Faisal and Hayakawa  Progress in Earth and

Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-022-00500-8 Planetary Science

REVIEW Open Access

Geomorphological processes and their

connectivity in hillslope, fluvial, and coastal
areas in Bangladesh: A review
B. M. Refat Faisal1,2 and Yuichi S. Hayakawa3*   

Abstract: Geomorphological knowledge is critical in understanding watershed scale surface processes, including
steep mountainous areas and flat lowlands, particularly if the mid- and downstream areas are densely populated and
hazard assessments are highly required. However, our knowledge about such surface processes has relatively been
limited in some areas in South Asia due likely to the lack of comprehensive studies of geomorphology and related
fields. This article undertakes an overview of the geomorphological processes of the disaster-prone deltaic land-
scape of the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM), particularly focusing on fluvial processes. The area locates in the
downstream of the watershed system including Himalayan Mountains and highly connected with the upper basin
morphodynamics, hydrology, and sediment flux. The previous studies are summarized at different geomorphic set-
tings concerning hillslopes, fluvial plains, and coastal areas to provide clarity about the geomorphic processes linking
erosion-prone upstream source areas to deposition-dominated downstream areas. The review found that most of the
geomorphic researches in Bangladesh are exploring landslide inventory and susceptibility mapping in hilly areas; river
channel or riverbank shifting, riverbank erosion and accretion in fluvial environments; watershed morphometric analy-
sis and geomorphic unit identification in plain land; and coastline shifting or coastal erosion and accretion in coastal
environments at a small scale. Then, we discuss the fluvial dynamics and sediment transport of the GBM river system
to address the knowledge gap in the context of deltaic plain land in Bangladesh, where upstream fluvial sedimenta-
tion processes impact the geomorphic connectivity from Himalayan to the Bay of Bengal. Although some studies
on the fluvial dynamics and sediment dispersal in the upstream GBM river basin are present, the fluvial processes in
the downstream domain of Bangladesh are not fully understood with a limited number of research with field-based
approaches. Some future perspectives of geomorphic research in Bangladesh are then mentioned to understand
better the complex geomorphological settings in the entire GBM watershed and to strengthen the existing research
capacity. This review will also develop a holistic understanding of fluvial geomorphic processes of the GBM River to
the policymakers and may be helpful to improve the transboundary river basin management policies or strategies.
Keywords: Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM), Bangladesh, Satellite remote sensing, Fluvial processes, Sediment
dispersal, Landslides, Coastal erosion

1 Introduction
The Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) river system
is the largest delta of the world, where the Brahmaputra
is known as Jamuna River, and the confluence of Ganges
and Jamuna River is known as Padma River (Sarker et al.
*Correspondence: hayakawa@eis.hokudai.ac.jp 2014). The Meghna River (upper and lower Meghna) con-
3
Faculty of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, fluences with the Padma River at its upstream and down-
Hokkaido 060‑0810, Japan stream. The braided Jamuna, the meandering Ganges,
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s) 2022. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the
original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or
other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line
to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory
regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this
licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 2 of 22

the anastomosing upper Meghna, and the anabranching dynamics are controlled by natural processes (discharge
lower Meghna make the river planform more diverse flow, sediment transport, debris flow, channel migra-
and complicated (Sarker et al. 2014). Geographically, the tion and floodplain erosion, and accretion) (Langat et al.
major part of the GBM basin in Bangladesh is entirely 2019) and anthropogenic processes (dam constructions,
lowland, which is surrounded by India on the west, the river bank engineering, and land-use changes) (Surian
Myanmar on the east, Shillong Plateau on the north, and Rinaldi 2003; Wellmeyer et al. 2005; Ortega et al.
and Bay of Bengal on the south (Steckler et al. 2010) 2014). The geomorphic research describes both these
(Fig. 1). However, most of the rivers of Bangladesh (405 natural and anthropogenic factors to explain the surface
rivers including 57 transboundary rivers) are originated process, shape and dimension, spatiotemporal variability,
from the Himalayan and East Indian mountains and flow and evolutionary characteristics of landscapes and land-
through Bangladesh into the Bay of Bengal (BWDB 2014; forms (Pareta and Pareta 2015).
Dewan et al. 2017). In terms of mean annual discharge, However, apart from Himalayan tributaries, numbers
the GBM river system is second only to the Amazon, of tributaries from upland source areas are joining the
and a major portion of this flow occurs in the summer Ganges–Brahmaputra (GB) river system and it also hosts
season with immense monsoon rainfall, which causes a large number of floodplain wetland and lakes (Singh
widespread flooding in these drainage areas (Steckler et al. 2021). Furthermore, the geomorphic diversity of
et al. 2010). Therefore, the geomorphological features river formation and processes in the Himalayan foreland
are changing very rapidly in downstream Bangladesh and hinterland are demonstrated by the climatic diversity
despite its remarkably flat topography due to the complex along the strike of the Himalaya (Sinha 2004). Because
upstream fluvial process (Takagi et al. 2005). These fluvial there is a close relationship among geomorphology, river

GJC

PMC

Fig. 1 Map of the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna river basin representing major tributaries and sediment sources including Trans-Himalayan
batholiths (THB), Tethyan Sedimentary Series (TSS), High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence (HHC), Lesser Himalayas (LH), Indus-Tsangpo suture
(ITS) (after Goodbred et al. 2014). The rectangle focuses on the Bengal basin that influences the river migration and sediment dispersal across the
Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna delta. GJC and PMC indicate the Ganges–Jamuna confluence and Padma–Meghna confluence, respectively (Gazi
et al. 2020a)
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 3 of 22

engineering, hydrometeorology, and environment, the Besides, there is an imperative need among the sci-
geomorphological study of the large Ganges–Brahma- entific community to understand better the geomor-
putra river system is highly important to understand the phic consequences of ongoing global environmental
process–form relationship of fluvial systems and land- changes (Lane 2013; Knight and Harrison 2014; Harrison
scape diversity. Also, an understanding of large GB river et al. 2019), where the mountainous landscapes includ-
systems is critical as they support large human popula- ing the diverse fluvial system deserve particular atten-
tions, where Ganges and Brahmaputra support a popu- tion (Cienciala 2021). These realizations highlighted the
lation of 400 million (Jain et al. 2012) and 83 million importance of geomorphic analysis at the cross-country
people (about 41% residents in Bangladesh), respectively scales because the fluvial system, including sediment
(Mahanta et al. 2014). However, despite the enormity of connectivity and sediment dynamics, of downstream
the Ganges–Brahmaputra fluvial system and the general Bangladesh is mostly influenced by the upper and mid-
advancements in recent fluvial geomorphological studies dle Ganges–Brahmaputra system (Subramanian and
(Oguchi et al. 2013, 2022), the hydro-geomorphic infor- Ramanathan 1996; Sinha 2004; Singh 2007). Therefore,
mation in GBM is somewhat restricted (Ray et al. 2015; there is a need to review the previous geomorphic stud-
Fischer et al. 2017) and research availability has been ies with a holistic view of dealing with fluvial geomorphic
fragmented at its downstream areas. On the other hand, research in downstream the deposition zone (Bangla-
significant research regarding the Ganges–Brahmapu- desh) connecting the upstream Ganges–Brahmaputra
tra river hydrology, geomorphology, and sedimentology basin. This sort of review study is required to find out the
had been carried out by several researchers in India (Jain geomorphic research gap, to improve the understanding
et al. 2012), covering the upper part of the Ganges–Brah- of geomorphic processes in complex downstream areas,
maputra basin. However, the integration of geomorphic and to unearth the flood-prone deltaic landscape con-
and hydrological studies in the upstream and down- nected with morphodynamics, hydrology, and sediment
stream reaches of the GBM basin has been limited. flux in the upper basins. In addition, an understanding
Moreover, in the context of Bangladesh, which hosts of upstream dominated processes or events or sediment
two most diverse Ganges–Brahmaputra basins, not many transport dynamics that shape the particular landform
studies on fluvial geomorphology and sediment dynam- development of downstream areas is highly important in
ics have been conducted so for. Geomorphic research geomorphic science (Howard 1994; Whipple and Tucker
is still in the nascent phase in Bangladesh and previ- 1999; Stark and Stark 2001). Therefore, this study may
ously studied by only a few researchers (Coleman 1969; help us answer the questions in geomorphology, how the
Umitsu 1985, 1987, 1993; Best and Ashworth 1997; Alli- magnitude and frequency of upstream event plays a more
son et al. 1998; Ashworth et al. 2000; Islam et al. 2001; influential role in developing geomorphic characteristics
Takagi et al. 2007; Goodbred et al. 2014; Brammer 2014; of the downstream (Wolman and Miller 1960; Rinaldo
Sarker et al. 2014; Dewan et al. 2017) focusing on chan- et al. 1991; Pelletier 2003).
nel diversion, erosion and accretion, sediment deposi- In such a context, a large part of this work focuses on
tion, and few hydro-geomorphic systems. Earlier, Takagi reviewing the previous geomorphic research in down-
et al. (2005) reviewed the geomorphological and geologi- stream Bangladesh. Also, this article attempts to review
cal researches of Bangladesh and tried to reflect some of some of the major aspects of the Ganges–Brahmaputra
the geomorphic research gap and realities and mentioned fluvial system that evaluates their relevance to under-
the limited scientific researchers. However, as discussed stand the fluvial system of downstream Bangladesh taking
later, current geomorphic researches in downstream into consideration the geomorphological diversity of the
Bangladesh are mostly conducted at a small scale within upper Ganges–Brahmaputra river system. Some of the
the country. The insights obtained at small-scale studies potential implications for future geomorphic researches
are not sufficient to understand the large-scale landscape concerning downstream flat alluvial Bangladesh are also
process (Baker 1988; Lane and Richards 1997; Jain et al. discussed here that can help minimize the multitude of
2012). Moreover, the hydrological event that occurs in river basin management problems. Therefore, we present
the upper part of a river basin may have a direct influ- an inclusive review of the Ganges–Brahmaputra fluvial
ence on downstream from a few to many hundreds of system, starting from the mountainous catchments to the
kilometers away (Nepal 2012; Nepal et al. 2014). Hence, deltaic plain concerning vast alluvial plain land in Bang-
the understanding of upstream–downstream linkages ladesh. In summary, the aim of this article is (a) to review
in hydrological processes of Ganges–Brahmaputra river the previous geomorphological research in Bangladesh
basin is essential for water resources management of with a focus on different geomorphic features, includ-
downstream Bangladesh. ing landslides in hilly area, fluvial channel dynamics,
plain land features, and coastal dynamics; (b) to critically
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 4 of 22

analyze the fluvial dynamics and sediment pathways of density, semipermeable soil lithology, and homogenous
active plain land Bangladesh that governs by the upper soil texture. Similarly, small-scale morphometric analysis
Ganges–Brahmaputra river system; and (c) to highlight has been conducted by Jahan et al. (2018) in the Atrai–
some potential future geomorphic research for better Sib River Basin (northern part of Bangladesh).
understanding of the downstream geomorphic process Moreover, the landslide scenario of this hilly region is
in Bangladesh considering the recent advancement and aggravated by increased population, rapid urbanization,
regional studies. indiscriminate hill cutting and deforestation, and inap-
propriate land-use practices (Sarker and Rashid 2013a,
2 Main text b; BUET-JIDPUS 2015). Rabby and Li (2020) identi-
2.1 Major geomorphic features in Bangladesh fied 730 landslides in Chittagong hilly area from Janu-
Regarding the major geomorphic characteristics in Bang- ary 2001 to March 2017 based on Google Earth images,
ladesh, here we review geomorphic researches previ- field mapping, and literature search. The literature works
ously performed in the area at different scales, focusing on landslide event were collected from local newspa-
on hillslopes, fluvial dynamics, plain land formation, and pers, Comprehensive Disaster Management Program
coastal dynamics. (CDMP) phase II-2012, records of the disaster manage-
ment department, and road and highway department
2.1.1 Hilly area of the people’s republic of Bangladesh. However, com-
A large variety of erosional and depositional features may prehensive identification and response to the landslide
be formed in mountainous and hillslope areas. The hilly occurrence in this remote hilly area are still difficult due
or mountainous terrain is mainly found in the north and to its inaccessibility covered by dense forest, faster vege-
southeastern part of Bangladesh (18% of the total country tation regrowth after landslide, cloudy Landsat imageries,
area) and is mostly covered with dense vegetation (Rabby and unavailability of airborne light detection and rang-
and Li 2018). The hilly regions of southeast Bangladesh ing (LiDAR) images, aerial photographs, and unmanned
(Chittagong Hill Tracts) are underlain by Surma and aerial system (UAS)-based images (Rabby and Li 2018).
Tipam rocks (Brammer 1996), and the soil formation is Besides, Ahmed (2015) prepared landslide suscepti-
complex and unstable (Islam et al. 2017). The young rock bility mapping in one of the hilly areas of southeastern
formation contains feldspars vulnerable to weathering Bangladesh (Cox’s Bazar) applying artificial hierarchy
(Ahmed et al. 2014), which make these regions more sus- process (AHP), weighted linear combination (WLC),
ceptible to landslide risks during heavy rainfall (> 40 mm/ logistic regression, and multiple logistic regression tech-
day) in the monsoon (June to October) season within niques. Almost similar studies also have been carried out
a short period (2–7 days) (Khan et al. 2012; Sarker and by Ahmed and Dewan (2017) and Rahman et al. (2017)
Rashid 2013a, b). In Chittagong Hill Tract (CHT) region, in the Chittagong area of Bangladesh. Also, Rabby et al.
rainfall-induced landslides (Khan et al. 2012) are increas- (2020) evaluated the performance of several digital eleva-
ing and causing death and damage to property (Ahmed tion models (DEMs) including global digital elevation
and Rubel 2013; Rabby and Li 2019; Rabby et al. 2020). models (GDEM) (30 m resolution), Shuttle Radar Topo-
Furthermore, the southeastern hilly region of Bangla- graphic Mission (SRTM) (30–90 m), the Phased Array
desh is regarded as a high-risk zone for flash floods and type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR-DEM)
landslide events associated with intense rainfalls (Ahmed (12.5 m) and Survey of Bangladesh (SoB) DEM (25 m)
and Dewan 2017; Rahman et al. 2017). Also, flash flood (generated from spot height) for landslide susceptibility
vulnerability studies have been carried out by Rahman mapping in one of the CHT region (Rangamati district)
and Salehin (2013) and Sarker and Rashid (2013a, b), but of Bangladesh. The comparative usability study of differ-
detailed watershed morphometric analysis has not been ent DEMs concludes that except SoB-DEM (only source
studied. Meanwhile, Adnan et al. (2019) assessed the of local DEM in Bangladesh), all other global DEMs are
flash flood susceptibility of the Karnaphuli and Sangu suitable for the landslide suitability mapping in Bangla-
river basins in the southwest region with DEM-derived desh. The applicability of those landslide susceptibility
twenty-two morphometric parameters. The analysis maps to local areas in both scientific and social contexts
revealed that more than 80% of the total area is suscep- is, however, still limited due partly to their coarse-reso-
tible to flash floods with moderate to a very high level of lution and the unavailability of field-based work on the
severity. On the other hand, morphometric analysis of landslides.
major watersheds in the northwestern Bangladesh (Bar-
ind tract) has been carried out by Rahman et al. (2017). 2.1.2 Fluvial features
They found a dendritic drainage pattern with ­1st to ­6th 2.1.2.1 Channel dynamics In geomorphological studies,
stream order, moderate to a flat slope, moderate drainage river channel formation and dynamics are the foremost
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 5 of 22

topics (Petts 1995). While the fluvial processes in Bang- of 8.10 to 2.80 km over the period (1972–2019). Further,
ladesh connecting upstream areas are discussed in more Akhter et al. (2019) explore spatiotemporal changes of
detail in Sect. 3.1, here we summarize the overview of flu- Teesta River channel morphology and forecast midline
vial geomorphological studies in Bangladesh. The most channel shifting in the reach over the period (1972–2017)
comprehensive remote-sensing-based geomorphological through multi-date Landsat imageries (MSS/TM/ETM+/
study in Bangladesh about the Brahmaputra River chan- OLI) and SRTM-DEM (30 m) data and autoregressive
nel has been conducted by Takagi et al. (2007) over the integrated moving average (ARIMA) model. This study
time period of 1967–2002. They separated the Brahma- found that, like other river systems of Bangladesh, the
putra River into four phases, namely: (a) the late 1960s Teesta River width is becoming narrow in recent times
to early 1970s; (b) the mid-1970s to early 1980s; (c) the than earlier decades (Takagi et al. 2007; Sarker et al. 2014;
mid-1980s to early 1990s; and d) the mid-1990s to early Bhuiyan et al. 2015; Dewan et al. 2017). Besides, over
2000s. Phase (a) and phase (b) have been regarded as the period (1972 to 2010) and (2010 to 2017), the Teesta
transitional phases with more complex conditions, which channel is shifting toward the right side (0.34 km/year)
trigger frequent large floods and may significantly change and left side (− 0.14 km/year), respectively. However,
the river system. Also, a state of dynamic equilibrium has channel shifting rates of Teesta River are mostly affected
been observed from the mid-1990s to the early 2000s due by the temporally changing amount of sedimentation, but
to small spatial variations both in the braided belt width the spatial changes are more controlled by the differences
and in the channel width. However, based on the study in riverbank conditions. Further, the ARIMA model
of the historical evolution of the Brahmaputra–Jamuna predicts the rightward direction of maximum midline
by Coleman (1969), Sarker et al. (2014) summarized channel shifting for 2017 to 2024 and leftward mid-
that the rate of channel (Brahmaputra–Jamuna) widen- line channel shifting between 2024 and 2031 because of
ing (~ 152 m­ y−1) was high but the channel migration was reduced water flow at downstream of Teesta River, result-
effectively zero in last four decades (1970–2010). On the ing from the construction of dams and embankments at
other hand, the Ganges catchment (Ganges and Padma) upstream, which restricted the water flow and increased
in Bangladesh annually receives 1200 mm of average rain- the number of bars (Ghosh 2014; Khan and Islam 2015).
fall (Sulser et al. 2010), which is one of the factors of the
recurring large magnitude of seasonal floods during the 2.1.2.2 Sediment dynamics The GBM river system of
monsoon period (July–October) (Gupta 1995; Kale 2003; Bangladesh is highly prone to channel shifting, erosion,
Sharma 2005). The study of Dewan et al. (2017) concludes accretion, and riverine island (locally Char) development
that the Padma (Aricha–Chandpur) experienced a total due to high sediment transport or movement process
of 183 k­ m2 of erosion (left bank 155 k­ m2 and right bank in the monsoon season (Sarker et al. 2011). However,
28 ­km2) which led to the occurrence of many extreme the sediment budget of the large braided river (Jamuna)
floods since 1973. Furthermore, Islam (2016) analyzed the largely depends on the river’s flow path along the flood-
Landsat MSS 1977 (9 Feb), Landsat TM 1989 (11 Nov), plain, suspended sediment transport regime, and aver-
and Landsat ETM+ 2000 (17 Nov) data and assessed the age sedimentation rates (Allison et al. 1998; Takagi et al.
fluvial channel dynamics of Padma River in Northwest- 2007). In the Ganges and Brahmaputra River, 78% of the
ern Bangladesh. This study showed a remarkable change total suspended load is from the Brahmaputra River (Islam
in the position of the riverbank, river channel, as well et al. 2001), where the siltation rate has been increased
as bars, along with the geometry and morphology over in recent years (Khalil et al. 1995). Like fluvial processes,
23 years (1977 to 2000). Besides, the findings suggest that the nature of sediment dispersal in the GBM catchment
the bankline of Padma River is not stable and in recent is also diverse but not fully understood or studied. The
decades it can be migrated continuously toward westward sediment dispersal in GBM catchments connecting the
(Shamsuzzaman et al. 2005; Talukder and Islam 2006). upstream catchments to the downstream reaches in
The morphodynamics of two major confluences of Bangladesh is further discussed based on the existing lit-
Bangladesh Rivers, namely the Padma–Meghna conflu- erature in Sect. 3.2.
ence (PMC) and the Ganges–Jamuna confluence (GJC), Examples of studies of fluvial sediment trans-
have been studied recently by Gazi et al. (2020a) (Fig. 1). port include the work of Islam et al. (2001), who used
This study found that GJC moved to southwest direc- advanced very-high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR)
tion and PMC moved to northwest direction over the images of 1996 and Landsat images of 1991. This work
period (1980–2019), but these directions of confluence was designed to understand the seasonal and spatial vari-
migration were reverse before 1980s. At the same time, ations of suspended sediment in the Ganges and Brah-
the width of PMC shows variation from 6.87 to 6.98 km, maputra Rivers in Bangladesh for both high-discharge
whereas the GJC confluence shows a decreasing trend periods (June to October) and low-discharge periods
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 6 of 22

(November to May). They found higher suspended sedi- reduces the erosion potential of the surface. Besides, the
ment concentration (SSC) (1150 to 1375 mg/l) in the limitations of the sediment deposition model have been
Ganges than the Brahmaputra (1000 to 1275 mg/l) in mentioned in this study with available experimental sedi-
high-discharge period, whereas reverse scenario has been mentation data.
observed for low-discharge period. The significant fluc-
tuations in SSC and suspended sediment load along the 2.1.2.3 River bank management Generally, floods often
Ganges and Brahmaputra River courses have been attrib- occur due to extreme condition of climatic triggers, and
uted to riverbank erosion and accretion, as well as the their effects are also conditioned by hydrological, geo-
aggradation of riverbeds. morphological, and anthropogenic factors (Adnan et al.
Similarly, Islam et al. (2002) examined the distribu- 2020). Bangladesh is prone to multiple flood hazards due
tion of suspended sediment through Landsat images of to the frequent attacks of cyclones and the physiographic
1989 and 1991 in the coastal sea around the Ganges– settings of large plain land (Rahman and Salehin 2013).
Brahmaputra River mouth, showing that transportation Consequently, riverbank erosion and accretion is a very
and deposition of suspended sediments experience sea- common and dynamic process in the fluvial system of
sonal variations (SSC varies from 200 to 700 mg/l during Bangladesh (Islam et al. 2014). A very recent study by
low-discharge period and 1300–1500 mg/l during high- Rashid et al. (2021) revealed that due to the route change,
discharge period). They also found that the suspended the Brahmaputra–Meghna in Bangladesh grabbed ~ 2817
sediments are accumulated on the shallow shelf (between ­km2 of invaluable land resources and a newly developed
5 to 10 m water depths) in the low-discharge period, and ∼ 4563 ­km2 from 1971 to 2014. The National Plan for
on the mid-shelf (between 10 to 75 m water depths) in Disaster Management (NPDM) describes that the Padma
the high-discharge period with an average rate of 2 cm/ River is quite sensitive to erosion and accretion processes,
year. However, an empirical (exponential) relationship significantly affecting the society and economy to hinder
has been found between the gradual settle down of sus- the further development along the riverbank areas (Islam
pended sediments in the coastal area and its lateral dis- 2000; NPDM 2006). Billah (2018) studied the Padma
tance from the turbidity maximum. Moreover, annual River erosion and accretion scenario from 1975 to 2015,
pluvial flooding during the monsoon period (Warner finding that the total amount of riverbank erosion in the
et al. 2018) due to short or prolonged precipitation (Fal- 40-year period was 49,951 ha of land (rate of 1249 ha ­y−1)
coner et al. 2009) in the southwestern coastal region of and accretion was 83,333 ha of land (rate of 2083 ha y­ −1),
Bangladesh has become more intense and severe because also causing the riverbank shift. Furthermore, Gazi et al.
of siltation in riverbeds and encroachment of drainage (2020b) studied the erosion–accretion of Gorai–Mad-
channels. This southwestern coastal region mainly com- humati River (a tributary of Ganges River), finding that
prises Ganges River floodplains, Ganges tidal floodplain, the total river bank erosion of 80.84 k­ m2 and accretion
and old floodplain basins (Brammer 2014). Consequently, of 82.9 k­m2 over the years (1972–2018). The analysis
Adnan et al. (2020) developed a sediment deposition also revealed that Gorai–Madhumati River experienced
model for southwestern coastal region of Bangladesh extreme sedimentation due to reduction in water dis-
using flood data from Bangladesh Water Development charge which consequently causes numerous problems in
Board (BWDB), precipitation data (1948–2012) from the river basin areas, and without attention and proper
Bangladesh Meteorological Department, and DEM data river management it will no longer exist with the present
from Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS). This flowing condition. Also, the fluvial landform characteri-
model predicts that the increase in land elevation could zation studies of Biswas et al. (2021) depict that erosion
be up to 1.4 m in every 5 years, which would alleviate and accretion of Madhumati River Basin (source of fresh-
land subsidence and modify several geomorphologi- water in southwestern hydrological region of Bangladesh)
cal factors such as curvature, slope, aspect, and Stream have increased during the flooding period of 1988 and
Power Index (SPI). SPI is a measure of the erosive power 1998, and the basin boundary shifted toward east, which
of surface runoff, which is considered as one of the fac- impacted negatively on floodplain resources, agricultural
tors that determine the river channel erosion, basin- resources, and biodiversity.
scale variability in channel processes, morphology, and A large number of people live in floodplains of Bang-
sediment transport potentiality (Moore et al. 1991; Pei ladesh with vulnerability to floods and river erosion,
et al. 2010; Khosravi et al. 2016; Kaushal et al. 2020). and the number of causalities due to floods has become
This study reveals that the implementation of tidal river higher than the other natural disasters (Tingsanchali and
management (TRM) in southwestern Bangladesh could Karim 2005). In this connection, Hoque et al. (2011) eval-
potentially improve the physical condition of the natu- uated the RADARSAT images of 2004 (June 5, July 24,
ral drainage basin by reducing the value of SPI, which and Sep 9) and Landsat images of 2000 (Feb 28 and Oct
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 7 of 22

25) as well as ground data for flood monitoring and map- groundwater potential zones in this area. Similarly,
ping in the northeastern part of Bangladesh, concluding groundwater potentiality identification and prediction
that this region is more prone to floods than the other studies have been conducted in two metropolitan cities
parts of Bangladesh. They also concluded that RADAR- of Dhaka and Chittagong by Arefin (2020b) and Akter
SAT data can clarify questions related to the mapping of et al. (2020), respectively.
inundation areas more clearly and quickly than the Land-
sat imageries, where Landsat is often unavailable due to 2.1.4 Coastal features
the cloudiness in monsoon season over Bangladesh. As a transitional zone between land and water, the
coastal zone is one of the most dynamic and unsta-
2.1.3 Plain land features ble geomorphic units in Bangladesh (Minar et al. 2013;
The northwestern part of Bangladesh has been divided Brammer 2014). The coastal environment is governed by
geomorphologically into a) uplifted blocks of terraced terrestrial and marine forces (Kabir et al. 2020), and the
land called as Barind Tract, b) Himalayan piedmont coastal vulnerability of Bangladesh is largely controlled
plains, c) alluvial lowland along the Brahmaputra– by the geomorphic processes of the GBM river basins
Jamuna River, and d) alluvial lowland along the Ganges (Islam et al. 2015a, b). Also, the external forces, including
River (Kubo 1993). On the other hand, the southwestern water-logging, soil erosion, salinity intrusions, sea level
portion of the basin is formed by the deposition of the rise, cyclone, storm surge, and tsunami, adversely affect
mainstream Ganges River and its numerous tributaries the morphological settings of the coastal environment
and distributaries (Alam et al. 2003; Ravenscroft 2003). and negatively impact coastal area development activi-
Therefore, for understanding the landscape develop- ties (CZPo 2005; Barua et al. 2010). Ahmed et al. (2018)
ment, a comprehensive geomorphic mapping is required focused on land dynamics of the entire coastal zone
in plain land, which is still missing mostly for Bangladesh (western, central, and eastern) and determined a net gain
(Oya 1979; Mahmud et al. 2017). Nevertheless, Mahmud of 237 ­km2 (annual average of 7.9 k­ m2) of land from 1985
et al. (2017) identified major geomorphic units of the to 2015. This study also revealed that both erosion and
western Ganges delta and divided the geomorphic fea- accretion rates are higher in the central zone compared
tures into fluvial deltaic plain (FDP) and fluvio-tidal del- to the western and the eastern zones of the coastal area.
taic plain (FTDP). Also, this study depicts that elevated Shibly and Takewaka (2012) studied the morphological
concentration of arsenic (As) occurs mainly in deeper changes along the western–central coast in 1989–2010,
FDP due to the absence of permeable layer between shal- which obtains a large volume of discharge from the GBM
low and deep aquifer, whereas chloride concentration river system through Sibsha, Pasur, and Baleswar River
shows an increasing trend in groundwater from FDP to (Allison et al. 2003; Iftekhar and Islam 2004). They found
FTDP (north to south). Furthermore, geomorphological that the western–central shoreline in 2000–2010 was
maps of Dhaka city have been prepared by Kamal and more stable than its previous decade (1989–2000). They
Midorikawa (2004) and Karim et al. (2019). In the north- also found that the mangrove-covered area is chang-
ern district (Pabna) of Bangladesh, Islam et al. (2015a, b) ing more significantly compared to the flat sandy beach,
also identified the different geomorphic units, includ- in contrast to the thought that mangrove stabilizes the
ing active channels, abandoned channels, natural levees, land. Also, Alam and Uddin (2013) mentioned that, over
flood plains, flood basins, and lateral channel bars. the last 34 years (1977–2010), the coastal areas and the
However, morphometric analyses are a prerequisite for offshore Island of Bangladesh gained 139 ­km2 of land
delineation of potential watershed (Aher et al. 2014) and from continuous erosion and accretion process. How-
water management aspects (Malik et al. 2019) where the ever, based on the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI)
hydrological information is unavailable. In this regard, methods (Thieler and Hammar-Klose 1999; Doukakis
Arefin and Alam (2020) focused on morphometric analy- 2005; Diez et al. 2007): Islam et al. (2015a, b) showed that
sis for water resource management in the Dhaka city area. the western coast of Char Fasson and the northern and
Their study suggests that surface water can be extracted southwestern coast of Bhola Island (Bhola Sadar) are the
from a fifth-order stream and can be supplied to the most vulnerable coastal regions of Bangladesh. Likewise,
domestic area after water quality treatment. Further- Miah et al. (2020) also applied CVI (Szlafsztein and Sterr
more, Arefin (2020a) identified the groundwater poten- 2007, 2010; Mahapatra et al. 2014) by combining both
tial zones at the drought-prone Plio-Pleistocene highland the Physical Vulnerability Index and Social Vulnerability
in the northern part of Bangladesh using WLC and GIS- Index for the southeastern coast (Chittagong district) of
based multi-criteria evaluations for class normalization Bangladesh. This study revealed 43% of the total south-
using Saaty’s AHP (Saaty 1977). This study determines eastern coastal area as highly vulnerable to flooding,
clay soil regions with high slopes and roughness as low
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 8 of 22

storm surges, and cyclones, and the rural area is more ies significantly, for example 743 mm/y in Tibetan Pla-
prone to disaster impacts than the urban area. teau, 1349 mm/y in Himalayan belt, and 2354 mm/y in
floodplain (Immerzeel 2008). Consequently, 80–95% of
2.2 Fluvial processes of GBM from upstream water discharge is observed in the Ganges and Brahma-
to downstream putra during southwest monsoon (June to November)
As reviewed above, among various geomorphic features, (Subramanian and Ramanathan 1996), which led to a
fluvial processes are the major factor forming the land- concurrent increase in sediment discharge (Mukherjee
scape of Bangladesh. Here, we review the studies on flu- et al. 2009). For instance, the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and
vial processes in further details. For the understanding Meghna discharges 70,792,116 kg/s, over 70,792,116 kg/s
of the downstream fluvial processes, fluvio-sediment and 14,158,423 kg/s, respectively, at lower reaches during
dynamics of the upstream of GBM catchments are cru- monsoon flood season (Coleman 1969). The monsoonal
cial and we first summarize river hydrology, river system, dominancy of annual discharge at the GB basin has also
sediment transport, and discharge therein. Then, we dis- been mentioned in earlier studies of Kale (2005) and
cuss geomorphic knowledge gap regarding the connec- Mahanta et al. (2014). The monsoon-dominated rainfall
tivity between the upstream and downstream domains and melting of the Himalayan snow from the upper GB
and motivate larger-scale (beyond country scale) fluvial river system cause a large magnitude of floods in down-
geomorphic studies. stream Bangladesh and therefore impact fluvial dynamics,
but this process remains unclear or not studied (Fig. 2).
2.2.1 Fluvial processes of Bangladesh in response
to upstream GB 2.2.1.2 GBM River system dynamics The drainage
2.2.1.1 River hydrology The annual flow pattern of large network map of Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna River
Himalayan (Ganges and Brahmaputra) and peninsular (Fig. 3) shows that several tributaries of the Ganges
river (Mahanadi, Tapi, Kaveri, etc.) system suggests that (Yamuna, Ghagra, Gandak, Kosi, Chambal, Son, etc.) and
these rivers are mostly characterized by non-monsoonal the Brahmaputra are draining toward the Bay of Bengal
low or no flow (7–8 months), common monsoon flow (BoB) forming the major delta in the Bengal basin (Sub-
(4–5 months), and occasional large magnitude flow dur- ramanian and Ramanathan 1996; Sinha 2004). The drain-
ing monsoon (Kale 2005). Except for the catchment of age development of the Ganges–Brahmaputra is gener-
the Brahmaputra in Tibet, all other drainage basins of ally derived from several factors such as tectonics and
the GBM River falls within the monsoonal regime of climatic patterns in the lowland area (Gupta 1997; Friend
South and Southeast Asia, where rainfall pattern var- et al.1999). The longitudinal profile of the Ganges shows

Fig. 2 Gains and losses of land on the Brahmaputra–Ganges–Meghna delta front in 1984–2007 (after Brammer 2014)
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 9 of 22

Fig. 3 GBM river basin elevation and drainage network. The elevation is prepared based on NASA-DEM (30 m resolution). The yellow, red, and green
circles denote the in situ gauging stations for discharge estimations

a sharp change in a gradient from steeper mountains to changing morphology and bedforms due to heavy dis-
the gentler downstream plains (Fig. 4). The Brahmaputra charge and sediment load (Goswami 1985; Sinha and
River profile shows relatively low gradient in the upstream Friend 1994; Kale 2005). For instance, the 1897 and 1950
reach but drastically drops to the Assam plains (Gupta earthquakes impacted Brahmaputra River sediment
2007; Mahanta et al. 2014; Ray et al. 2015), resulting in supply (bed load increases) and channel morphology in
abundant sediment deposition and formation of braided Assam, India (Coleman 1969). An integrated drainage
channels in the downstream reach (Pangare et al. 2021). network has been formed at Brahmaputra River in India
Overall, the deviations of the Ganges–Brahmaputra River (Assam), where braided channels composed of mainly
longitudinal profile are related to the Himalayan tecton- fine sand with various dimensions of rivers are devel-
ics, water discharges, and sediment load characteristics oped, including straight, sinuous, meandering, tortuous,
of these basins (Seeber and Gornitz 1983; Goswami 1985; braided, anastomosing, anabranching, and reticulate
Gupta 2007). features (Sarma 2005). After crossing India (Assam), the
In the southeastern center of the Tibetan Plateau, Brahmaputra enters Bangladesh (about 47,000 ­ km2 of
2
glaciers feed the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra River, and the total 580,000 ­km drainage basin) after traveling 220 km
increased rates of snow and glacial melt are likely to from the Indian border along the northern area (Kuri-
increase summer flows in the downstream Brahmapu- gram) through Himalayan flows (Sarma 2005; Sarker
tra (Immerzeel 2008; Bolch et al. 2010). Remarkably, the et al. 2014) and started to avulse linearly into the south-
behavior of the Himalayan rivers (intense slope failure, ward passage from the beginning of the eighteenth
landslide, and debris flow resulting from earthquake or century (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2021). The bed scours
intense rainfall) changes as they enter into the Indus– depths of up to 40 m with a combined channel pattern of
Ganga–Brahmaputra plain by shifting river course and braided and anastomosing makes the Jamuna extremely
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 10 of 22

Fig. 4 Longitudinal profiles of Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna showing the entire flow path. Compiled from several sources (JICA report 2005;
Quamruzzaman et al. 2008)

dynamic and critical in devising engineering strategies, Padma in India), the Padma flows southeastward along
which implies the necessity of proper interpretation of the India–Bangladesh border and then takes eastward
ancient sediments and sea level changes (Bristow 1987; flow through Bangladesh (about 34,188 ­ km2 of total
2
Best and Ashworth 1997; Thorne et al. 1993; Peters 1993; 980,000 ­km drainage basin) to join with the Brahma-
Ashworth et al. 2000). In addition, the Jamuna is continu- putra or Jamuna, forming the largest Ganges–Brahma-
ally changing due to rapid rates of bar migration, bank putra delta in the world (Islam et al. 1999). The bankline
erosion (up to 1 km per year), and shifting of braid belts migration of the Ganges/Padma in Bangladesh shows
(usually up to 5 km wide) (Klaassen and Masselink 1992; that both the left and right banks do not follow the same
Hossain 1993; Ashworth and Lewin 2012). Apart from direction (rightward) and are highly dependent on the
natural processes, the Brahmaputra–Jamuna river is con- localized factors and sedimentary features. Moreover,
tinuously facing various anthropogenic stressors like fre- the Ganges is affected by human intervention, including
quent land-use change, channelization, and regulations of the construction of Farakka Barrage by India in 1975 at
normal river flow (Gupta et al. 2019) (i.e., Teesta barrage 18 km upstream from the India–Bangladesh border, and
at its upstream, Jamuna multipurpose bridge, etc.), which is responsible for erosion both in India and in Bangladesh
emphasizes the implementation of sustainable solutions (Sarker 2004; Rahman and Rahaman 2018).
(Pradhan et al. 2021). For instance, the present site of the At the downstream GB basin, the Meghna has com-
Jamuna multipurpose bridge was selected based on the bined flow of Ganges–Brahmaputra/Jamuna into the Bay
geomorphological study conducted by Oya (1979). of Bengal, forming lower Bengal delta near Bangladesh
On the other hand, draining from southern Tibetan coast. Hence, Bangladesh’s coastal area has become more
uplift, the Ganges main channel had major movements diverse and dynamic than it generally appears where
in the historical period (after 1857), which caused highly rapid geomorphological changes are occurring in the
irregular shapes of valley (Hedge et al. 1989). The Ganges Meghna estuary (Allison 1998a, b; Brammer 2014). The
in India traverses through rugged mountains to flat allu- Meghna catchments experienced a net gain of 451 ­km2
vial plains, crossing various climatic zones with extensive with a growth rate of 19.6 k­ m2/y over 1984–2007. Notice-
erosional processes (Sinha 2004; Jain et al. 2012). Nev- ably, despite gaining land in Meghna estuary, it showed
ertheless, regarding the source area (mountains catch- considerable land losses along the east of Sandwip Island,
ments), alluvial plains, and deltaic plain, the Ganges river north of Hatia, and northeast of Bhola Island, whereas
system shows unique fluvial processes where upstream erosion is gradually increasing eastward in the south-
flows control the landform development (Sinha 2004). western coast along the Hooghly estuary in India (Fig. 2)
From two major branches of the Ganges (Bhagirathi and (Allison 1998a, b; Brammer 2014).
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 11 of 22

Fluvial studies of the upper Ganges in India had been Table 1 Estimates of suspended sediment load (million tons/
thoroughly reviewed and updated by Sinha (2004) and year) of the Ganges–Brahmaputra River from different studies
Jain et al. (2012), respectively, whereas the fluvial research (updated after Islam et al. 1999)
of the lower GBM (Bangladesh) regarding the causes of Suspended sediment of Ganges Suspended sediment of
anomalous channel behavior, riverbank migration, ero- River Brahmaputra River
sion and accretion, sedimentation in tidal floodplains (Mt/y) (Reference) (Mt/y) (Reference)
and coastal process is not fully investigated or conducted
at small scale or has spare literature (as mentioned in 375 NEDECO (1967) 750 NEDECO (1967)
Sect. 4). 1600 Holeman (1968) 800 Holeman (1968)
485 Coleman (1969) 617 Coleman (1969)
520 BWDB (1972) 541 BWDB (1972)
2.2.2 Fluvial sediment dynamics of Bangladesh in response
680 Milliman and Meade 1157 Milliman and Meade (1983)
to upstream GB (1983)
2.2.2.1 GBM sediment production The Trans-Him- 328* Abbas and Subramanian 402* Goswami (1985)
alayan batholiths, Tethyan Sedimentary Series, High (1984)
Himalayan Crystalline Sequence, Lesser Himalayas, the 729* Abbas and Subramanian 710* Subramanian (1987)
Deccan Traps, the Shillong Massif, and Tripura fold belt (1984)
are the source areas of GBM basin sediment, where the 403 Singh (1988) 650 Hossain (1992)
Indus-Tsangpo suture is connecting the sediment sources 316 Islam et al. (1999) 721 Islam et al. (1999)
between Asia and India (Galy et al. 2010; Goodbred et al. 550 CEGIS (2010) 590 CEGIS (2010)
2014) (Fig. 1). Through the Indus-Tsangpo suture, the NEDECO The Netherlands Engineering Consultants Ltd., CEGIS The Center for
Environmental and Geographic Information Services
Brahmaputra traverse via Namcha Barwa syntaxis which
*Estimated at Indian reach and rest of the estimate stands for Bangladesh
encompasses only 4% of Brahmaputra’s catchment but
contributes about 45 ± 15% of sediment load (Singh and
France-Lanord 2002; Garzanti et al. 2004; Stewart et al.
Islam et al. 1999). The Brahmaputra has higher sus-
2008; Goodbred et al. 2014). Beneath the syntaxis (drops
pended load than the Ganges (Coleman 1969; Milliman
for 2 km elevation), the Brahmaputra flows into low-lying
and Meade 1983; Islam et al. 1999), because the eastern
Assam Valley and Himalayan foreland, where the rest
Himalayan range has higher precipitation and higher
of the load is supplied from the Himalayan tributaries
erosion rates than the western part (Galy and France-
(Goodbred et al. 2014).
Lenord 2001). Nevertheless, according to various esti-
On the other hand, after originating along the Tibetan
mates of sediment transport in several studies, it can be
border in north India, the Ganges headwater drained
mentioned that the aggradation or degradation processes
large areas of Himalayan front slope and its entry point
in the mid-downstream alluvial reaches are quite compli-
to Bengal basin, the Ganges derived 90 ± 5% sediment
cated, causing significant variability of deposition rates in
load from the high Himalayan areas (Wasson 2003;
the downstream reaches (Jain et al. 2012).
Singh et al. 2008; Lupker et al. 2012; Goodbred et al.
2014). Furthermore, the erosion intensity and sediment
2.2.2.2 Sediment discharge The GBM river system in
sources of upstream Himalayan Ganges catchments had
combination discharges 1 × ­1012 ­m3 of water and 1 × ­109
been mapped in several studies (Narayan et al. 1983;
t of sediment per year to the Bay of Bengal (Goodbred
Subramanian and Ramanathan 1996; Sinha et al. 2002;
and Kuehl 1999; Wasson 2003; Akter et al. 2016), of which
Vaidyanathan et al. 2002). The different estimates of sus-
440 × ­106 t/y and 540 × ­106 t/y is contributed by Ganges
pended sediment load from the GB river system have
and Brahmaputra, respectively (Milliman and Syvitski
been documented in various studies and are summarized
1992). According to Islam et al. (1999), the Ganges and
in Table 1. The sedimentation in the downstream reaches
the Brahmaputra in combination carried 1037 million
of the GB is related to the lowland fluvial processes and
tons/y of sediment into Bangladesh, of which about 525
aggradation/degradational behavior of midstream allu-
million tons/y (51%) reaches the sea, 289 million tons/y
vial reaches, which may create such variability of sedi-
(28%) deposited on land to balance the basin subsidence,
ment load estimations among the researchers (Goswami
and the remaining 223 million tons/y (21%) is deposited
1985; Islam et al. 1999; Jain et al. 2012). Nevertheless, the
on the river beds. In turn, about 49% of the total sedi-
sediment load values comprise significant uncertainties,
ment budget is trapped or deposited before the coastal
and exact values cannot be determined despite continu-
region (Islam et al. 1999). This contributes to the intense
ous decadal observations due to wide diurnal, seasonal,
monsoon flooding that facilitates the longer overbank
and annual variations in the sediment transport capacity
flow (Ashworth and Lewin 2012). The suspended sedi-
of the GB Rivers (Subramanian and Ramanathan 1996;
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 12 of 22

ment load estimation of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and et al. 2009), contributes significantly to the stratigraphy
combined GB River was derived from the gauging data of main delta downstream (Goodbred et al. 2014). Fur-
from the Hardinge Bridge, Bahadurabad, and Mawa sta- thermore, the downstream delta is also dominated by
tions (160 km downstream of Hardinge Bridge), respec- tidal wave rather than runoff where Meghna–Surma
tively (Fig. 3). The aggradation of the Brahmaputra River (both fluvial and tidal) sediments contribute consider-
(> 14.7 mm/year) suggests that around 30–40% of GB ably (Islam et al. 2002). The sediment load of GBM delta
sediment flux is estimated to be deposited in Bangladesh is geochemically distinct, which makes this a potential
deltaic region before being transferred into the ocean location to unravel the dynamics of multiple fluvial sys-
(Goodbred and Kuehl 1999; Jain et al. 2012). Moreover, tems interacting within a tectonically active basin (Good-
the Ganges River beds are aggrading about 3.9 ­cmy−1, 2.5 bred et al. 2014; Li et al. 2020). Thus, the suspended load
times higher than the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh (Islam data, aggradation scenario, and projected sediment load
et al. 1999). estimation suggest disconnected or partially connected
Recently, Dietrich et al. (2020) provides a first-order Himalayan foreland, where the eroded sediments from
estimate of the yearly discharge of elements in the sus- Himalayan could not reach the downstream sink area.
pended sediment load to the BoB by the Ganges–Brah- Therefore, the geomorphic connectivity from the Hima-
maputra based on the dataset of Garzanti et al. (2011) layan to the BoB might be affected by sediment trap-
that includes grain size, suspended sediment concen- ping before the mouth of these GBM rivers. Hence, the
tration, mineralogy, and element concentrations for basin-wide integrated investigation from source to the
suspended load samples collected at 0 to 24 m depths mouth focusing on the lower Meghna reach may provide
from locations in the Ganges (downstream of Hardinge insights into quantifying annual sediment released by the
Bridge), Brahmaputra (Sirajganj to Jamuna Bridge), and GBM river system into the BoB. A conceptual diagram
Padma (near Mawa) rivers during the monsoon sea- that shows the geomorphic connectivity impeded by sed-
son. This study shows that, on average, the GBM system iment trapping within the GBM basin from the existing
transport 0.7 × ­109 tons/y sediments to the BoB, con- studies is presented in Fig. 5.
tributing ~ 5% of the global riverine discharge of solid- As noted, the GBM river supports over 150 million
phase elements. These elements are relatively enriched in people at downstream reaches (Bangladesh), which are
Hf (hafnium), Zr (zirconium), Th (thorium), REEs (rare vulnerable to the impacts of relative sea level rise, cli-
earth elements), Sn (tin), and Bi (bismuth), largely reflect- mate changes, annual floods, shifts in land use, and water
ing the nature of Himalayan source material. Moreover, it management (Brammer 2014; Goodbred et al. 2014).
should be mentioned that future anthropogenic changes Accordingly, based on the findings by Miah (1988) and
such as large-scale damming projects could significantly Brammer (1990a, b a, b), it was reported that more than
alter the delivery of sediment into the BoB, i.e., com- 56.9% of total areas of Bangladesh are flooded annually
pletion of the proposed National River Linking Project due to monsoon rainfalls and increased water discharge
(NRLP) in India may reduce the annual suspended sedi- from the upstream Himalayan area (BGS/DPHE 2001).
ment load in the Ganges and Brahmaputra by 39–75% Also, Coleman (1969) estimated that during flood events,
and 9–25%, respectively (Higgins et al. 2018). Also, future sand bars migrated at a rate of 300–450 m/day or even
climate change scenarios projected the increase in sedi- up to 600 m/day, and channel area increased about 300%
ment discharge by 34–37% in the Ganges and 52–60% in in the Brahmaputra. Besides, Singh et al. (2007) reported
the Brahmaputra by the end of the twenty-first century that floods in the Ganges are also strongly influenced by
(Darby et al. 2015). high sediment discharge and water volume, and this has
Unfortunately, the quantitative sediment budget stud- also been mentioned by the other studies (Wallick et al.
ies of Islam et al. (1999) and Dietrich et al. (2020) do 2007; Ahmed and Fawzi 2011; Yao et al. 2011; Rozo et al.
not consider the sedimentation at lower Meghna (after 2014). It is obvious that sustainable river management is
Padma River between Mawa and the mouth of these demanded and challenged in the large GBM river, which
rivers), which is naturally dynamic and also altered by tends to flow in international basins (Gupta 2007; Rasul
various anthropogenic stressors. Also, the mechanism or 2014). However, the lack of publicly available long-term
process of sediment dispersal including sediment con- and spatially distributed hydrological data (discharge
nectivity pattern from the erosion-dominated upper GB and river characteristics) at a basin-wide scale limits
to the lower Meghna (tide and wave dominated) has not the understanding of hydrological and geomorphologi-
been fully mentioned or understood. At the lower GB, cal processes of the GBM river basin (Kibler et al. 2014),
the main channel of the Meghna River, which is com- which is a prerequisite for sustainable water resource
posed of braided and meandering channel sediments management in this downstream region (Fischer et al.
from the Brahmaputra/Jamuna and Ganges (Mukherjee 2017). Being a downstream country, Bangladesh faces
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 13 of 22

Fig. 5 A conceptual diagram showing the geomorphic connectivity from the Himalayan upstream to the BoB based on the existing literature
(Goodbred and Kuehl 1999; Islam et al. 1999, 2001; Wasson 2003; Garzanti et al. 2011; Jain et al. 2012; Dietrich et al. 2020). On the right side,
sediment contribution from upstream two major basins is shown. On the left side, the connected (1) and partially connected (2) or disconnected
(3) geomorphic systems are visualized from source to sink areas. The fluvial sedimentation processes (i.e., excessive sediment sequestering, riverbed
aggradation) and anthropogenic stressors (i.e., river engineering, barrage, and dam construction) may change the geomorphic connectivity in the
GBM river system. The altering geomorphic connectivity from connected to partially connected or disconnected, impeded by sediment trapping,
may significantly impact the GBM river’s hydro-geomorphic system. Mt/y denotes the million tons per year

many challenges in coping with altering geomorphic enhance the transboundary cooperation among the basin
characteristics of the large GBM river basin and is often sharing countries like China, Nepal, Bhutan, and India.
dictated by decisions taken outside its border. Hence, the However, the different case studies of fluvial geomor-
relevant case studies of geomorphic research in Bang- phic research at the downstream Ganges–Brahmaputra
ladesh and subsequent discussion on large-scale fluvial (Bangladesh) presented here do not involve a full potenti-
sedimentation on the GBM river system will enhance our ality of remote sensing techniques or tools in fluvial geo-
understanding, which may be helpful to improve the gov- morphology. Therefore, applying the advanced remote
ernment policies or strategies regarding integrated river sensing techniques and field-based approaches to flu-
basin management more sustainably. Technical chal- vial research (e.g., Oguchi et al. 2022) in the future may
lenges related to river management may arise from a lack provide a new dimension of fluvial geomorphic research
of scientific understanding of river basins or imperfect in the hazard-prone deltaic landscape of Bangladesh.
engineering skills to manage according to that under- Also, our study is limited by collecting the estimates of
standing (Stanley and Boulton 2000). The existing poli- suspended load at the different reaches of the Ganges–
cies, plans, guidelines, and laws related to the integrated Brahmaputra river basin, which does not describe the
water resources management (IWRM) in Bangladesh sampling procedure and methods of suspended load
also emphasize the understanding of the geomorphic calculation of each study mentioned in Table 1. There-
process in GBM for sustainable development (Alam and fore, clarifying different methodologies of suspended
Quevauviller 2014). Hence, the understandings of the load estimation may be necessary to understand bet-
fluvial geomorphic processes of upstream dominated ter the large variations of suspended load estimations
large GBM river basins at a regional scale is essential to among the researchers and the sediment budget of the
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 14 of 22

Ganges–Brahmaputra river basin from the Himalayan to 2.3.2 Fluvial environments

the Bay of Bengal. After analyzing the fluvial processes of the Indian part
of the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta, Subramanian and
Ramanathan (1996) and Rudra (2014) mentioned the
2.3 Future perspective of geomorphic research unavailability of time-series data in the upper GBM
in Bangladesh catchments and had some limitations. For instance, the
Modern quantitative geomorphological researches on work of Rudra (2014) was criticized and rectified by Ban-
hillslope, glacial, fluvial, and coastal processes have been dyopadhyay et al. (2015) regarding the delineation of the
significantly benefited from the availability of medium- Bengal basin, deltaic evolution, and discharge data for
to-high-resolution (10‒90 m cell size) DEMs (e.g., SRTM, a better understanding of the fluvial geomorphic pro-
ASTER G-DEM, TanDEM-X) and satellite images (e.g., cesses. However, the studies about the fluvial channel
Landsat, MODIS, and Sentinel 1–3) at regional and dynamics concerning Bangladesh have been started after
global scales for free or at a low cost (Oguchi and Waskle- 1990s and most of the geospatial studies have been deal-
wicz 2011; Bishop 2013; Hackney and Clayton 2015; Otto ing with river channel shifting (Sarker et al. 2014; Islam
et al. 2018; Oguchi et al. 2022). Although it is beyond the 2016; Dewan et al. 2017; Akhter et al. 2019; Gazi et al.
scope of this article to give a full overview of potential 2020a), riverbank line shifting, riverbank erosion, and
applications and improvements of geomorphic research accretion (Billah 2018; Gazi et al. 2020b; Biswas et al.
considering the availability of remote sensing techniques 2021). Accordingly, the research on the formation of an
and tools, here we explore some research gaps between alluvial channel, causes of channel migration, anthropo-
recent advancement of geomorphological researches and genic impacts on fluvial system, and processes of anom-
earlier geomorphic studies of Bangladesh and provide alous channel variations at the downstream GBM River
future perspectives on the better understandings of the is still sparse or even missing. Further extensive studies
geomorphic processes in the context of the upper Gan- are therefore required to understand better the fluvial
ges–Brahmaputra dominated Bangladesh. settings considering the upstream to downstream hydro-
geomorphic connectivity. Besides, the encouragement for
fluvial geomorphic research in this understudied region
2.3.1 Mountain areas
can be taken from fluvial research advancement men-
Notably, there has been an exponential growth of scien-
tioned by Stott (2013), Wohl (2014), Piégay et al. (2015),
tific research on mountain and hillslope environments
and Oguchi et al. (2022). Hence, it is necessary to extend
in recent decades (Stoffel and Marston 2013; Slaymaker
the geospatial research on the fluvial channel dynamics
and Embleton-Hamann 2018; Carrión-Mero et al. 2021).
and connectivity, especially with a detailed river basin
Landslide susceptibility mapping is one of the major top-
morphometric analysis at various spatiotemporal scales
ics frequently assessed in mountainous and hilly areas.
for predicting the morphological changes along the GBM
Hence, the landslide susceptibility mapping based on
basin. For example, hotspot zonation of riverbank ero-
quantum particle swamp optimization (QPSO)–alternat-
sion could be assessed with advanced techniques in the
ing decision tree (ADTree) algorithm can be a promising
downstream Bangladesh.
tool for managing landslide disaster in complex moun-
On the other hand, the advancement in the application
tainous terrain, successfully applied in Sikkim Himalayan
of remote sensing and GIS for riverbank management,
(Islam et al. 2021). Although some studies on landslide
including flood monitoring and risk assessment, has sig-
susceptibility mapping or modeling have been carried out
nificantly facilitated in the last two decades (Sanyal and
in hilly (CHT) areas of Bangladesh (Ahmed et al. 2014;
Lu 2004). Also, the use of satellite data for flood fore-
Ahmed and Dewan 2017; Rahman et al. 2017; Rabby and
casting and monitoring is more frequent in developed
Li 2020; Abedin et al. 2020), those approaches based on
countries than in the developing country like Bangladesh,
airborne LiDAR, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), and
where the geospatial data usability largely depends on the
UAS data are mostly missing. The use of such advanced
availability of cloud-free open access data. Nevertheless,
remote sensing datasets with a high resolution or accu-
in Bangladesh, most of the riverbank management stud-
racy should benefit the improved assessments of moun-
ies are confined to post-flood monitoring (Hoque et al.
tain hazards at a local scale. Therefore, it is anticipated to
2011), flood susceptibility mapping (Rahman and Sale-
perform remote sensing-based geomorphic research on
hin 2013; Sarker and Rashid 2013a, b; Adnan et al. 2019;
hilly region and steep slopes. The development of open
Sarkar et al. 2022), flood inundation mapping, and some
access database of such remote-sensing datasets will con-
small-scale watershed morphometric studies (Rahaman
tribute to establish a landslide early-warning system to
et al. 2017; Jahan et al. 2018). Consequently, a detailed
protect the landslide vulnerable community of the CHT
hydro-geomorphological study of the major watershed
region.
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 15 of 22

floodplain at different spatial and temporal scales is units (Kamal and Midorikawa 2004; Islam et al. 2015a, b;
required to make some meaningful flood hazard maps, Mahmud et al. 2017; Karim et al. 2019; Arefin and Alam
prediction of extreme flood effects, flood forecasting, and 2020) and identification of groundwater potential zones
warning based on watershed morphometric analysis and (Arefin 2020a, 2020b; Akter et al. 2020), but their accu-
damage assessment in Bangladesh. racy and precision have been somewhat limited. There-
Furthermore, the large discharge and heavy sediment fore, comprehensive geomorphic studies of active plain
load affect the unstable conditions of the Ganges–Brah- land are required for proper landscape assessment and
maputra–Meghna Rivers, where channels are constantly management in the densely populated areas in Bang-
migrating. However, despite the high possibilities of ladesh, where the framework of Thorne (2002) can be
sediment disasters, only a few studies have been con- considered as a blueprint for geomorphic studies of large
ducted considering the mechanisms of fluvial sediment rivers like the Ganges and Brahmaputra.
transport and dynamics in the active downstream GBM The ununiformed sea level rise along the coast due
basins. Some of the studies are linked to the distribution to high sediment dispersal from the GBM river sys-
of suspended sediment concentration at a small scale in tem makes the delta system more complex and vulner-
Bangladesh (Islam et al. 1999, 2001, 2002; Adnan et al. able (Islam 2011; Rashid et al. 2013; Sarwar 2013; Karan
2020). It should be noted that fluvial sediments are trans- 2015). Nevertheless, the coastal geomorphology of Bang-
ported to Bangladesh from upstream source areas, and ladesh is poorly understood, where most of the coastal
therefore studies on sediment dynamics need to describe geomorphic studies are restricted to shoreline shift-
the sediment connectivity and transportation pathways ing (Shibly and Takewaka 2012; Islam et al. 2013; Kabir
at a watershed scale. Researches on sediment connec- et al. 2020), coastal erosion and accretion (Rahman 2012;
tivity and hydrological connectivity are growing rapidly Alam and Uddin 2013; Sarker et al. 2013; Sarwar and
in different hydro-geomorphic setting across the world Woodroffe 2013; Hussain et al. 2014), and morphological
at various spatial and temporal scales, which includes studies (Islam et al. 2015a, b; Miah et al. 2020) at small
26 different countries including the Ganges basin in scale. Hereafter, further research is obligatory consider-
India (Cavalli et al. 2013; Najafi et al. 2021; Mishra et al. ing the long-term changes in the sediment supply from
2019; Swarnkar et al. 2020). However, such studies have the GBM basin, associating the coastal morphological
not been carried out yet in the downstream basins in changes and relative sea level rise throughout the Bang-
Bangladesh, which is a sink area connected to the large ladesh coast, which is critical to protect about 35 million
upstream basins of the Ganges–Brahmaputra river sys- people therein (Ahmad 2019). For this purpose, some
tem and highly prone to repeated sediment disasters. coastal geomorphological research trends and challenges
Despite the significance of the entire Ganges–Brahma- mentioned in French and Burningham (2009) can be con-
putra river system, modeling of the basin-scale sediment sidered as well for further improvement in coastal geo-
dynamics based on climate change scenarios, connecting morphic research in Bangladesh.
the upper (China, Nepal, Bhutan, and India) and lower
(Bangladesh) Ganges–Brahmaputra basins, has been
limited (Khan et al. 2018). Therefore, it is obligatory to 2.3.4 General plain land
extend the geomorphic studies, specifically on sediment The above-mentioned earlier geomorphic researches
yield estimation, sediment budgeting, rainfall–runoff provide some understandings of the evolution pattern of
relationship, sediment connectivity, and sediment trans- landforms, channel diversion, discharge variability, and
port mechanisms connecting upstream erosion zone to sediment estimation at a country scale, but geomorphic
the downstream deposition zone in Bangladesh. Geospa- studies at larger spatiotemporal scales have been limited
tial modeling of sediment dynamics for the downstream in Bangladesh. Also, the causes of discharge (water and
GBM river basin based on the rapidly changing river sediment) variability patterns, aggradation, deposition,
morphology is also necessary to facilitate the research upstream to downstream sediment connectivity patterns,
findings for disaster countermeasures. and human-induced perturbation on river geomorphol-
ogy have not been mentioned or studied clearly. Further-
2.3.3 Plain land and coastal areas more, the projection of future behavior of river formation
Although comprehensive geomorphic mapping is essen- at different spatiotemporal scales based on fluvial geo-
tial for landscape development and urban development, morphology, hydrology, and meteorology does not exist
this important section is mostly ignored for the national in these areas, but these are important for understanding
development program of Bangladesh. Most of the plain the watershed-scale landscape development and the sus-
land geomorphic studies in Bangladesh have been related tainability of the river basin management.
to geomorphic mapping or identification of geomorphic
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 16 of 22

3 Conclusions focus more on transboundary bilateral and multilateral

Although the review of earlier geomorphic studies pro- collaboration (i.e., in situ gauging data sharing) with
vided here generally focuses on some significant knowl- upstream countries like China, Nepal, Bhutan, and
edge and research gaps in one country (Bangladesh), we India.
propose the necessity of exploring the wider area studies
on fluvio-geomorphic and sedimentation processes in
Abbreviations
the entire GBM basin, from the upstream erosion prone ADTree: Alternating decision tree; AHP: Artificial hierarchy process; ALOS:
zone (China, Nepal, Bhutan, and India) to downstream Advanced Land Observing Satellite; ARIMA: Autoregressive integrated moving
deposition zone (Bangladesh). The bankline migration, average; AVHRR: Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer; BoB: Bay of Ben-
gal; BWDB: Bangladesh Water Development Board; CHT: Chittagong Hill Tracts;
human interventions, and tidal processes in the Ganges; CDMP: Comprehensive Disaster Management Program; CVI: Coastal Vulner-
avulsion, sedimentation, erosion and accretion, and river ability Index; DEM: Digital elevation model; FDP: Fluvial deltaic plain; FTDP:
channel dimensions in the Brahmaputra; shoreline shift- Fluvio-tidal deltaic plain; GB: Ganges–Brahmaputra; GBM: Ganges–Brahma-
putra–Meghna; GDEM: Global digital elevation models; GJC: Ganges–Jamuna
ing, erosion, and migration of the Ganges–Brahmaputra confluence; HHC: High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence; ITS: Indus–Tsangpo
confluence have often been investigated at a small scale suture; IWRM: Integrated Water Resources Management; LH: Lesser Himalayas;
(country scale). However, the aggradation in the Ganges LiDAR: Light detection and ranging; NPDM: National Plan for Disaster Man-
agement; PALSAR: Phased array-type L-band synthetic aperture radar; PMC:
floodplain and retention of suspended sediment within Padma–Meghna confluence; QPSO: Quantum particle swamp optimization;
the Brahmaputra channel are impacted by the upstream REEs: Rare earth elements; SAR: Synthetic aperture radar; SoB: Survey of Bang-
fluvio-sedimentation processes of the GBM river system, ladesh; SPI: Stream Power Index; SSC: Suspended sediment concentration;
SRTM: Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission; TRM: Tidal river management; THB:
where the geomorphic connectivity from Himalayan to Trans-Himalayan batholiths; TSS: Tethyan Sedimentary Series; UAS: Unmanned
the Bay of Bengal is affected by sediment trapping before aerial system; WLC: Weighted linear combination.
the mouth of the GBM rivers. Therefore, integrated
Acknowledgements
regional research or basin-wide studies are required for This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Sci-
comprehensive understanding of the fluvial processes ence, and Technology (MEXT) scholarship. This work is partially supported by
and sediment dispersal mechanisms from upstream to JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP16KK0012, JP17H02031, and JP21H00625. We
are grateful to the editors Hiroya Yamano, Yoshihiro Iijima, and Eiji Ohtani, and
downstream GBM concerning Bangladesh. In particular, two anonymous reviewers whose critical but warmful comments significantly
the advanced remote sensing techniques (such as UAS improved our paper.
imagery, LiDAR) for geomorphological research, which
Author contributions
are encouragingly used in neighboring countries like RF proposed the topic, collected the references, and drafted the manuscript.
China (Le Heron et al. 2019), India (Ramsankaran et al. YH drafted the manuscript as the corresponding author. All authors read and
2020; Dhote et al. 2022), Bhutan (Dunning et al. 2009; approved the final manuscript.

Tempa et al. 2021), Nepal (Immerzeel et al. 2014; Kraai- Funding

jenbrink et al. 2016; Van Woerkom et al. 2019), Pakistan RF is funded by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Tech-
(Khan et al. 2021), and in other parts of the worlds (Śledź nology (MEXT) scholarship. YH is funded by the JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
JP16KK0012, JP17H02031, and JP21H00625.
et al. 2021), will improve the understandings of landscape
evolution and fluvial dynamics not only in the upper Availability of data and materials
Ganges–Brahmaputra but also the entire watershed scale Not applicable.

including the downstream reaches in Bangladesh.

In summary, the literature review and discussion Declarations
presented here provide very first step toward develop- Ethics approval and consent to participate
ing a detailed and documented understanding of the Not applicable.
fluvio-geomorphic dynamics in the GBM River. We
Consent for publication
conclude that the fluvial geomorphic research at dif- Not applicable.
ferent spatial and temporal scales is a prerequisite for
a large-scale basin management which is still missing Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
here, for which the advancement from the present geo-
morphic research aptitude is necessary to solve a wide Author details
1
range of problems related to sustainable river basin Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo,
Hokkaido 060‑0810, Japan. 2 Bangladesh Space Research and Remote Sensing
management and disaster risk reduction. Also, the Organization (SPARRSO), Agargaon, Sher‑e‑Bangla Nagar, Dhaka 1207, Bangla-
government policymaker can get a comprehensive idea desh. 3 Faculty of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo,
from the subsequent discussion on the fluvial geomor- Hokkaido 060‑0810, Japan.

phic research scale (borderless or basin-wide scale) Received: 21 December 2021 Accepted: 5 July 2022
and improve their policies or strategies accordingly to
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 17 of 22

References Arefin R (2020a) Groundwater potential zone identification at Plio-Pleistocene

Abbas N, Subramanian V (1984) Erosion and sediment transport in the Ganges elevated tract, Bangladesh: AHP-GIS and remote sensing approach.
River basin (India). J Hydrol 69:173–182 Groundw Sustain Dev 10:100340
Abedin J, Rabby YW, Hasan I, Akter H (2020) An investigation of the charac- Arefin R (2020b) Groundwater potential zone identification using an analytic
teristics, causes, and consequences of June 13, 2017, landslides in hierarchy process in Dhaka City, Bangladesh. Environ Earth Sci 79:268
Rangamati District Bangladesh. Geoenviron Disast 7:23 Arefin R, Alam J (2020) Morphometric study for water resource management
Adnan MSG, Dewan A, Zannat KE, Abdullah AYM (2019) The use of watershed using principal component analysis in Dhaka City, Bangladesh: a RS and
geomorphic data in flash flood susceptibility zoning: a case study of GIS approach. Sustain Water Resour Manag 6:38
the Karnaphuli and Sangu river basins of Bangladesh. Nat Hazards Ashworth PJ, Lewin J (2012) How do big rivers come to be different? Earth Sci
99:425–448 Rev 114(1–2a):84–107
Adnan MSG, Talchabhadel R, Nakagawa H, Hall JW (2020) The potential of Tidal Ashworth PJ, Best JL, Roden JE, Bristowà CS, Klaassen GJ (2000) Morphologi-
River Management for flood alleviation in South Western Bangladesh. cal evolution and dynamics of a large, sand braid-bar, Jamuna River,
Sci Total Environ 731:138747 Bangladesh. Sedimentology 47:533–555
Aher PD, Adinarayana J, Gorantiwar S (2014) Quantification of morphomet- Baker VR (1988) Geological fluvial geomorphology. Geol Soc Am Bull
ric characterization and prioritization for management planning in 100:1157–1167
semi-arid tropics of India: a remote sensing and GIS approach. J Hydrol Bandyopadhyay S, Das S, Kar NS (2015) Discussion: changing river courses
511:850–860 in the western part of the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta by Kalyan Rudra
Ahmad H (2019) Bangladesh coastal zone management status and future. J (2014), Geomorphology, 227, 87–100. Geomorphology 250:442–453
Coast Zone Manag 22:1–7 Bandyopadhyay S, Das S, SekharKar N (2021) Avulsion of the Brahmaputra in
Ahmed B (2015) Landslide susceptibility modelling applying user-defined Bangladesh during the 18th–19th century: a review based on carto-
weighting and data-driven statistical techniques in Cox’s Bazar Munici- graphic and literary evidence. Geomorphology 384:107696
pality. Bangladesh Nat Hazards 79(3):1707–1737 Barua P, Chowdhury MSN, Sarker S (2010) Climate change and its risk reduc-
Ahmed B, Dewan A (2017) Application of bivariate and multivariate statistical tion by mangrove ecosystem of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Res Publ J
techniques in landslide susceptibility modeling in Chittagong City 4:208–225
Corporation. Bangladesh Remote Sens 9(4):304 Best J, Ashworth P (1997) Scour in large braided rivers and the recognition of
Ahmed AA, Fawzi A (2011) Meandering and bank erosion of the river Nile and sequence stratigraphic boundaries. Nature 387:275–277
its environmental impact on the area between Sohag and El-Minia, BGS/DPHE (2001) Arsenic contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh, vol.
Egypt. Arab J Geosci 4(1):1–11 2: final report. In: Kinniburgh DG, Smedley PL (eds) British Geological
Ahmed B, Rubel YA (2013) Understanding the issues involved in urban Survey (BGS) Technical Report WC/00/19, Keyworth, p 255
landslide vulnerability in Chittagong metropolitan area. Association of Bhuiyan MAH, Kumamoto T, Suzuki S (2015) Application of remote sensing
American Geographers (AAG), Washington, DC and GIS for evaluation of the recent morphological characteristics
Ahmed B, Rahman MS, Rahman S, Huq FF, Ara S (2014) Landslide inventory of the lower Brahmaputra-Jamuna River, Bangladesh. Earth Sci India
report of Chittagong Metropolitan Area, Bangladesh. BUET-Japan 8:551–568
Institute of Disaster Prevention and Urban Safety (BUET-JIDPUS). Bang- Billah MM (2018) Mapping and monitoring erosion-accretion in an alluvial river
ladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka-1000, using satellite imagery—the river bank changes of the Padma River in
Bangladesh Bangladesh. Quaestiones Geographicae 37(3):87–95
Ahmed A, Drake F, Nawaz R, Woulds C (2018) Where is the coast? Monitor- Bishop MP (2013) 3.1 Remote sensing and GIScience in geomorphology: intro-
ing coastal land dynamics in Bangladesh: an integrated management duction and overview. In: Shroder JF (ed) Treatise on geomorphology.
approach using GIS and remote sensing techniques. Ocean Coast Academic Press, San Diego, pp 1–24
Manag 151:10–24 Biswas RN, Islam MN, Islam MN, Shawon SS (2021) Modeling on approximation
Akter J, Sarker MH, Popescu I, Roelvink D (2016) Evolution of the Bengal Delta of fluvial landform change impact on morphodynamics at Madhumati
and its prevailing processes. J Coast Res 32(5):1212–1226 River Basin in Bangladesh. Model Earth Syst Environ 7:71–93
Akhter S, Eibek KU, Islam S, Islam ARMT, Chub R, Shuanghe S (2019) Predict- Bolch T, Yao T, Kang S, Buchroithner MF, Scherer D, Maussion F, Huintjes E, Sch-
ing spatiotemporal changes of channel morphology in the reach of neider C (2010) A glacier inventory for the western Nyainqentanglha
Teesta River, Bangladesh using GIS and ARIMA modeling. Quatern Int Range and the Nam Co Basin, Tibet, and glacier changes 1976–2009.
513:80–94 Cryosphere 4:419–433
Akter A, Uddin AMH, Wahid KB, Ahmed S (2020) Predicting groundwater Brammer H (1990a) Floods in Bangladesh. I. Geographical background to the
recharge potential zones using geospatial technique. Sustain Water 1987 and 1988 floods. Geogr J 156:12–22
Resources Manag 6:24 Brammer H (1990b) Floods in Bangladesh. II. Flood mitigation and environ-
Alam M, Quevauviller P (2014) An Evaluation of Integrated Water Resources mental aspects. Geogr J 156:158–165
Management (IWRM) activities in Bangladesh. Asia Pac J Energy Environ Brammer H (1996) The geography of the soils of Bangladesh. University Press
1(1):22 Ltd., Dhaka
Alam MS, Uddin K (2013) A study of morphological changes in the coastal Brammer H (2014) Bangladesh’s dynamic coastal regions and sea-level rise.
areas and offshore islands of Bangladesh using remote sensing. Am J Clim Risk Manag 1:51–62
Geograph Inf Syst 2(1):15–18 Bristow CS (1987) Brahmaputra River: channel migration and deposition. In:
Alam M, Alam MM, Curray JR, Chowdhury MLR, Gani MR (2003) An overview of Ethridge FG, Flores RM, Harvey MD (eds) Recent developments in fluvial
the sedimentary geology of the Bengal Basin in relation to the regional sedimentology: SEPM Special Publication 39, pp 63–74
tectonic framework and basin-fill history. Sed Geol 155(3):179–208 BUET-Japan Institute of Disaster Prevention and Urban Safety (JIDPUS) (2015)
Allison MA (1998a) Historical changes in the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta front. Developing a dynamic Web-GIS based early warning system for the
J Coast Res 14:1269–1275 communities living with landslide risks in Chittagong Metropolitan
Allison MA (1998b) Geologic framework and environmental status of the Area, Bangladesh; Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technol-
Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta. J Coast Res 14(3):826–836 ogy (BUET), Dhaka
Allison MA, Kuehl SA, Martin TC, Hassan A (1998) Importance of flood-plain BWDB (Bangladesh Water Development Board) (1972) Sediment investigations
sedimentation for river sediment budgets and terrigenous input to in main rivers of Bangladesh, 1968 & 1969. BWDB Water Supply Paper
the oceans: insights from the Brahmaputra-Jamuna River. Geology No. 359. BWDB, Bangladesh
26:175–178 BWDB (2014) Flood Forecasting and Warning Centre, Annual Flood Report
Allison MA, Khan SR, Goodbred JSL, Kuehl SA (2003) Stratigraphic evolution 2014. Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh. www.​ffwc.​gov.​bd. Accessed on June
of the late Holocene Ganges–Brahmaputra lower delta plain. Sed Geol 2021
155:317–342 Carrión-Mero P, Montalván-Burbano N, Morante-Carballo F, Quesada-Román
A, Apolo-Masache B (2021) Worldwide research trends in landslide sci-
ence. Int J Environ Res Public Health 18(18):9445
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 18 of 22

Cavalli M, Trevisani S, Comiti F, Marchi L (2013) Geomorphometric assessment Gazi MY, Hossain F, Sadeak S, Uddin MM (2020b) Spatiotemporal variability
of spatial sediment connectivity in small Alpine catchments. Geomor- of channel and bar morphodynamics in the Gorai–Madhumati River,
phology 188:31–41 Bangladesh using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Front Earth Sci
CDMP-II (2012) Comprehensive disaster management programme-II. A report 14:828–841
on the Landslide inventory and land-use mapping, DEM preparation, Ghosh K (2014) Planform pattern of the lower Teesta river after the Gazaldoba
precipitation threshold value and establishment of early warning barrage. Indian J Geogr Environ 13:127–137
devices. Ministry of Food and Disaster Management, Disaster Manage- Goodbred SL Jr, Kuehl SA (1999) Holocene and modern sediment budgets
ment and Relief Division, Government of the People’s Republic of for the Ganges–Brahmaputra river system: evidence for highstand
Bangladesh dispersal to flood-plain, shelf, and deep-sea depocenters. Geology
CEGIS (Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services) (2010) 27:559–562
Impacts of climate change on the morphological processes of the main Goodbred SL, Paolo PM, Ullah MS, Pate RD, Khan SR, Kuehl SA, Rahaman W
rivers and Meghna Estuary of Bangladesh. Dhaka, Bangladesh: CEGIS, (2014) Piecing together the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna River delta:
p 133 use of sediment provenance to reconstruct the history and interaction
Cienciala P (2021) Vegetation and geomorphic connectivity in mountain of multiple fluvial systems during Holocene delta evolution. Geol Soc
fluvial systems. Water 13:593 Am Bull 126(11–12):1495–1510
Coleman JM (1969) Brahmaputra River: channel processes and sedimentation. Goswami DC (1985) Brahmaputra River, Assam, India: physiography, basin
Sed Geol 3:129–239 denudation, and channel aggradation. Water Resour Res 21(7):959–978
CZPo (2005) Coastal zone policy, ministry of water resources, Government of Gupta A (1995) Magnitude, frequency and special factors affecting channel
the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka form and processes in the seasonal topics. In: Costa JE, Miller AJ, Potter
Darby SE, Dunn FE, Nicholls RJ, Rahman M, Riddy L (2015) A first look at the KW, Wilcock PR (eds) Nature and anthropogenic influences in fluvial
influence of anthropogenic climate change on the future delivery of geomorphology. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp
fluvial sediment to the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna delta. Environ 125–136
Sci Process Impacts 17(9):1587–1600 Gupta S (1997) Himalayan drainage patterns and the origin of fluvial megafans
Dewan A, Corner R, Saleem A, Rahman MM, Haider MR, Rahman MM, Sarker in the Ganges foreland basin. Geology 25:11–14
MH (2017) Assessing channel changes of the Ganges–Padma River Gupta A (2007) Large rivers: geomorphology and management, Chap-
system in Bangladesh using Landsat and hydrological data. Geomor- ter 17–19. Wiley, England
phology 276:257–279 Gupta N, Mishra A, Agrawal NK, Shrestha AB (2019) Potential impacts of
Dhote PR, Thakur PK, Chouksey A, Srivastav SK, Raghvendra S, Rautela P, Ranjan climate change on water resources and adaptation policies in the Brah-
R, Allen S, Stoffel M, Bisht S, Negi SB, Aggarwal SP, Chauhan P (2022) maputra River Basin. Working Paper 2019/8; ICIMOD: Kathmandu, Nepal
Synergistic analysis of satellite, unmanned aerial vehicle, terrestrial Hackney C, Clayton AI (2015) Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and their appli-
laser scanner data and process-based modelling for understanding the cation in geomorphic mapping. British Society for Geomorphology,
dynamics and morphological changes around the snout of Gangotri Geomorphological Techniques, Chapter 2, section l.7, pp 1–12
Glacier, India. Geomorphology 396:1080052 Harrison S, Mighall T, Stainforth DA, Allen P, Macklin M, Anderson E, Knight J,
Dietrich M, Best KB, Raff JL, Ronay ER (2020) A first-order geochemical budget Mauquoy D, Passmore D, Rea B et al (2019) Uncertainty in geomorpho-
for suspended sediment discharge to the Bay of Bengal from the Gan- logical responses to climate change. Clim Change 156:69–86
ges–Brahmaputra river system. Sci Total Environ 726:66 Hedge M, Mathur VK, Mandal PS (1989) Erratic meander of the river Ganga
Diez PG, Perillo GME, Piccolo MC (2007) Vulnerability to sea level rise on the at Kanpur. In: 3rd International workshop on alluvial river problems
coast of Buenos Aires province. J Coast Res 23:119–126 (TIWARP), University of Roorkee, Roorkee; Oxford and IBH publishing
Doukakis E (2005) Coastal vulnerability and risk parameters. Eur Water Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp 239–246
11(12):3–7 Higgins S, Overeem I, Rogers K, Kalina E (2018) River linking in India: down-
Dunning SA, Massey CI, Rosser NJ (2009) Structural and geomorphological stream impacts on water discharge and suspended sediment transport
features of landslides in the Bhutan Himalaya derived from Terrestrial to deltas. Elementa Sci Anthr 6:20
Laser Scanning. Geomorphology 103:17–29 Holeman JN (1968) Sediment yield of major rivers of the world. Water Resour
Falconer R, Cobby D, Smyth P, Astle G, Dent J, Golding B (2009) Pluvial flooding: Res 4(4):737–747
new approaches in flood warning, mapping and risk management. J Hoque R, Nakayama D, Matsuyama H, Matsumoto J (2011) Flood monitoring,
Flood Risk Manag 2:198–208 mapping and assessing capabilities using RADARSAT remote sensing,
Fischer S, Pietron J, Bring A, Thorslund J, Jarsjo J (2017) Present to future GIS and ground data for Bangladesh. Nat Hazards 57:525–548
sediment transport of the Brahmaputra River: reducing uncertainty in Hossain MM (1992) Total sediment load in the Lower Ganges and Jamuna. J
predictions and management. Reg Environ Change 17:515–526 Inst Eng Bangladesh 20:1–8
French JR, Burningham H (2009) Coastal geomorphology: trends and chal- Hossain MM (1993) Economic effects of riverbank erosion: some evidence
lenges. Prog Phys Geogr 33(1):117–129 from Bangladesh. Disasters 17:25–32
Friend PF, Jones NF, Vincent SJ (1999) Drainage evolution in active mountain Howard AD (1994) A detachment-limited model of drainage basin evolution.
belts: extrapolation backwards from present day Himalayan river pat- Water Resour Res 30:2261–2285
terns. Spec Publ Int Assoc Sedimentol 28:305–311 Hussain MA, Tajima Y, Gunasekara K, Rana S, Hasan R (2014) Recent coastline
Galy A, France-Lanord C (2001) Higher erosion rates in the Himalaya: geo- changes at the eastern part of the Meghna Estuary using PALSAR and
chemical constraints on riverine fluxes. Geology 29(1):23–26 Landsat images. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 20(1):012047
Galy V, France-Lanord C, Peucker-Ehrenbrink B, Huyghe P (2010) Sr–Nd–Os Iftekhar MS, Islam MR (2004) Managing mangroves in Bangladesh: a strategy
evidence for a stable erosion regime in the Himalaya during the past 12 analysis. J Coast Conserv 10:139–146
Myr. Earth Planet Sci Lett 290:474–480 Immerzeel W (2008) Historical trends and future predictions of climate variabil-
Garzanti E, Vezzoli G, Ando S, France-lanord C, Singh SK, Foster G (2004) Sand ity in the Brahmaputra basin. Int J Climatol 28(2):243–254
petrology and focused erosion in collision orogens: the Brahmaputra Immerzeel WW, Kraaijenbrink PDA, Shea JM, Shrestha AB, Pellicciotti F, Bierkens
case. Earth Planet Sci Lett 220:157–174 MFP, De Jong SM (2014) High-resolution monitoring of Himalayan
Garzanti E, Andó S, France-Lanord C, Censi P, Vignola P, Galy V, Lupker M glacier dynamics using unmanned aerial vehicles. Remote Sens Environ
(2011) Mineralogical and chemical variability of fluvial sediments 2. 150:93–103
Suspended-load silt (Ganga–Brahmaputra, Bangladesh). Earth Planet Islam SN (2000) Char people, living with the Padma River and fragile environ-
Sci Lett 302(1–2):107–120 ment: char study report March 2000. Gono Unnayan Prochesta (GUP),
Gazi MY, Roy H, Mia MB, Akhter SM (2020a) Assessment of Morpho-Dynamics Dhaka, Bangladesh
through Geospatial Techniques within the Padma–Meghna and Islam MR (2011) Vulnerability and coping strategies of women in disaster: a
Ganges–Jamuna River Confluences, Bangladesh. KN J Cartogr Geogr Inf study on coastal areas of Bangladesh. Arts Facul J 4:147–169
70:127–139 Islam ARMT (2016) Assessment of fluvial channel dynamics of Padma River in
Northwestern Bangladesh. Univ J Geosci 4(2):41–49
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 19 of 22

Islam MR, Begum SF, Yamaguchi Y, Ogawa K (1999) The Ganges and Brah- Khan S, Sinha R, Whitehead P, Sarkar S, Jin L, Futter MN (2018) Flows and sedi-
maputra Rivers in Bangladesh: basin denudation and sedimentation. ment dynamics in the Ganga River under present and future climate
Hydrol Process 17:2907–2923 scenarios. Hydrol Sci J 63(5):763–782
Islam MR, Yamaguchi Y, Ogawa K (2001) Suspended sediment in the Ganges Khan MY, Shafique M, Turab SA, Ahmad N (2021) Characterization of an
and Brahmaputra Rivers in Bangladesh: observation from TM and unstable slope using geophysical, UAV, and geological techniques:
AVHRR data. Hydrol Process 15:493–509 Karakoram Himalaya. North Pak Front Earth Sci 9:668011
Islam MR, Begum SF, Yamaguchi Y, Ogawa K (2002) Distribution of suspended Khosravi K, Nohani E, Maroufinia E, Pourghasemi HR (2016) A GIS-based
sediment in the coastal sea off the Ganges–Brahmaputra River mouth: flood susceptibility assessment and its mapping in Iran: a comparison
observation from TM data. J Mar Syst 32:307–321 between frequency ratio and weights-of-evidence bivariate statistical
Islam AZMZ, Kabir SMH, Sharifee MNH (2013) High-tide coastline method to models with multi-criteria decision making technique. Nat Hazards
study the stability of Kuakata coast of Bangladesh using remote sensing 83:947–987
techniques. Asian J Geoinform 13(1):23–29 Kibler K, Biswas R, Juarez Lucas A (2014) Hydrologic data as a human right?
Islam MS, Sultana S, Saifunnahar M, Miah MA (2014) Adaptation of char liveli- Equitable access to information as a resource for disaster risk reduction
hood in flood and river erosion areas through indigenous practice: in transboundary river basins. Water Policy 16:36–58
a study on Bhuapur riverine area in Tangail. J Environ Sci Nat Resour Klaassen GJ, Masselink G (1992) Planform changes of a braided river with fine
7(1):13–19 sand as bed and bank material. In: Proceedings of the 5th international
Islam ARMT, Sein ZMM, Ongoma V, Islam MS, Alam MF, Ahmed F (2015a) Geo- symposium on river sedimentation, Karlsruhe, Germany, pp 459–471
morphological and land use mapping: a case study of Ishwardi under Knight J, Harrison S (2014) Mountain glacial and paraglacial environments
Pabna district, Bangladesh. Adv Res 4(6):378–387 under global climate change: lessons from the past, future direc-
Islam M, Hossain M, Murshed S (2015b) Assessment of coastal vulnerability tions and policy implications. Geografiska Annaler Ser A Phys Geogr
due to sea level change at Bhola Island, Bangladesh: using geospatial 96:245–264
techniques. J Indian Soc Remote Sens 43:625–637 Kraaijenbrink P, Meijer SW, Shea JM, Pellicciotti F, De Jong SM, Immerzeel WW
Islam MA, Islam MS, Islam T (2017) Landslides in Chittagong hill tracts and (2016) Seasonal surface velocities of a Himalayan glacier derived by
possible measures. In: Proceedings of the international conference on automated correlation of unmanned aerial vehicle imagery. Ann Glaciol
disaster risk mitigation, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 23–24 September 2017 57(71):103–113
Islam ARMT, Saha A, Ghose B, Pal SC, Chowdhuri I, Mallick J (2021) Landslide Kubo S (1993) Geomorphological features of Northwestern Bangladesh and
susceptibility modeling in a complex mountainous region of Sikkim some problems on flood mitigation. GeoJournal 31(4):313–318
Himalaya using new hybrid data mining approach. Geocarto Int. Lane SN (2013) 21st century climate change: Where has all the geomorphol-
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​10106​049.​2021.​20099​20 ogy gone? Earth Surf Proc Land 38:106–110
Jahan CS, Rahaman MF, Arefin R, Ali S, Mazumder QH (2018) Morphometric Lane SN, Richards KS (1997) Linking river channel form and process: time,
analysis and hydrological inference for water resource management in space and causality revisited. Earth Surf Proc Land 22:249–260
Atrai-Sib River Basin, NW Bangladesh Using Remote Sensing and GIS Langat PK, Kumar L, Koech R (2019) Monitoring river channel dynamics using
Technique. J Geol Soc India 91:613–620 remote sensing and GIS techniques. Geomorphology 325:92–102
Jain V, Tandon SK, Sinha R (2012) Application of modern geomorphic concepts Le Heron DP, Vandyk TM, Kuang H, Liu Y, Chen X, Wang Y, Yang Z, Scharfenberg
for understanding the spatio-temporal complexity of the large Ganga L, Davies B, Shields G (2019) Bird’s-eye view of an Ediacaran subglacial
river dispersal system. Curr Sci 103(11):1300–1319 landscape. Geology 47:705–709
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) (2005) The feasibility study Li J, Liu S, Shi X et al (2020) Provenance of terrigenous sediments in the central
of Padma Bridge in the people’s republic of Bangladesh. Nippon KOEI Bay of Bengal and its relationship to climate changes since 25 ka. Prog
Co., Ltd. In association with Construction Project Consultants, INC. Final Earth Planet Sci 7:16
report volume 5: River studies Lupker M, France-Lanord C, Galy V, Lavé J, Gaillardet J, Gajurel AP, Guilmette
Kabir MA, Salauddin M, Hossain KT, Tanim IA, Saddam MMH, Ahmad AU (2020) C, Rahman M, Singh SK, Sinha R (2012) Predominant floodplain over
Assessing the shoreline dynamics of Hatiya Island of Meghna estuary in mountain weathering of Himalayan sediments (Ganga basin). Geo-
Bangladesh using multiband satellite imageries and hydro-meteorolog- chimica et Cosmochimica Acta 84:410–432
ical data. Region Stud Marine Sci 35:101167 Mahanta C et al (2014) Physical assessment of the Brahmaputra River. IUCN,
Kale VS (2003) Geomorphic effects of monsoon floods in Indian rivers. Nat International Union for Conservation of Nature, Dhaka, Bangladesh, Pp
Hazards 28:65–84 xii + 74. ISBN 978-984-91041-8-6
Kale VS (2005) Fluvial hydrology and geomorphology of monsoon dominated Mahapatra M, Ramakrishnan R, Rajawat AS (2014) Coastal vulnerability assess-
Indian rivers. Revista Brasileira De Geomorfologia 6(1):63–73 ment using analytical hierarchical process for South Gujarat coast, India.
Kamal ASMM, Midorikawa S (2004) GIS-based geomorphological mapping Nat Hazards 76:136–159
using remote sensing data and supplementary geoinformation: a case Mahmud MI, Sultana S, Hasan MA, Ahmed KM (2017) Variations in hydrostratig-
study of the Dhaka city area, Bangladesh. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf raphy and groundwater quality between major geomorphic units
6:111–125 of the Western Ganges Delta plain, SW Bangladesh. Appl Water Sci
Karan PP (2015) Climate change in Bangladesh: confronting impending disas- 7:2919–2932
ters. Assoc Am Geogr Rev Books 3(2):63–65 Malik A, Kumar A, Kushwaha DP, Kisi O, InanSalih QS, Al-Ansari N, Yaseen ZM
Karim S, Akther KM, Khatun M, Ali RME (2019) Geomorphology and geology (2019) The implementation of a hybrid model for hilly sub-watershed
of the Dhaka city corporation area-an approach of remote sensing and prioritization using morphometric variables: case study in India. Water
GIS technique. Int J Astron Astrophys Space Sci 6(2):7–16 11(6):1138
Kaushal RK, Sarkar A, Mishra K, Sinha R, Nepal S, Jain V (2020) Spatio-temporal Miah MM (1988) Flood in Bangladesh: a hydro morphological study of the
variability in stream power distribution in the Upper Kosi River basin, 1987 flood. Academic Publishers, Dhaka
Central Himalaya: controls and geomorphic implications. Geomorphol- Miah J, Hossain KT, Hossain MA, Najia SI (2020) Assessing coastal vulnerability
ogy 350:106888 of Chittagong District, Bangladesh using geospatial techniques. J Coast
Khalil MG, Hossain MM, Hoque MM (1995) On siltation in the rivers of Bangla- Conserv 24:66
desh: causes and consequences. J Natl Ocean Marit Inst 12:11–20 Milliman JD, Meade RH (1983) World-wide delivery of river sediment to the
Khan MSS, Islam ARMT (2015) Anthropogenic impact on morphology of Teesta oceans. J Geol 91(1):1–21
River in Northern Bangladesh: an exploratory study. J Geosci Geomat Milliman JD, Syvitski JPM (1992) Geomorphic/tectonic control of sediment
3(3):50–55 discharge to the ocean: the importance of small mountain rivers. J Geol
Khan YA, Lateh H, Baten MA, Kamil AA (2012) Critical antecedent rainfall condi- 100:525–544
tions for shallow landslides in Chittagong City of Bangladesh. Environ Minar M, Hossain MB, Shamsuddin M (2013) Climate Change and coastal zone
Earth Sci 67:97–106 of Bangladesh: vulnerability, resilience and adaptability. Middle-East J
Sci Res 13:114–120
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 20 of 22

Mishra K, Sinha R, Jain V, Nepal S, Uddin K (2019) Towards the assessment of Rabby YW, Li Y (2018) An integrated approach to map landslides in Chit-
sediment connectivity in a large Himalayan river basin. Sci Total Environ tagong Hilly Areas, Bangladesh, using Google Earth and field mapping.
661:251–265 Landslides (Technical note); Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany part of
Moore ID, Grayson R, Ladson A (1991) Digital terrain modelling: a review of Springer Nature
hydrological, geomorphological, and biological applications. Hydrol Rabby YW, Li Y (2019) An integrated approach to map landslides in Chit-
Process 5(1):3–30 tagong Hilly Areas, Bangladesh, using Google Earth and field mapping.
Mukherjee A, Fryar AE, Thomas WA (2009) Geologic, geomorphic and Landslides 16:633–645
hydrologic framework and evolution of the Bengal basin, India and Rabby YW, Li Y (2020) Landslide Inventory (2001–2017) of Chittagong Hilly
Bangladesh. J Asian Earth Sci 34(3):227–244 Areas. Bangladesh Data 5(1):4
Najafi S, Dragovich D, Heckmann T, Sadeghi SH (2021) Sediment connectivity Rabby YW, Ishtiaque A, Rahman MS (2020) Evaluating the effects of digital
concepts and approaches. CATENA 196:104880 elevation models in landslide susceptibility mapping in Rangamati
Narayan D, Tandon SK, Joshi DD (1983) Erosion intensity in a mountain water- District, Bangladesh. Remote Sens 12:2718
shed in the Himalayan region. Geol Soc India 24:533–539 Rahman MM (2012) Time-series analysis of coastal erosion in the Sundarbans
NEDECO (Netherlands Engineering Consultants) (1967) East Pakistan Inland mangrove. International archives of the photogrammetry, remote
Water Transport Authority, Survey of Inland Waterways and Ports, 1963- sensing and spatial information sciences. In: 22nd ISPRS Congress,
1967. NEDECO, The Hague 25 August–01 September 2012, Melbourne, Australia, XXXIX-B8, pp
Nepal S (2012) Evaluating upstream–downstream linkages of hydrologi- 425–429
cal dynamics in the Himalayan Region. PhD Thesis, Friedrich Schiller Rahman MM, Rahaman MM (2018) Impacts of Farakka barrage on hydrologi-
University, Jena cal flow of Ganges river and environment in Bangladesh. Sustain Water
Nepal S, Flügel WA, Shrestha AB (2014) Upstream–downstream linkages of Resour Manag 4:767–780
hydrological processes in the Himalayan region. Ecol Process 3:19 Rahman R, Salehin M (2013) Flood risks and reduction approaches in
NPDM (National Plan for Disaster Management) (2006) Ministry of Food and Bangladesh. In: Shaw R, Mallick F, Islam A (eds) Disaster risk reduction
Disaster Management, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangla- approaches in Bangladesh. Springer, Tokyo, pp 65–90
desh. Draft National Plan 6 Rahaman MF, Jahan CS, Arefin R, Mazumder QH (2017) Morphometric analysis
Oguchi T, Wasklewicz TA (2011) Geographic information systems in geomor- of major watersheds in Barind Tract, Bangladesh: a remote sensing
phology. The Sage handbook of geomorphology. Sage, London, pp and GIS-based approach for water resource management. Hydrology
227–245 8(6):86–95
Oguchi T, Wasklewicz T, Hayakawa YS (2013) Remote data in fluvial geo- Rahman MS, Ahmed B, Di L (2017) Landslide initiation and runout susceptibil-
morphology: characteristics and applications. In: Shroder J, Wohl E ity modeling in the context of hill cutting and rapid urbanization: a
(eds) Treatise on geomorphology. Academic Press, San Diego, Fluvial combined approach of weights of evidence and spatial multi-criteria. J
Geomorphology 9, pp 711–729 Mt Sci 14(10):1919–1937
Oguchi T, Hayakawa YS, Wasklewicz T (2022) 6.50-remote data in fluvial geo- Ramsankaran R, Navinkumar PJ, Dashora A, Kulkarni A (2020) UAV-based survey
morphology: characteristics and applications. Shroder JF (ed) Treatise of Glaciers in Himalayas: opportunities and challenges. J Indian Soc
on geomorphology, 2nd ed. Academic Press, pp 1116–1142. https://​ Remote Sens 49:1171–1187
doi.​org/​10.​1016/​B978-0-​12-​818234-​5.​00103-6 Rashid T, Suzuki S, Sato H, Monsur MH, Sk S (2013) Relative Sea-level changes
Ortega JA, Razola L, Garzón G (2014) Recent human impacts and change in during the Holocene in Bangladesh. J Asian Earth Sci 64:136–150
dynamics and morphology of ephemeral rivers. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Rashid MB, Habib MA, Khan R, Islam ARMT (2021) Land transform and its
Sci 14(3):713–730 consequences due to the route change of the Brahmaputra River in
Otto JC, Prasicek G, Blöthe J, Schrott L (2018) GIS applications in geomorphol- Bangladesh. Int J River Basin Manag. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​15715​124.​
ogy. Comprehensive geographic information systems. Elsevier, pp 2021.​19380​95
81–111 Rasul G (2014) Why Eastern Himalayan countries should cooperate in trans-
Oya M (1979) An applied geomorphological study on the selected bridge site boundary water resource management. Water Policy 16(1):19–38
along the Brahmaputra–Jamuna River in Bangladesh (in Japanese with Ravenscroft P (2003) Overview of the hydrogeology of Bangladesh. In: Rah-
English abstract). Geogr Rev Jpn 52(8):407–425 man AA, Ravenscroft P (eds) Groundwater resources and development
Pangare G, Nishat B, Liao X, Qaddumi HM (2021) The restless river. World Bank, in Bangladesh-background to the arsenic crisis, agricultural potential
Washington, DC and the environment. Bangladesh Centre for advanced studies. Univer-
Pareta K, Pareta U (2015) Geomorphological Interpretation through satellite sity Press Ltd, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp 43–86
imagery & DEM data. Am J Geophys Geochem Geosyst 1(2):19–36 Ray PA, Yang YCE, Wi S, Khalil A, Chatikavanij V, Brown C (2015) Room for
Pei T, Qin CZ, Zhu AX, Yang L, Luo M, Li B, Zhou C (2010) Mapping soil organic improvement: hydroclimatic challenges to poverty-reducing develop-
matter using the topographic wetness index: a comparative study ment of the Brahmaputra River basin. Environ Sci Policy 54:64–80
based on different flow-direction algorithms and kriging methods. Ecol Rinaldo A, Marani A, Rigon R (1991) Geomorphological dispersion. Water
Ind 10(3):610–619 Resour Res 27:513–525
Pelletier JD (2003) Drainage basin evolution in the rainfall erosion facility: Rozo MG, Nogueira ACR, Castro CS (2014) Remote sensing-based analysis
dependence on initial conditions. Geomorphology 53:183–196 of the planform changes in the upper Amazon River over the period
Peters JJ (1993) Morphological studies and data needs. In: Proceedings of the 1986–2006. J South Am Earth Sci 51:28–44
international sworkshop on morphological behaviour of major rivers in Rudra K (2014) Changing river courses in the western part of the Ganga–Brah-
Bangladesh (Dhaka, 1993) maputra delta. Geomorphology 227:87–100
Petts GE (1995) Changing river channels: the geographical tradition. In: Gurnell Saaty TL (1977) A scaling method for priorities in hierarchical structures. J Math
AM, Petts GE (eds) Changing river channels. Wiley, Chichester, pp 1–23 Psychol 15(3):234–281
Piégay H, Kondolf GM, Minear JT, Vaudor L (2015) Trends in publications Sanyal J, Lu XX (2004) Application of remote sensing in flood manage-
in fluvial geomorphology over two decades: A truly new era in the ment with special reference to Monsoon Asia: a review. Nat Hazards
discipline owing to recent technological revolution? Geomorphology 33:283–301
248:489–500 Sarkar SK, Ansar SB, Ekram KMM, Khan MH, Talukdar S, Naikoo MW, Islam ART,
Pradhan NS, Das PJ, Gupta N, Shrestha AB (2021) Sustainable Management Rahman A, Mosavi A (2022) Developing robust flood susceptibility
Options for Healthy Rivers in South Asia: The Case of Brahmaputra. model with small numbers of parameters in highly fertile regions of
Sustainability 13(3):1087 Northwest Bangladesh for Sustainable Flood and Agriculture Manage-
Quamruzzaman, Samiul Alim, M, Badrul Alam M, Momenur Rahim M, Bashar ment. Sustainability 14:3982
Swapan K, Tofael Ahmed M, Gazi Antora S, Student M (2008) Proposal Sarker MH, Akhand MR, Rahman SMM, Molla F (2013) Mapping of coastal mor-
for dredging of a ferry route in Mawa-Kaorakandi with proper protec- phological changes of Bangladesh using RS, GIS and GNSS technology.
tion system due to sedimentation. Int J Emerg Technol Adv Eng J Remote Sens GIS 1(2):27–34
6(7):197–202
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 21 of 22

Sarker MH, Thorne CR, Aktar MN, Ferdous MR (2014) Morpho-dynamics of the Stott T (2013) Review of research in fluvial geomorphology 2010–2011. Prog
Brahmaputra–Jamuna River, Bangladesh. Geomorphology 215:45–59 Phys Geogr 37(2):248–258
Sarker AA, Rashid AKMM (2013a) Landslide and flashflood in Bangladesh. In: Subramanian V, Ramanathan AL (1996) Nature of sediment load in the Gan-
Shaw R, Mallick F, Islam A (eds) Disaster risk reduction approaches in ges–Brahmaputra river systems in India. In: Milliman JD, Haq BU (eds)
Bangladesh. Springer, Berlin, pp 165–189 Sea-level rise and coastal subsidence. Coastal systems and continental
Sarker AA, Rashid AKMM (2013b) Landslide and flashflood in Bangladesh. In: margins. Kluwer, pp 151–168
Shaw R, Mallick F, Islam A (eds) Disaster risk reduction approaches in Sulser TB, Ringler C, Zhu T, Msangi S, Bryan E, Rosegrant MW (2010) Green and
Bangladesh. Disaster risk reduction (methods, approaches and prac- blue water accounting in the Ganges and Nile basins: implications for
tices). Springer, Tokyo food and agricultural policy. J Hydrol 384:276–291
Sarker MH, Akter J, Ruknul M (2011) River bank protection measures in the Surian N, Rinaldi M (2003) Morphological response to river engineering
BrahmaputraJamuna River: Bangladesh experience. International and management in alluvial channels in Italy. Geomorphology
Seminar on River, Society and Sustainable Development. Dibrugarh 50(4):307–326
University, India, 121, pp 1–14 Swarnkar S, Sinha R, Tripathi S (2020) Morphometric diversity of supply-limited
Sarker MH (2004) Impact of upstream human interventions on the morphol- and transport-limited river systems in the Himalayan foreland. Geomor-
ogy of the Ganges-Gorai System. Water Science and Technology phology 348:106882
Library, pp 49–80 Szlafsztein C, Sterr H (2007) A GIS-based vulnerability assessment of coastal
Sarma JN (2005) Fluvial process and morphology of the Brahmaputra River in natural hazards, state of Pará, Brazil. J Coast Conserv 11(1):53–66
Assam, India. Geomorphology 70:226–256 Szlafsztein C, Sterr H (2010) Coastal zone management tool: a GIS based. In:
Sarwar M, Woodroffe CD (2013) Rates of shoreline change along the coast of Saint-Paul U, Schneider H (eds) Mangrove dynamics and management
Bangladesh. J Coast Conserv 17(3):515–526 in North Brazil, ecological studies. Springer, Berlin, pp 365–385
Sarwar GM (2013) Sea-level rise along the coast of Bangladesh. In: Shaw R et al Takagi T, Oguchi T, Zaiki M, Matsumoto J (2005) Geomorphological and
(eds) Disaster risk reduction approaches in Bangladesh. Disaster Risk geological studies for Bangladesh: a review (in Japanese with English
Reduction, Springer, Japan, pp 217–231 abstract). Trans Jpn Geomorphol Union 26(4):405–422
Seeber L, Gornitz V (1983) River profiles along the Himalayan arc as indicators Takagi T, Oguchi T, Matsumoto J, Grossma MJ, Sarker MH, Matin MA (2007)
of active tectonics. Tectonophysics 92(4):335–367 Channel braiding and stability of the Brahmaputra River, Bangla-
Shamsuzzaman M, Islam MS, Islam MB (2005) Morphogeology of Pabna Sadar desh, since 1967: GIS and remote sensing analyses. Geomorphology
Upazila, Bangladesh. Bangladesh J Water Resour Res BUET 20:65–79 85:294–305
Sharma JN (2005) Fluvial process and morphology of the Brahmaputra River in Talukder S, Islam MS (2006) Morphogeology of Natore Town and adjacent
Assam, India. Geomorphology 70:226–256 areas, Bangladesh. Rajshahi University Studies, J Sci 34(part B):211–222
Shibly AM, Takewaka S (2012) Morphological changes along Bangladesh coast Tempa K, Peljor K, Wangdi S, Ghalley R, Jamtsho K, Ghalley S, Pradhan P (2021)
derived from satellite images. In: Proceedings of coastal engineering, UAV technique to localize landslide susceptibility and mitigation pro-
JSCE, volume 3, November, pp 41–45 posal: a case of Rinchending Goenpa landslide in Bhutan. Nat Hazards
Singh SK, France-Lanord C (2002) Tracing the distribution of erosion in the Res 1(4):171–186
Brahmaputra watershed from isotopic compositions of stream sedi- Thieler ER, Hammar-Klose ES (1999) National assessment of coastal vulnerabil-
ments. Earth Planet Sci Lett 6341:1–18 ity to future sea-level rise: Preliminary results for the U.S. Atlantic Coast.
Singh M, Singh IB, Muller G (2007) Sediment characteristics and transportation U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, pp 99–593
dynamics of the Ganga River. Geomorphology 86:144–175 Thorne CR (2002) Geomorphic analysis of large alluvial rivers. Geomorphology
Singh SK, Santosh KR, Krishnaswami S (2008) Sr and Nd isotopes in river 44:203–219
sediments from the Ganga Basin: sediment provenance and spatial Thorne CR, Russell APG, Alam MK (1993) Planform pattern and channel evolu-
variability in physical erosion. J Geophys Res 113(F03006):18 tion of the Brahmaputra River, Bangladesh. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ
Singh M, Sinha R, Tandon SK (2021) Geomorphic connectivity and its applica- 75(1):257–276
tion for understanding landscape complexities: a focus on the hydro- Tingsanchali T, Karim MF (2005) Flood hazard and risk analysis in the south-
geomorphic systems of India. Earth Surf Proc Land 46:110–130 west region of Bangladesh. Hydrol Process 19:2055–2069
Sinha R (2004) Geomorphology of the Ganges fluvial system in the Himalayan Umitsu M (1985) Natural levees and landform evolutions in the Bengal low-
foreland: an update. Revista Brasileira De Geomorfologia 5(1):71–83 lands. Geogr Rev Jpn Ser B 58(2):149–164
Sinha R, Jain V, Babu GP, Ghosh S (2005) Geomorphic characterization Umitsu M (1987) Late quaternary sedimentary environment and landform
and diversity of the rivers of the Gangetic plains. Geomorphology evolution in the Bengal Lowland. Geogr Rev Jpn Ser B 60(2):164–178
70:207–225 Umitsu M (1993) Late quaternary sedimentary environments and land forms
Sinha R, Das S, Dikshit O (2002) GIS-assisted mapping of catchment-scale in the Ganges Delta. Sed Geol 83:177–186
erosion and sediment sources, Garhal Himalayan, India. Z Geomorpho Vaidyanathan NS, Sharma G, Sinha R, Dikshit O (2002) Mapping of ero-
NE 46(2):146–165 sion intensity in the Garhwal Himalayan. Int J Remote Sens
Slaymaker O, Embleton-Hamann C (2018) Advances in global mountain geo- 23(20):4125–4129
morphology. Geomorphology 308:230–264 Wallick JR, Grant GE, Lancaster ST, Bolte JP, Denlinger RP (2007) Patterns and
Śledź S, Ewertowski M, Piekarczyk J (2021) Applications of Unmanned Aerial controls on historical channel change in the Willamette River, Oregon,
Vehicle (UAV) surveys and Structure from motion photogrammetry in USA. In: Gupta A (ed) Large rivers: geomorphology and management.
glacial and periglacial geomorphology. Geomorphology 378:107620 Wiley, pp 491–516
Stanley EH, Boulton AJ (2000) River size as a factor in conservation, pp Warner JF, Van Staveren MF, Van Tatenhove J (2018) Cutting dikes, cutting ties?
403–413. In: Boon PJ, Davies BR, Petts GE (eds) Global perspectives on Reintroducing flood dynamics in coastal polders in Bangladesh and the
river conservation: science, policy and practice. Wiley, New York Netherlands. Int J Disast Risk Reduct 32:106–112
Stark CP, Stark GJ (2001) A channelization model of landscape evolution. Am J Wasson RA (2003) A sediment budget for the Ganga–Brahmaputra catchment.
Sci 301:486–512 Curr Sci 84:1041–1047
Steckler MS, Nooner SL, Akhter SH, Chowdhury SK, Bettadpur S, Seeber L, Wellmeyer JL, Slattery MC, Phillips JD (2005) Quantifying downstream impacts
Kogan MG (2010) Modeling Earth deformation from monsoonal flood- of impoundment on flow regime and channel planform lower Trinity
ing in Bangladesh using hydrographic, GPS, and Gravity Recovery and River. Texas Geomorphol 69(1–4):1–13
Climate Experiment (GRACE) data. J Geophys Res 115:1–18 Whipple KX, Tucker GE (1999) Dynamics of the stream-power river inci-
Stewart RJ, Hallet B, Zeitler PK, Malloy MA, Allen CM, Trippett D (2008) Brahma- sion model: implications for height limits of mountain ranges,
putra sediment flux dominated by highly localized rapid erosion from landscape response timescales, and research needs. J Geophys Res
the easternmost Himalaya. Geology 36:711–714 104:17661–17674
Stoffel M, Marston RA (2013) Mountain and hillslope geomorphology: an intro- Van Woerkom T, Steiner JF, Kraaijenbrink PDA, Miles ES, Immerzeel WW (2019)
duction. Treat Geomorphol 7:1–3 Sediment supply from lateral moraines to a debris-covered glacier in
the Himalaya. Earth Surf Dyn 7:411–427
Faisal and Hayakawa Progress in Earth and Planetary Science (2022) 9:41 Page 22 of 22

Wohl E (2014) Time and the rivers flowing: fluvial geomorphology since 1960.
Geomorphology 216(1):263–282
Wolman MG, Miller JP (1960) Magnitude and frequency of forces in geomor-
phic processes. J Geol 68:54–74
Yao Z, Ta W, Jia X, Xiao J (2011) Bank erosion and accretion along the Ningxia-
Inner Mongolia reaches of the Yellow river from 1958 and 2008.
Geomorphology 127:99–106

Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub-
lished maps and institutional affiliations.