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IM No.4:ME 7-2S-2022-2023

College: COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Campus: BAMBANG CAMPUS

DEGREE Bachelor of COURSE NO. ME 7

PROGRAM Science in
Mechanical
Engineering
SPECIALIZATION Mechanical COURSE TITLE Vibration Engineering
YEAR LEVEL 2nd Year TIME FRAME 6 hrs WK NO. 10 - 12 IM NO. 4

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE:

CHAPTER 4. Vibration Under General Forcing Conditions

II. LESSON TITLE:

1. Response Under a General Periodic Force
2. Response Under a Non - Periodic Force

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

This chapter is devoted to the vibration response of a single-degree-of-freedom system under
arbitrary forcing conditions. The response of the system under a general periodic force is presented by
first expanding the periodic force into a series of harmonic forces using Fourier series and then
superposing the responses due to the individual harmonic forces. The response of the system under a
nonperiodic force is presented using two methods those of convolution integral and of Laplace
transform.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. find the responses of single-degree-of-freedom systems subjected to general periodic forces using
Fourier series.
2. solve undamped and damped systems subjected to arbitrary forces, including impulse, step, and
ramp forces, using Laplace transform.
3. understand the characteristics of transient response, such as peak time, overshoot, settling time, rise
time, and decay time, and procedures for their estimation.
4. apply numerical methods to solve vibration problems of systems subjected to forces that are
described numerically.

V. LESSON CONTENT
The general forcing functions may be periodic (non - harmonic) or non - periodic. The
nonperiodic forces include forces such as a suddenly applied constant force (called a step force), a
linearly increasing force (called a ramp force), and an exponentially varying force. A nonperiodic forcing
function may be acting for a short, long, or infinite duration. A forcing function or excitation of short
duration compared to the natural time period of the system is called a shock. Examples of general
forcing functions are the motion imparted by a cam to the follower, the vibration felt by an instrument
when its package is dropped from a height, the force applied to the foundation of a forging press, the
motion of an automobile when it hits a pothole, and the ground vibration of a building frame during an
earthquake.
If the forcing function is periodic but not harmonic, it can be replaced by a sum of harmonic
functions using the harmonic analysis procedure. Using the principle of superposition, the response of
the system can then be determined by superposing the responses due to the individual harmonic
forcing functions.
The response of a system subjected to any type of nonperiodic force is commonly found using
the following methods: convolution integral, Laplace transform and numerical methods.
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The first two methods are analytical ones, in which the response or solution is expressed in a
way that helps in studying the behavior of the system under the applied force with respect to various
parameters and in designing the system. The third method, on the other hand, can be used to find the
response of a system under any arbitrary force for which an analytical solution is difficult or impossible
to find. However, the solution found is applicable only for the particular set of parameter values used in
finding the solution. This makes it difficult to study the behavior of the system when the parameters are
varied.

1. RESPONSE UNDER A GENERAL PERIODIC FORCE

2π
When the external force F(t) is periodic with period τ = it can be expanded in a Fourier
ω
series:

where:

The response of systems under general periodic forces is considered in this section for both first- and
second-order systems. First-order systems are those for which the equation of motion is a first-order
differential equation. Similarly, second-order systems are those for which the equation of motion is a
second-order differential equation. Typical examples of first- and second-order systems are shown
below:

Fig. 4.1. Examples of first-order systems

Fig. 4.2. Examples of second-order systems

1.1. First Order Systems

Consider a spring-damper system subjected to a periodic excitation as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). The
equation of motion of the system is given by:

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where y(t) is the periodic motion (or excitation) imparted to the system at point A (for example, by a
cam). If the periodic displacement of point A, y(t), is expressed in Fourier series as the equation of
motion of the system which can be expressed as:

where:
k
a= , Aj = aaj, ω j = jω
c
a aa
A0 = , Bj = bbj, j = 1,2,3,…
2

Analysis:
The equation of motion corresponding to the constant force A0 can be expressed, using x0 for x, as:
x˙0 + ax0 = A0 ---¿ eq’n 1

The solution for equation 1 is;

A0
x0 (t) = ---¿ eq’n 2
a

The equation of motion under the force Aj sinω j t can be expressed as:

ẋ j + axj = Aj sinω j t ---¿ eq’n 3

The steady state solution for equation 3 is;

xj(t) = Xj sin (ω j t - ∅ j ¿ ---¿ eq’n 4

The equation of motion under the force Bj cosω j t can be expressed as:

ẋ j + axj = Bj cosω j t ---¿ eq’n 5

The steady state solution for equation 5 is:

xj(t) = Yj cos (ω j t - ∅ j ¿

The solution for equation 4 can be expressed in complex form as:

where:
Uj = complex number

xj(t) = time derivative

Xj and Yj = magnitude for sine and cosine functions respectively

∅ j = phase angle

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The complete steady state or particular solution for bot cosine and sine functions in the form of Fourier
Series is:

The total solution becomes:

The forcing function given by the right-hand-side expression and the steady-state response of the
system are shown graphically in Fig. 4.3. It can be seen that system does not filter the constant term.
However, it filters the lower frequency (cosine term) to some extent and the higher-frequency (sine
time) to a larger extent.

Fig. 4.3. The forcing functions

1.2. Second Order Systems

The equation of motion for the second order system is governed by:

If the forcing function f(t) is periodic, it can be expressed in Fourier series so that the equation
of motion becomes:

Analysis:
The right - hand side of the equation is a constant plus a sum of harmonic functions.

Using the principle of superposition, the steady-state solutions are:

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where:

The complete steady state or particular solution for bot cosine and sine functions in the form of Fourier
series:

2. RESPONSE UNDER A NON - PERIODIC FORCE

The response of a linear system is then found by superposing the harmonic response to each of
the exciting forces. When the exciting force F(t) is nonperiodic, such as that due to the blast from an
explosion, a different method of calculating the response is required. Various methods can be used to
find the response of the system to an arbitrary excitation. Some of these methods are as follows:
1. Representing the excitation by a Fourier integral.
2. Using the method of convolution integral.
3. Using the method of Laplace transforms.
4. Numerically integrating the equations of motion (numerical solution of differential equations).

2.1. Convolution or Duhamel Integral

A nonperiodic exciting force usually has a magnitude that varies with time; it acts for a specified
period and then stops. The simplest form is the impulsive force a force that has a large magnitude F
and acts for a very short time ∆t. From dynamics we know that impulse can be measured by finding the
change it causes in momentum of the system. If x˙1and x˙2 denote the velocities of the mass m before
and after the application of the impulse, we have

By designating the magnitude of the impulse F∆t by F we can write, in general as:

A unit impulse acting at t = 0 (f) is defined as:

The unit impulse, f = 1 acting at t = 0 is also denoted by the Dirac delta function as:

and the impulse of magnitude F acting at t = 0 is denoted as:

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2.1.a. Response to an Impulse

Consider a viscously damped spring-mass system subjected to a unit impulse at as shown in Figs.
4.4(a) and (b). For an underdamped system, the solution of the equation of motion:

is given by:

where:

If the mass is at rest before the unit impulse is applied (x = ẋ=0 for t < 0 or at t = 0 ), we obtain, from
the impulse-momentum relation,

Thus, the initial conditions are given by:

Fig. 4.4. A single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to an impulse.

2.1.b. Response to a General Forcing Condition

This force may be assumed to be made up of a series of impulses of varying magnitude.
Assuming that at time τ the force F(τ ¿ acts on the system for a short period of time ∆t, the impulse
acting at t = τ is given by F(τ ¿ ∆ τ . At any time t, the elapsed time since the impulse is t - τ so the
response of the system at t due to this impulse alone is:

The total response at time t can be found by summing all the responses due to the elementary
impulses acting at all times:

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Fig. 4.5. An arbitrary (nonperiodic) forcing function.

Applying convolution or Duhamel integral, we obtain:

2.1.c. Response to Base Excitation

If a spring-mass-damper system is subjected to an arbitrary base excitation described by its
displacement, velocity, or acceleration, the equation of motion can be expressed in terms of the relative
displacement of the mass as follows:

Applying convolution or Duhamel integral, we have:

2.2. Laplace Transform

The Laplace transform method can be used to find the response of a system under any type of
excitation, including the harmonic and periodic type. A major advantage of the method is that it
considers the initial conditions automatically.
The application of the Laplace transform method for the finding the response of a system basically
involves the following steps:
1. Write the equation of motion of the system.
2. Transform each term of the equation, using known initial conditions.
3. Solve for the transformed response of the system.
4. Obtain the desired solution (response) by using inverse Laplace transformation.

2.2.a. Transient and Steady State Responses

The transient response denotes the portion of the solution caused by the initial conditions and
dies down with time. The steady-state response represents the portion of the solution caused by the
applied force or excitation and approaches the condition in which equilibrium prevails.

Initial value of the response: If the response or solution of a system is known in time domain, the
initial value of the response, can be determined by setting If the response of the system is given in
Laplace domain, the initial value can be found through initial value theorem:

Steady - state value of the response: If the response of a system is known in time domain, the
steady-state value of the response, can be determined by taking the limit as time approaches infinity. If
the response of the system is given in the Laplace domain, the steady-state value can be found by
taking the limit, as s approaches zero, of s times the response in Laplace domain:

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This equation is called the final value theorem.

2.2.b. Response of First – Order Systems

Consider a spring-damper system subjected to a forcing function with the equation of motion:

which can be written as:

where:

2.2.c. Response of Second – Order Systems

Consider a spring-mass-damper system subjected to a forcing function with the equation of
motion

3. Numerical Methods
Numerical simulations can be used to check the accuracy of analytical solutions, especially if
the system is complex. In a similar manner, the numerical solutions are to be checked using analytical
methods wherever possible. The numerical methods of solving single-degree-of-freedom systems
subjected to arbitrary forcing functions are considered in this section.
Analytical solutions are extremely useful in understanding the system s behavior with respect to
changes in its parameters. The analytical solutions directly help in designing systems to meet any
specified response characteristics by selecting the parameter values appropriately. If analytical solution
becomes difficult, the response of the system can be found using a suitable numerical integration
procedure. Several methods are available for numerically integrating ordinary differential equations.
The Runge - Kutta methods are quite popular for the numerical solution of differential
equations.
Consider the equation of motion of a damped single-degree-of-freedom system subject to an arbitrary
force f(t):

with the initial conditions and most numerical methods assume that the differential equation is in the
form of a first-order differential equation (or a set of simultaneous first-order differential equations). As
such, we need to convert the second-order differential equation, into an equivalent set of two first-order
differential equations. For this, we introduce the unknown functions:

In vector form:

3.1. Runge – Kutta Method

In most of the numerical methods, improved solutions are found from the present solution
(starting with a known initial value at time zero) according to the formula:
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In the Runge-Kutta methods, the approximate formula used for obtaining the solution x i+1 from xi is
made to coincide with the Taylor’s series expansion of x at x i+1 up to terms of order (∆t)k, where k
denotes the order of the Runge-Kutta method. The Taylor s series expansion of x(t) at t + ∆t is given
by:

In the fourth-order Runge - Kutta method, which is most commonly used, the following recurrence
formula is used to find the values of X(t) at different time stations t i starting from the known initial vector

where:

Sample Problems:
Example 1. Determine the response of a spring-damper system, given with the equation of motion:

Assume the initial condition as x(t = 0) = 0.

Solution:
We first find the solution of the differential equation by considering one forcing term at a time given
on the right-hand side of the equation:

The solution is:

7.5
x(t) = =5
1.5

For the cosine term, the equation to be solved is given by:

ẋ + 1.5 x = 4.5 cos t

Using the steady-state solution:

where:

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and

For the sine term, the equation to be solved is given by:

ẋ + 1.5 x = 3 sin 5t

Using the steady-state solution:

where:

and

Thus, the total particular solution is:

x(t) = 5 + 2.4961 cos (t - 0.5880) + 0.5747 sin (5t - 1.2793)

Example 2. In the study of vibrations of valves used in hydraulic control systems, the valve and its
elastic stem are modeled as a damped spring-mass system, as shown. In addition to the spring force
and damping force, there is a fluid-pressure force on the valve that changes with the amount of opening
or closing of the valve. Find the steady-state response of the valve when the pressure in the chamber
varies as indicated. Assume k = 2500 N/m, c = 10 N-s/m and m = 0.25 kg.

Solution:
The valve can be considered as a mass connected to a spring and a damper on one side and
subjected to a forcing function F(t) on the other side. The forcing function can be expressed as:

F(t) = Ap(t)

where A is the cross-sectional area of the chamber, given by:

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and p(t) is the pressure acting on the valve at any instant t. Since p(t) is periodic with period τ = 2
seconds and A is a constant, F(t) is also a periodic function of period τ = 2 seconds. The frequency of
the forcing function is F(t) can be expressed in a Fourier series as:

The Fourier coefficients and can be computed as follows:

Likewise, we can obtain a4 to a6… = b4 to b6 = 0

By considering only the first three harmonics, the forcing function can be approximated:

The steady-state response of the valve to the forcing function:

The natural frequency of the valve is given by:

and the forcing frequency ω by:

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Thus, the frequency ratio can be obtained:

and the damping ratio:

The phase angles and can be computed as follows:

Hence, the steady state solution is:

Example 3. In the vibration testing of a structure, an impact hammer with a load cell to measure the
impact force is used to cause excitation, as shown. Assuming m = 5 kg, k = 200 N/m, c = 10 N-s/m, and
F = 20 N-s, find the response of the system.

Solution:

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Assuming that the impact is given at t = 0 we find the response of the system as:

Example 4. Find the solution of ẋ + ax = F(t) when the forcing function is a unit impulse at and
determine the initial and steady-state values of the response using the Laplace transform.

Solution:
Obtaining the Laplace transform of the equation ẋ + ax = F(t)

Assuming the initial condition to be zero, x(0) = 0

Obtaining the inverse Laplace transform, gives the steady-state response of the system as:

The initial value of the response can be found from the time response, by setting t = 0, this gives:

From the solution in Laplace domain, the initial value of the response is given by the initial value
theorem:

Similarly, from the response in time domain, the steady-state value can be found by taking the limit as:

The steady-state value of the response can be determined using the final value theorem as:

Example 5. Find the solution of ẋ + ax = F(t) when the applied force is a ramp function.

Solution:
The equation of motion in this case can be written as:

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where:
d = Fb and F = 1/c
b denotes the slope of the ramp

Obtaining the Laplace transform of the equation:

Assuming the initial condition to be zero, x(0) = 0

Obtaining the inverse Laplace transform, gives the steady-state response of the system as:

Graph of a ramp function:

Example 6. A mass m, moving with velocity v 1 strikes the mass M of a damped single-degree-of-
freedom system as shown in figure (a) and gets attached to the mass M after the impact as shown in
figure (b). Find the resulting displacement response of the system.

Solution:
Use the relation:
Change in momentum = impulse

where:
m is the striking mass,
v2 is the final velocity (after impact),
v1 is the initial velocity (before impact),
f(t) is the force applied during the short duration 0 to t,
the integral denotes the impulse (same as the area under the force-time curve).

The impact force, f (t), is internal to the system and can be assumed to be zero.

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where:
Vs is the velocity of the combined system
(m + M) after impact.

The equation of motion for the combined system is given by:

The free-vibration response of the system is;

Example 7. Find the response of an overdamped single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to a step

force with the equation of motion:

Assume the initial conditions as x0 = 1 and x˙0 = 2

Solution:
By taking the Laplace transform of both sides we obtain:

Using the initial conditions as x0 = 1 and x˙0 = 2

Applying decomposition of partial fractions:

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The inverse Laplace transform is:

Example 8. Find the response of a single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to a force with the
equation of motion:

so that m = 500, c = 200, k = 750 and F(t) = F 0 = 2000. Use Runge – Kutta method. Assume initial
conditions as x(t = 0) = x0 = 0 and ẋ (t = 0) = x˙0 = 0

Solution:
The equation of motion can be expressed as a system of two first-order differential equations as shown:

and

The response is computed over the time (0, T). The time duration of T = 20 sec is divided into 400
equal time steps so that:

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VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

NAME: ___________________________ SCHEDULE: __________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________ DATE: ____________

ACTIVITY 4

Directions: Select eight (8) questions to be answered comprehensively. Make your work neat.

1. What is the basis for expressing the response of a system under periodic excitation as a
summation of several harmonic responses?

2. Indicate some methods for finding the response of a system under nonperiodic forces.

3. What is the Duhamel integral? What is its use?

4. How are the initial conditions determined for a single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to an
impulse at t = 0?

5. Derive the equation of motion of a system subjected to base excitation.

6. What are the advantages of the Laplace transform method?

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7. How is the Laplace transform of a function x(t) defined?

8. Define the terms generalized impedance and admittance of a system.

9. How many resonant conditions are there when the external force is not harmonic?

10. How do you compute the frequency of the first harmonic of a periodic force?

VII. EVALUATION (Note: To be uploaded in MS Teams)

VIII. ASSIGNMENT
NAME: ___________________________ SCHEDULE: __________
COURSE & YEAR: _________________ DATE: ____________

ASSIGNMENT 4

Direction: Answer the following problems neatly and systematically. Enclose all final answers in a box.

1. A compressed air cylinder is connected to the spring-mass system shown in figure (a). Due to a
small leak in the valve, the pressure on the piston, p(t), builds up as indicated in fig (b). Find the
response of the piston for the following data: m = 15 kg, k = 1000 N/m, and d = 0.1 m.

2. A slider-crank mechanism is used to impart motion to the base of a spring-mass-damper system, as

shown. Approximating the base motion y(t) as a series of harmonic functions, find the response of the
mass for m = 2 kg, c = 10 N-s/m, k = 150 N/m, r = 10 cm, l = 1 m, and v = 100 rad/s.

3. A camcorder of mass m is packed in a container using a flexible packing material. The stiffness
and damping constant of the packing material are given by k and c, respectively, and the mass of the
container is negligible. If the container is dropped accidentally from a height of h onto a rigid floor, find
the motion of the camcorder.

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IX. REFERENCES

A) Book/Printed Resources
Benaroya, H; Nagurka, M. & Han, S. (2017). Mechanical Vibration: Analysis, Uncertainties and
Control, 4th Edition. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.

Crandall, S.H. and Mark, W.D. (1963). Random Vibration in Mechanical Systems. Academic
Press: New York.

Meirovitch, L. (2001). Fundamentals of Vibrations. McGraw-Hill: New York.

Rao, S.S. (2011). Mechanical Vibrations, 5th Edition. Pearson Education, Inc: Lake Street, Upper
Saddle, USA.

B) e-Resources
Mechanical Vibration Playlist. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YB7PMg_FSp
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of a Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the Page 19 of 19
copy righted works included in this material may be reproduced for educational purposes
only and not for commercial distribution.
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.4:ME 7-2S-2022-2023

8&list=PLoaziftYLRQt_A2ORPpj1I1BHS3251Qe7

Mechanical Vibration – MIT Open Courseware. Retrieved from https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/

mechanical-engineering/2-003sc-engineering-dynamics-fall-2011/mechanical-vibration/

Vibration Under General Forcing Conditions. Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/document/

284813949/5-Vibration-Under-General-Forcing-Conditions.

Prepared by:

ENGR. DALE MARK N. BRISTOL

Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Dept.

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of a Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the Page 20 of 19
copy righted works included in this material may be reproduced for educational purposes
only and not for commercial distribution.