Air

Water

Soil

(a) (b) (C)

Figure 2-1 Block diagrams showing: (a) Weight/volume relationships for a soil mass; (b) volume/void relation-
ships; (c) volumes expressed in terms of weights and specific gravity.

Unit density (or mass) p. The ratio of mass per unit of volume. In the Fps system the values
are the same as unit weight following. The SI system gives units of kg/m 3 but a preferred
usage unit is g/cm3. Note that 1 g/cm3 = 1 Mg/m 3 = 1 tonne/m3. Often unit density is called
"density."
Unit weight y. The weight of a unit volume of soil (or other material) in force units. The
general expression is

r - ^ (2-4)
Commonly used units are kN/m 3 or pcf, kef. The symbol may be subscripted to identify
particular state values as y dry = Ws/Vt, etc. The unit weight can vary from a minimum at
the dry state to a maximum at the saturated (voids full of water) state for a given particle
arrangement.
Degree of saturation S. The ratio of the volume of water to the total volume of soil voids,
expressed as a percentage but used as a decimal.

S = Y^L x 100 (%) (2-5)

A "saturated" soil as obtained from beneath the groundwater table may have a computed S
of between 95 and 100 percent.
Specific gravity G. The usual definition for soil is the same as found in most elementary
physics textbooks. The unit weight of distilled water is standard at 4°C, but the usual labo-
ratory temperatures in the range of 15 to 25°C do not introduce serious errors. G is usually
subscripted to identify the quantity; for soil grains, obtain Gs as

Gs = ^ = 2L ( 2 .6)

The unit weight of water may be taken as 9.807 kN/m 3 , 62.4 pcf, or more commonly as 1
g/cm3 so that the factor yw drops out of the calculations—as long as ys is also in units of
g/cm3.

These six basic definitions in equation form are sufficient to develop any needed relationships
for geotechnical engineering problems. For example, a useful relationship between void ratio
e and porosity n can be obtained from the block diagram of Fig. 2-\b as follows:
 Let the volume of solids Vs = 1.00 (since values are symbolic anyway). This relation
gives directly that e = Vv from Eq. (2-1). Placing these values on the left side of the block
diagram (as shown) gives the total volume directly as Vt = 1 + e. Now using Eq. (2-2), we
have

and, solving Eq. (2-7) for e, we obtain

* = ^ - (2-8)
1- n
A useful expression for dry unit weight can be obtained similarly by making reference to the
block diagram of Fig. 2-Ia (right side). By inspection we have Wt = Ws + Ww (the air has
negligible weight). From Eq. (2-3) we have Ww = wWs (where w is in decimal form). Also,
dividing Ws and Wt by Vt gives the dry and wet unit weights so
Tdry + Wy dry = 7 wet
which gives

7diy (2 9)
" 1+ w

A useful relation for the void ratio in terms of S, w, and G5 is obtained by using yw = 1 g/cm3
as follows:

1. From Eq. (2-6) and referring to the block diagram of Fig. 2-Ic, obtain

and because Gw = yw = 1, the weight of water Ww (in grams) = VwyWGW = Vw (in

cubic centimeters, cm 3 ).
2. Let V, = 1.0 cm 3 , and from Eq. (2-1) obtain Vv = eVs = e.
3. From Eq. (2-5) and using S as a decimal, obtain directly
vw = svv
Substitution of Ww for Vw from step 1 and Vv from step 2 gives
Ww = Se
4. From Eq. (2-6) obtain the weight of soil solids as
Ws = VsywGs.
3
which for V5 = I cm gives Ws = Gs.
5. From Eq. (2-3) for water content and using above step 3 for Ww and step 4 for Ws, obtain
6. Solving step 5 for the void ratio e, we obtain

e = ^Gs (2-10)

and when 5 = 1 (a saturated soil), we have e = wGs.

The dry unit is often of particular interest. Let us obtain a relationship for it in terms of water
content and specific gravity of the soil solids Gs. From Fig. 2-Ic the volume of a given mass
Vt = 1 + e, and with e obtained from Eq. (2-10) we have

Also, in any system of units the weight of the soil solids is

Vfs = VsJwG8 = ywGs when V5 = I as used here
The dry unit weight is
s
— JwG8
7dry (2
~ V^ - I + ( W A ) G , "U)

and for S = 100 percent,

From Eq. (2-9) the wet unit weight is

7wet = 7dry(l + w)
_ ywGs(l + w)
I + (w/S)Gs
These derivations have been presented to illustrate the use of the basic definitions, together
with a basic block diagram on which is placed known (or assumed) values. It is recommended
that a derivation of the needed relationship is preferable to making a literature search to find
an equation that can be used.

Example 2-1. A cohesive soil specimen (from a split spoon; see Chap. 3 for method) was subjected
to laboratory tests to obtain the following data: The moisture content w = 22.5 percent; G5 = 2.60.
To determine the approximate unit weight, a sample weighing 224.0 g was placed in a 500-cm3
container with 382 cm3 of water required to fill the container. The reader should note the use of
standard laboratory units.

Required.

1. The wet unit weight, ywet

2. The dry unit weight, ydry
3. Void ratio e and porosity n
 4. Degree of saturation S
5. Dry bulk specific gravity

Solution.
Step 1. The wet unit weight is obtained from total sample weight as

* - " TT1 " ( 3 0 0 2 2 ^ ) C m ' - L898

*** (WCt
^ ^
and from Sec. 1-7 we have
ywet = 1.898 X 9.807 = 18.61 kN/m3
Step 2. The dry unit weight is obtained using Eq. (2-9):

Td^ = { | | = 15.19 kN/m3

Step 3. The void ratio e and porosity n require some volume computations as follows:

_. Ws 1.898/1.225 3 3
Vs = jr— = 9 mn m = 0.596 cm3 (orm3)
usyw 2.60(1.0)
Vv = Vt-Vs = 1.000 - 0.596 = 0.404 cm3 (using cm)

-vt- g£-*»
V 0 404
n = y = y ^ - = 0.404 (or 40.4%)

Step 4. To find the degree of saturation S it will be necessary to find the volume of water in the
voids. The weight of water Ww is the difference between the dry and wet weights; therefore,
1 OQO
Ww = 1.898 - J ^ = 0.349 g (in 1 cm3 of soil)

From Eq. (2-6) for Gw obtain Vw = Ww when using g and cm3; therefore,
V 0 ^49
5 X 10 =
=t ° O404 X 10 ° - UA%

Step 5. The dry bulk specific gravity is obtained as (dimensionless)

y^_ _ \5A9 _
°b - yw " 9.807 ^ L549

////

2-4 MAJOR FACTORS THAT AFFECT

THE ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS
Most factors that affect the engineering properties of soils involve geological processes acting
over long time periods. Among the most important are the following.
Natural Cementation and Aging
All soils undergo a natural cementation at the particle contact points. The process of aging
seems to increase the cementing effect by a variable amount. This effect was recognized
very early in cohesive soils but is now deemed of considerable importance in cohesionless
deposits as well. The effect of cementation and aging in sand is not nearly so pronounced as
for clay but still the effect as a statistical accumulation from a very large number of grain
contacts can be of significance for designing a foundation. Care must be taken to ascertain
the quantitative effects properly since sample disturbance and the small relative quantity of
grains in a laboratory sample versus site amounts may provide difficulties in making a value
measurement that is more than just an estimate. Field observations have well validated the
concept of the cementation and aging process. Loess deposits, in particular, illustrate the
beneficial effects of the cementation process where vertical banks are readily excavated.

Overconsolidation
A soil is said to be normally consolidated (nc) if the current overburden pressure (column
of soil overlying the plane of consideration) is the largest to which the mass has ever been
subjected. It has been found by experience that prior stresses on a soil element produce an
imprint or stress history that is retained by the soil structure until a new stress state exceeds
the maximum previous one. The soil is said to be overconsolidated (or preconsolidated) if
the stress history involves a stress state larger than the present overburden pressure.
Overconsolidated cohesive soils have received considerable attention. Only more recently
has it been recognized that overconsolidation may be of some importance in cohesionless
soils. A part of the problem, of course, is that it is relatively easy to ascertain overconsolidation
in cohesive soils but very difficult in cohesionless deposits. The behavior of overconsolidated
soils under new loads is different from that of normally consolidated soils, so it is important—
particularly for cohesive soils—to be able to recognize the occurrence.
The overconsolidation ratio (OCR) is defined as the ratio of the past effective pressure p'c
to the present overburden pressure p'o:

OCR = E£ (2-13)
P'o
A normally consolidated soil has OCR = 1 and an overconsolidated soil has OCR > 1.
OCR values of 1-3 are obtained for lightly overconsolidated soils. Heavily overconsolidated
soils might have OCRs > 6 to 8.
An underconsolidated soil will have OCR < 1. In this case the soil is still consolidating.
Over- or preconsolidation may be caused by a geologically deposited depth of overburden
that has since partially eroded away. Of at least equally common occurrence are preconsoli-
dation effects that result from shrinkage stresses produced by alternating wet and dry cycles.
These readily occur in arid and semiarid regions but can occur in more moderate climates as
well. Chemical actions from naturally occurring compounds may aid in producing an over-
consolidated soil deposit. Where overconsolidation occurs from shrinkage, it is common for
only the top 1 to 3 meters to be overconsolidated and the underlying material to be normally
consolidated. The OCR grades from a high value at or near the ground surface to 1 at the
normally consolidated interface.