Cross
• Dihybrid Cross
• Genetic Disorders
Mendelian Inheritance

• Gregor Mendel conducted

experiments by crossbreeding
thousands of pea plants and
recording the offspring’s traits
• Trait is a particular version of a
characteristic that is inherited,
such as hair colour, eye colour,
or blood type Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) is
known as the “father of genetics”
Mendel’s Peas
• Pisum sativum is the garden
pea plant with several
advantages for Mendel’s
experiments:
• Reproduce quickly
• Have male and female
reproductive organs
• Self-fertilizing and cross-fertilizing
• Have observable characteristics
• True-breeding organism produces
offspring that are genetically identical
for one or more traits when self-
pollinated or when crossed with
another true-breeding organism with
the same traits

• Hybrid is the offspring of two different

true-breeding organisms
• Mendel performed experiments
on seven hereditary
characteristics of the pea plant
Mendel’s Experiments
• Cross is the successful mating
of two organisms from distinct
genetic lines
• P generation is the parent
generation used in the cross
• F1 (filial) generation is the
offspring of the P-generation
cross
• F2 generation is the offspring of
the F1-generation cross
• Mendel performed a monohybrid cross:
• Monohybrid cross is a cross designed to study the
inheritance of only one trait
• Monohybrid is the offspring of two different true-
breeding plants that differ in only one characteristic

Why not pink?

Monohybrid
Cross Where did the trait for
white colour go?

Monohybrid
• Mendel allowed the F1
monohybrid to self-
pollinate to form the F2
generation, which
consisted of purple
flowers and white flowers
• White flowers trait did not
disappear but was masked
• Traits in the F2 generation
were always expressed as
a ratio of 3:1
Law of Segregation
• Traits are passed on by discrete heredity units, which
Mendel called factors
• Dominant factor is expressed
• Recessive factor is masked
• Law of Segregation states that:
• Organisms inherit two copies of genes, one from each parent
• Organisms donate only one copy of each gene to their
gametes because the genes separate during gamete
formation
Allele Gene for
Pea Shape

Allele for Round Allele for Wrinkly

• Allele is one of the two
forms of a gene
• Homozygous describes an
individual that carries the
same alleles for a given
characteristic; ex: GG or gg Gene for
• Heterozygous describes an Pea Colour
individual that carries Allele for Green Allele for Green
different alleles for a given
characteristic: ex: Gg
• Dominant Allele is the allele that, if present, is
always expressed; denoted by a capital letter
• Recessive Allele is the allele, that is expressed only
if it is not in the presence of the dominant allele;
denoted by a lower case letter

G = Allele for green

colour (dominant) GG = homozygous green
Gg = heterozygous green
g = Allele for yellow gg = homozygous yellow
colour (recessive)
• Genotype is the set of alleles of an individual
• Phenotype is the organism’s outward appearance
with respect to a certain trait
GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE

GG = homozygous green
Gg = heterozygous green
gg = homozygous yellow
 Checkpoint

Pea plants can either be tall or

short. If tall is a dominant trait
and dwarf is a recessive trait,
write the genotypes and
phenotypes for all the possible
combinations.
 Checkpoint
Determine your genotype using the chart. If you do not know whether you
are homozygous or heterozygous, record your genotype as heterozygous.
• In genetics, dominance refers only to which gene is
expressed
• Does not necessarily mean that the allele is stronger,
better, or more common than the recessive allele
• The reason the dominant allele
is expressed is because it codes
for a working protein
• Ex: Melanin is a pigment and
humans have two forms of the
gene melanin
• M = produces melanin
• m = no melanin Albino individuals have mm as their
genotype. They lack melanin and are
extremely susceptible to sun damage.
Monohybrid Cross
• Punnett Square is a diagram used to predict the
proportions of genotypes in the offspring resulting
from a cross between two individuals
Consider a cross between a pea plant that is
heterozygous for green pods (Gg) and a plant that is
homozygous for yellow pods (gg).
1) Draw a Punnett Square G g
2) Write the alleles of Parent 1
on the top g Gg gg
3) Write the alleles of Parent 2
on the left
4) Combine the alleles in each g Gg gg
square
5) Write the ratio of the
genotypes and phenotypes Genotype = 1 Gg : 1 gg
Phenotype = 1 Green Pod : 1 Yellow Pod
 Checkpoint

Two F1 heterozygous yellow seed plants (Yy) are

crossed. Determine the ratios of the genotype and
phenotype of the F2 generation.
 Checkpoint

In one cross of tomato plants, 1821 red tomato plants

and 615 yellow tomato plants were produced.
Determine the probable genotype of the parents.
Which allele is dominant? Use the letter R and r to
represent the alleles.
Test Cross
• Test Cross is used to
determine if an individual
exhibiting a dominant trait
is homozygous or
heterozygous
• Performed between the
individual in question and a
homozygous recessive
genotype
• DNA sequencing has
replaced test crosses
 Checkpoint

A breed of rooster has a dominant

trait (S), a comb that resembles a
series of fingers, while a breed with
recessive trait (s) has a flat comb. A
breeder wants to use a true-breeding,
homozygous, five-fingered comb stud.
Design a test cross to find the stud.
 CR is the allele for red colour
CW is the allele for white colour
Incomplete Dominance
• Not all traits exhibit complete
dominance
• Complete dominance is when the
dominant allele determines the
phenotype regardless of the
presence of the other allele
• Incomplete dominance is when
neither allele dominates the other
and both have an influence on the
offspring; offspring is a blend
Codominance
• Codominance is when both alleles are expressed
fully to produce offspring with a third phenotype

Ex: Shorthorn cattle

HrHr = red

HwHw = white

HrHw = roan (both red

and white hair)
Incomplete Dominance vs. Codominance

Incomplete Dominance Codominance

• Blend of both alleles • Separated expression of
• Red x White = Pink both alleles
• Red x White = Red & White
Blood Types
• Red blood cells have special
markers called antigens on
their membranes that lead to
different blood types: Type A,
B, AB, and O
• Possible alleles: IA IB i
• Type AB undergoes
codominance
• Type O lacks antigens
 Checkpoint

A newborn baby has type O blood. The mother has

type A blood and the father has type AB blood. Is
this possible?
 Blood Types in Canada Blood Transfusions
Type Percentage
O 46% • Type A blood produces an immune
A 42% response against Type B antigens
B 9%
• Type B blood produces an immune
AB 3%
response against Type A antigens
Blood types are • Type AB can take all types of blood
accompanied by a Rhesus
(Rh) factor which is another since it recognize Type A and Type
antigen on red blood cells. B antigens (universal acceptor)
Rh+ means individual has
the protein.
• Type O can only receive blood cells
with no antigens but can donate to
Rh- means individual does
not have the protein.
anyone (universal donor)
Dihybrid Cross
• Dihybrid Cross is a cross
that involves two genes,
each consisting of
heterozygous alleles

Seed Shape Seed Colour

R = round Y = yellow
r = wrinkled y = green
All offspring are RrYy and
appear round and yellow
Law of Independent Assortment
• Law of Independent Assortment states that if
genes are located on separate chromosomes, they
will be inherited independently of one another
• Mendel found that the
characteristics he
tested were not linked
(i.e. seed shape had
no influence on seed
colour)
Result =
9 round, yellow
3 round, green
3 wrinkled, yellow
1 wrinkled, green
 Checkpoint

In watermelons, the green colour

gene (G) is dominant over the
striped colour gene (g), and round
shape (R) is dominant over long
shape (r). Two heterozygous
round green colour watermelons
(GgRr) are crossed. Determine the
expected phenotypic ratio of the
F1 generation.
 Checkpoint

In guinea pigs, black fur (B) is

dominant over white fur (b), and a
rough coat (R) is dominant over a
smooth coat (r). If a black, rough-
furred guinea pig (BBRR) is
crossed with a white, smooth-
furred guinea pig (bbrr), what are
the expected phenotypes in a
large litter?
The Product Law
• The probability of two independent random events
both occurring is the product of the individual
probabilities of the events
• Ex: Probability of giving birth to two boys
1 1 1
× =
2 2 4
Probability Probability of Probability of
of first boy second boy both boys
Monohybrid Cross:
3
Yellow from Yy x Yy =
4
3
Round from Rr x Rr =
4

3 3 9
Yellow and Round: × =
4 4 16
Continuous Variation
• Discontinuous variation is when the
expression of one gene does not
interact with the expression of
another gene; no in-between traits
• Ex: Blood groups are either A, B, AB, or O

• Continuous variation is when the

expression of the a gene is affected
by other genes; effects can be
additive, or can negate the other
• Ex: skin colour, height, hair colour, eye
colour
Genetic Disorders
• Genetics disorder is a disease
caused by changes in the DNA
sequence due to:
• Mutation in one gene
• Mutations in multiple genes
• Combination of gene mutations
and environmental factors
• Damage of chromosomes
Cystic Fibrosis
• Disease that causes the body to
produce a thick, sticky mucous that
clogs the lungs and blocks the
release of enzymes in the pancreas
• Caused by a mutated CFTR gene
which is recessive
• Identified by Dr. Lap-Chee Tsui and his
team at Sick Kids Hospital
• Child must have both copies of the
defective allele passed by carrier
parents to have cystic fibrosis
Breast Cancer
• Mutation in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes lead to
increased chances of breast or ovarian
cancer at an early age
• BRCA1 and BRCA2 are tumour suppressor
genes and produce chemicals to inhibit the
growth of tumours
• If genetic screening shows a mutation in the
BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, a woman may
decide to have a mastectomy (removal of
part or all of the breast tissue)
Phenylketonuria
• Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an
autosomal, recessive, inherited
genetic disorder due to mutations in
the PAH gene
• PAH gene makes an enzyme called
phenylalanine hydroxylase which
breaks down phenylalanine into
other compounds
• Buildup of phenylalanine can lead to
intellectual disability and other
health problems
Newborn Screening Program
• In Ontario, newborns are
screened for genetic
disorders including:
• Cystic Fibrosis
• Phenylketonuria
• Sickle Cell Disease
• Metabolic Diseases
• Endocrine diseases
A small amount of blood from a heel-prick is
collected 1-2 days after birth on to a special type • Severed Combined Immune
of paper. The card is sent to Newborn Screening Deficiency
Ontario and results are sent back to the doctor
and stored in the baby’s medical records.
Commercial Genetic Testing Kits
• Commercial genetic
testing kits are widely
available and
affordable
• Using a saliva
sample, it can test for:
• Type 2 Diabetes
• BRCA1/BRCA2
• Celiac Disease
• Parkinson’s Disease
• Genetic weight
Issues with Genetic Testing
• Ethical Concerns:
• Should governments make genetic testing mandatory?
• Should you disclose your genetic information to your partner if
you want to start a family?
• Should you disclose your genetic information to your
biological family who may also be at risk?
• Should employers have access to your genetic information?
• Should insurance companies request a genetic test?
• Health & Lifestyle Concerns:
• How will the results of the genetic test affect your lifestyle and
life decisions?
Important Terms

Trait Allele Incomplete dominance

True Breeding Homozygous Codominance
Hybrid Heterozygous Dihybrid
Monohybrid Dominant Allele Continuous Variation
P generation Recessive Allele Discontinuous Variation
F1 generation Genotype
F2 generation Phenotype
What I Learned Today
❑ Mendelian Inheritance
❑ Law of Segregation
❑ Allele
❑ Monohybrid Cross
❑ Dihybrid Cross
❑ Genetic Disorders
Due next class: Class 2 Homework