Engineering Mechanics I

(MEM202)
Unit 5
 Work and virtual work
• Work of a Force
• A force does work when it undergoes a displacement in the
direction of its line of action. For example consider the force
F in Fig. 1a that undergoes a differential displacement dr. If ɵ
is the angle between the force and the displacement, then
the component of F in the direction of the displacement is
Fcos ɵ. And so the work produced by F is

Fig. 1
 Work and virtual work
dU = F dr cos ɵ

• This expression is also the product of the force F and the

component of displacement in the direction of the force,
drcos ɵ, Fig. 1b. If we use the definition of the dot product
the work can also be written as
dU = F·dr

• As the above equations indicate, work is a scalar, and like

other scalar quantities, it has a magnitude that can either be
positive or negative.
 Work and virtual work
• Work of a Couple Moment
• The rotation of a couple moment also produces work.
Consider the rigid body in Fig. 2, which is acted upon by the
couple forces F and –F that produce a couple moment M
having a magnitude M = Fr.

• When the body undergoes the differential displacement

shown, points A and B move drA and drB to their final
positions A’and B’, respectively. Since drB = drA + dr’, this
movement can be thought of as a translation drA, where A
and B move to A’and B”, and a rotation about A’, where the
body rotates through the angle dɵ about A.
Work and virtual work

Fig. 2
 Work and virtual work
• The couple forces do no work during the translation drA
because each force undergoes the same amount of
displacement in opposite directions, thus canceling out the
work. During rotation, however, F is displaced dr’ = r dɵ, and
so it does work dU = F dr’ = F r dɵ. Since M = Fr, the work of
the couple moment M is therefore
dU = Mdɵ
• If M and dɵ have the same sense, the work is positive;
however, if they have the opposite sense, the work will be
negative.
 Work and virtual work
• Virtual Work
• The definitions of the work of a force and a couple have been
presented in terms of actual movements expressed by
differential displacements having magnitudes of dr and dɵ.
• Now consider an imaginary or virtual movement of a body in
static equilibrium, which indicates a displacement or rotation that
is assumed and does not actually exist. These movements are
first-order differential quantities and will be denoted by the
symbols δr and δɵ respectively. The virtual work done by a force
having a virtual displacement δr is
δU = F cos ɵ δr (1)
• Similarly, when a couple undergoes a virtual rotation du in the
plane of the couple forces, the virtual work is
δU = M δɵ (2)
 Principle of virtual work
• The principle of virtual work states that if a body is in equilibrium,
then the algebraic sum of the virtual work done by all the forces
and couple moments acting on the body is zero for any virtual
displacement of the body. Thus,
δU = 0 (3)

• Consider the free-body diagram of

the particle (ball) that rests on the
floor, Fig. 3. If we “imagine” the
ball to be displaced downwards a
virtual amount δy, then the weight
does positive virtual work, W δy,
and the normal force does Fig. 3
negative virtual work, -N δy.
 Principle of virtual work
• For equilibrium the total virtual work must be zero, so that dU =
W δy - N δy = (W - N) δy = 0. Since δy ≠ 0, then N = W as required
by applying ∑Fy = 0.
• In a similar manner, we can also apply the virtual-work equation
δU = 0 to a rigid body subjected to a coplanar force system. Here,
separate virtual translations in the x and y directions, and a
virtual rotation about an axis perpendicular to the x–y plane that
passes through an arbitrary point O, will correspond to the three
equilibrium equations, ∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0, and ∑MO = 0. When
writing these equations, it is not necessary to include the work
done by the internal forces acting within the body since a rigid
body does not deform when subjected to an external loading,
and furthermore, when the body moves through a virtual
displacement, the internal forces occur in equal but opposite
collinear pairs, so that the corresponding work done by each pair
of forces will cancel.
 Principle of virtual work
• For example, consider the simply supported beam in Fig. 4a.
When the beam is given a virtual rotation δɵ about point B,
Fig. 4b, the only forces that do work are P and Ay. Since δy = l
δɵ and δy’ = (l/2) δɵ, the virtual work equation for this case
is δU = Ay(l δɵ) - P(l/2) δɵ = (Ayl – Pl/2) δɵ = 0. Since δɵ ≠ 0,
then Ay = P/2. Excluding δɵ, notice that the terms in
parentheses actually represent the application of ∑MB = 0.

Fig. 4
 Principle of virtual work
• It can be seen from the two examples, no added advantage
is gained by solving particle and rigid-body equilibrium
problems using the principle of virtual work. This is because
for each application of the virtual-work equation, the virtual
displacement, common to every term, factors out, leaving an
equation that could have been obtained in a more direct
manner by simply applying an equation of equilibrium.
 Principle of virtual work for a system of connected
rigid bodies
• The method of virtual work is particularly effective for
solving equilibrium problems that involve a system of several
connected rigid bodies, such as the ones shown in Fig. 5.
• Each of the systems in Fig. 5 is said to have only one degree
of freedom since the arrangement of the links can be
completely specified using only one coordinate u. In other
words, with this single coordinate and the length of the
members, we can locate the position of the forces F and P.

Fig. 5
 Principle of virtual work for a system of connected
rigid bodies
• Q. 1- Determine the angle ɵ for equilibrium of the two-
member linkage shown in Fig. 6a. Each member has a mass
of 10 kg.

Fig. 6
• Sol.- Free-Body Diagram- The system has only one DOF since
the location of both links can be specified by the single
coordinate, ɵ. As shown on the free-body diagram in Fig. 6 b,
when ɵ has a positive (clockwise) virtual rotation δɵ, only
the force F and the two 98.1-N weights do work.
 Principle of virtual work for a system of connected
rigid bodies

Fig. 6

• Virtual Displacements- If the origin of coordinates is

established at the fixed pin support D, then the position of F
and W can be specified by the position coordinates xB and
yw. In order to determine the work, as required, these
coordinates are parallel to the lines of action of their
associated forces. Expressing these position coordinates in
terms of ɵ and taking the derivatives yields
 Principle of virtual work for a system of connected
rigid bodies

• It is seen by the signs of these equations, and indicated in

Fig. 6b, that an increase in ɵ (i.e., δɵ) causes a decrease in xB
and an increase in yw.

• Virtual-Work Equation- If the virtual displacements δxB and

δyw were both positive, then the forces W and F would do
positive work since the forces and their corresponding
displacements would have the same sense. Hence, the
virtual-work equation for the displacement δɵ is
 Principle of virtual work for a system of connected
rigid bodies
• Substituting Eqs. 1 & 2 into Eq. 3 to relate the virtual
displacements to the common virtual displacement δɵ

• Note that the “negative work” done by F (force in the

opposite sense to displacement) has actually been
accounted for in the above equation by the “negative sign”
of Eq. 1. Factoring out the common displacement δɵ and
solving for ɵ, noting that δɵ ≠ 0

Ans.
 Principle of virtual work for a system of connected
rigid bodies
• Q. 2- Determine the required force P in Fig. 7a needed to
maintain equilibrium of the scissors linkage when ɵ = 60°.
The spring is unscratched when ɵ = 30°. Neglect the mass of
the links.

Fig. 7
 Principle of virtual work for a system of connected
rigid bodies
• Sol.- Free body diagram- Only Fs and P do work when ɵ
undergoes a positive virtual displacement δɵ, Fig. 7b. For the
arbitrary position ɵ, the spring is stretched (0.3 m) sin ɵ -
(0.3 m) sin 30, so that

• Virtual Displacements- The position

coordinates, xB and xD, measured from
the fixed point A, are used to locate Fs
and P. These coordinates are parallel
to the line of action of their
corresponding forces. Expressing xB
and xD in terms of the angle ɵ using
trigonometry Fig. 7
 Principle of virtual work for a system of connected
rigid bodies

• Differentiating, we obtain the virtual displacements of points

B and D.

• Virtual-Work Equation- Force P does positive work since it

acts in the positive sense of its virtual displacement. The
spring force Fs does negative work since it acts opposite to
its positive virtual displacement. Thus, the virtual-work
equation becomes
Principle of virtual work for a system of connected
rigid bodies

Ans
 Potential energy
• A conservative force can give the body the capacity to do
work. This capacity, measured as potential energy, depends
on the location or “position” of the body measured relative
to a fixed reference position or datum.

• Gravitational Potential Energy

• If a body is located a distance y above a fixed horizontal
reference or datum as in Fig. 8, the weight of the body has
positive gravitational potential energy Vg since W has the
capacity of doing positive work when the body is moved
back down to the datum. Likewise, if the body is located a
distance y below the datum, Vg is negative since the weight
does negative work when the body is moved back up to the
datum. At the datum, Vg = 0.
 Potential energy
• Measuring y as positive upward, the gravitational potential
energy of the body’s weight W is therefore
Vg = Wy (4)

Fig. 8
 Potential energy
• Elastic Potential Energy
• When a spring is either elongated or compressed by an
amount s from its unscratched position (the datum), the
energy stored in the spring is called elastic potential energy.
It is determined from
Ve = 0.5 ks2 (5)
• This energy is always a positive quantity since the spring
force acting on the attached body does positive work on the
body as the force returns the body to the spring’s
unscratched position, Fig. 9.
Potential energy

Fig. 9
 Potential energy
• Potential Function
• In the general case, if a body is subjected to both
gravitational and elastic forces, the potential energy or
potential function V of the body can be expressed as the
algebraic sum
V = Vg + Ve (6)
where measurement of V depends on the location of the
body with respect to a selected datum in accordance with
Eqs. 4 and 5.
• In particular, if a system of frictionless connected rigid
bodies has a single degree of freedom, such that its vertical
distance from the datum is defined by the coordinate q, then
the potential function for the system can be expressed as V =
V(q).
 Potential energy
• The work done by all the weight and spring forces acting on
the system in moving it from q1 to q2, is measured by the
difference in V; i.e.,
U1-2 = V(q1) - V(q2) (7)
• For example, the potential function for a system consisting
of a block of weight W supported by a spring, as in Fig. 10a,
can be expressed in terms of the coordinate (q = ) y,
measured from a fixed datum located at the unscratched
length of the spring. Here
V = Vg + Ve
= -Wy + 0.5 ky2 (8)
• If the block moves from y1 to y2, then applying Eq. 7 the
work of W and Fs is
Potential energy

Fig. 10
 Potential energy
• Potential-Energy Criterion for Equilibrium
• If a frictionless connected system has one degree of
freedom, and its position is defined by the coordinate q,
then if it displaces from q to q + dq, Eq. 7 becomes
dU = V(q) - V(q + dq)
or dU = -dV

• If the system is in equilibrium and undergoes a virtual

displacement δq, rather than an actual displacement dq,
then the above equation becomes δU = -δV. However, the
principle of virtual work requires that δU = 0, and therefore,
δV = 0, and so we can write δV = (dV/dq) δq = 0. Since δq ≠
0, this expression becomes
 Potential energy

(9)

• Hence, when a frictionless connected system of rigid bodies

is in equilibrium, the first derivative of its potential function
is zero. For example, using Eq. 8 we can determine the
equilibrium position for the spring and block in Fig. 10a. We
have

• Hence, the equilibrium position y = yeq is

• This same result can be obtained by applying Fy = 0 to the

forces acting on the free-body diagram of the block, Fig. 10b.
 Stability of equilibrium configuration
• The potential function V of a system can also be used to
investigate the stability of the equilibrium configuration,
which is classified as stable, neutral, or unstable.

• Stable Equilibrium
• A system is said to be in stable equilibrium if a system has a
tendency to return to its original position when a small
displacement is given to the system. The potential energy of
the system in this case is at its minimum.
• For example, as shown in Fig. 11a, when the disk is given a
small displacement, its center of gravity G will always move
(rotate) back to its equilibrium position, which is at the
lowest point of its path. This is where the potential energy of
the disk is at its minimum.
 Stability of equilibrium configuration
• Neutral Equilibrium
• A system is said to be in neutral equilibrium if the system still
remains in equilibrium when the system is given a small
displacement away from its original position. In this case, the
potential energy of the system is constant. As shown in Fig.
11b, where a disk is pinned at G. Each time the disk is rotated,
a new equilibrium position is established and the potential
energy remains unchanged.

Fig. 11
 Stability of equilibrium configuration
• Unstable Equilibrium
• A system is said to be in unstable equilibrium if it has a
tendency to be displaced farther away from its original
equilibrium position when it is given a small displacement.
The potential energy of the system in this case is a
maximum. An unstable equilibrium position of the disk is
shown in Fig. 11c. Here the disk will rotate away from its
equilibrium position when its center of gravity is slightly
displaced. At this highest point, its potential energy is at a
maximum.
 Stability of equilibrium configuration
• One-Degree-of-Freedom System
• If a system has only one degree of freedom, and its position
is defined by the coordinate q, then the potential function V
for the system in terms of q can be plotted, Fig. 12.

Fig. 12
 Stability of equilibrium configuration
• Provided the system is in equilibrium, then dV/dq, which
represents the slope of this function, must be equal to zero.
An investigation of stability at the equilibrium configuration
therefore requires that the second derivative of the potential
function be evaluated.
• If d2V/dq2 is greater than zero, Fig. 12a, the potential energy
of the system will be a minimum. This indicates that the
equilibrium configuration is stable. Thus,

• If d2V/dq2 is less than zero, Fig. 12b, the potential energy of

the system will be a maximum. This indicates an unstable
equilibrium configuration. Thus,
 Stability of equilibrium configuration

• Finally, if d2V/dq2 is equal to zero, it will be necessary to

investigate the higher order derivatives to determine the
stability. The equilibrium configuration will be stable if the first
non-zero derivative is of an even order and it is positive.
Likewise, the equilibrium will be unstable if this first non-zero
derivative is odd or if it is even and negative. If all the higher
order derivatives are zero, the system is said to be in neutral
equilibrium, Fig. 12c. Thus,

• This condition occurs only if the potential-energy function for

the system is constant at or around the neighborhood of qeq.
 Stability of equilibrium configuration
• Q. 3- The uniform link shown in Fig. 13a has a mass of 10 kg. If
the spring is unscratched when ɵ = 0°, determine the angle ɵ
for equilibrium and investigate the stability at the equilibrium
position.
• Sol- Potential Function-
• The datum is established at the bottom
of the link, Fig. 13b. When the link is
located in the arbitrary position u, the
spring increases its potential energy by
stretching and the weight decreases its
potential energy. Hence,

Fig. 13
 Stability of equilibrium configuration

• Equilibrium Position- The first derivative of V is

or
• This equation is satisfied provided
Ans
or

Ans
 Stability of equilibrium configuration
• Stability- The second derivative of V is

• By putting values for the constants,

with ɵ = 0° and ɵ = 53.8°

Ans
Fig. 13

Ans
 Stability of equilibrium configuration
• Q. 4- The uniform block having a mass m rests on the top
surface of the half cylinder, Fig. 14a. Show that this is a
condi4567tion of unstable equilibrium if h > 2R.
• Sol- Potential Function-
• The datum is established at the
base of the cylinder, Fig. 14b. If
the block is displaced by an
amount ɵ from the equilibrium
position, the potential function is

• From Fig. 14b Fig. 14

 Stability of equilibrium configuration

Thus

• Equilibrium Position-

the ɵ = 0° satisfies this equation.

 Stability of equilibrium configuration
• Stability- Taking the second derivative of V

• Since all the constants are positive, the block is in unstable

equilibrium provided h > 2R, because then d2V/dq2 < 0.
 Area moments of inertia
• Whenever a distributed load acts perpendicular to an area and
its intensity varies linearly, the calculation of the moment of
the loading about an axis will involve an integral of the form
∫y2dA.

Fig. 15
 Area moments of inertia
• For example, consider the plate in Fig. 15, which is submerged
in a fluid and subjected to the pressure p. This pressure varies
linearly with depth, such that p = γy, where γ is the specific
weight of the fluid. Thus, the force acting on the differential
area dA of the plate is dF = pdA = (γy)dA. The moment of this
force about the x axis is therefore dM = ydF = γy2dA, and so
integrating dM over the entire area of the plate yields M =
γ∫y2dA. The integral ∫y2dA is sometimes referred to as the
“second moment” of the area about an axis (the x axis), but
more often it is called the moment of inertia of the area.
 Area moments of inertia
• The word “inertia” is used here since the formulation is similar
to the mass moment of inertia, ∫y2dm, which is a dynamical
property.

Fig. 15
 Area moments of inertia
• Moment of Inertia
• By definition, the moments of inertia of a differential area dA
about the x and y axes are dIx = y2dA and dIy = x2dA,
respectively, Fig. 16. For the entire area A the moments of
inertia are determined by integration; i.e.

Fig. 16
 Area moments of inertia

(10)

• We can also formulate this quantity for dA about the “pole” O

or z axis, Fig. 16. This is referred to as the polar moment of
inertia. It is defined as dJO = r2dA, where r is the perpendicular
distance from the pole (z axis) to the element dA. For the
entire area the polar moment of inertia is

(11)
 Area moments of inertia
• The relation between JO and Ix, Iy is possible since r2 = x2 + y2,
Fig. 16.
• From the above formulations it is seen that Ix, Iy, and JO will
always be positive since they involve the product of distance
squared and area. Furthermore, the units for moment of
inertia involve length raised to the fourth power, e.g., m4,
mm4, or ft4, in.4.
 Parallel-Axis Theorem for an Area
• The parallel-axis theorem can be used to find the moment of
inertia of an area about any axis that is parallel to an axis
passing through the centroid and about which the moment of
inertia is known.

Fig. 17
 Parallel-Axis Theorem for an Area
• Consider finding the moment of inertia of the shaded area
shown in Fig. 17 about the x’ axis. Choose a differential
element dA located at an arbitrary distance y’ from the
centroidal x’ axis. If the distance between the parallel x and x’
axis is dy, then the moment of inertia of dA about the x axis is
dIx = (y’ + dy)2 dA. For the entire area,
 Parallel-Axis Theorem for an Area
• The first integral represents the moment of inertia of the area
about the centroidal axis, Īx’. The second integral is zero since
the x’axis passes through the area’s centroid C; i.e., ∫y’dA =
ȳ’∫dA = 0 since ȳ’ = 0. Since the third integral represents the
total area A, the final result is
(12)
• Similarly, for Iy
(13)
• And finally, for the polar moment of inertia, since = Īx’ + Īy’
and d2 = dx2 + dy2
(14)
 Parallel-Axis Theorem for an Area
• The form of each of these three equations states that the
moment of inertia for an area about an axis is equal to its
moment of inertia about a parallel axis passing through the
area’s centroid plus the product of the area and the square of
the perpendicular distance between the axes.
 MI & Radius of gyration
• The radius of gyration of an area about an axis has units of
length and is a quantity that is often used for the design of
columns in structural mechanics. Provided the areas and
moments of inertia are known, the radii of gyration are
determined from the formulas

(15)
 MI & Radius of gyration
• In simple words, the radius of gyration is the distance from an
axis of a body to the point in the body whose MI is equal to the
MI of the entire body.
 MI & Radius of gyration
• Q. 5- Determine the moment of inertia for the rectangular area
shown in Fig. 18 with respect to (a) the centroidal x’ axis, (b)
the axis xb passing through the base of the rectangle, and (c)
the pole or z’ axis perpendicular to the x’-y’ plane and passing
through the centroid C.
• Sol.- (a) The differential element
shown in Fig. 18 is chosen for
integration. Because of its location
and orientation, the entire element
is at a distance y’ from the x’ axis.
Here it is necessary to integrate
from y’ = -h/2 to y’= h/2. Since dA =
b dy’, then
Fig. 18
 MI & Radius of gyration

Ans
• (b) The moment of inertia about an axis passing through the
base of the rectangle can be obtained by using the above
result of part (a) and applying the parallel-axis theorem (eq.
12).

Ans
 MI & Radius of gyration
• (c) To obtain the polar moment of inertia about point C, first
obtain Īy’, which may be found by interchanging the
dimensions b and h in the result of part (a), i.e.,

• Using Eq. 11, the polar moment of inertia about C is therefore

Ans
 MI & Radius of gyration
• Q. 6- Determine the moment of inertia with respect to the x
axis for the circular area shown in Fig. 19a and 19b.

Fig. 19
 MI & Radius of gyration
• Sol. (a)- Using the differential element shown in Fig. 19a, since
dA = 2x dy

Ans

Fig. 19
 MI & Radius of gyration
• (b)- For Fig. 19b, the centroid for the element happens to lie
on the x axis, and since Īx’ = (1/12) bh3 for a rectangle

• By integrating with respect to x

Ans

Fig. 19
 MI & Radius of gyration
• Q. - Determine the moment of inertia of the area about the x
axis.
 MI & Radius of gyration
• Sol. – The area of the differential element in Fig. a is
dA = (2-x) dy
as x = (4y)1/3, dA = [2-(4y)1/3] dy
 MI & Radius of gyration
• Q. - Determine the moment of inertia of the area about the y
axis.
 MI & Radius of gyration
• Sol. – The area of the differential element in Fig. a is
dA = ydx = (2x)1/2 dx
 MI & Radius of gyration
• Q. - Determine the moment of inertia of the triangular area
about the x axis.
 MI & Radius of gyration
• Sol. – Area of the differential element (shaded) dA = xdy,
where x = b-(b/h)y, so dA = xdy = [b-(b/h)]dy
 MI & Radius of gyration
• Q. - Determine the moment of inertia of the area about the x
axis.
 MI & Radius of gyration
• Sol. – Area of the differential element (shaded) dA = (rdƟ)dr,
where x = b-(b/h)y, so dA = xdy = [b-(b/h)]dy
MI & Radius of gyration
MI & Radius of gyration
 MI for Composite Areas
• A composite area consists of a series of connected
“simpler” parts or shapes, such as rectangles, triangles,
and circles.
• Provided the moment of inertia of each of these parts is
known or can be determined about a common axis, then
the moment of inertia for the composite area about this
axis equals the algebraic sum of the moments of inertia of
all its parts.
 MI for Composite Areas
• Q.- Determine the moment of inertia of the area shown in
Fig. a about the x axis.
 MI for Composite Areas
• Sol.- In Fig. b, for circular area  4
I x'  r
4
for rectangular area ' bh 3
I 
x
12
 MI for Composite Areas
• From parallel axis theorem
for circular area

for rectangular area

So, final MI of the area = [112.5 – 11.4] 106

= 101.1x 106 mm4
 MI for Composite Areas
• Q.- Determine the moment of inertia of the beam’s cross-
sectional area about the y axis.
 MI for Composite Areas
• Sol.-
 MI for Composite Areas
• Q.- Determine the moment of inertia of the composite
area about the x axis.
 MI for Composite Areas
• Sol.-

= 798x 106 mm4

 MI for Composite Areas
• Q.- Determine the distance y to the centroid of the
beam’s cross-sectional area; then find the moment of
inertia about the x’ axis.
 MI for Composite Areas
• Sol.- Centroid-
 MI for Composite Areas
• MI-
 MI for Composite Areas
• Q.- Determine the moment of inertia of the beam’s cross-
sectional area about the axis.
 MI for Composite Areas
• Sol.-
 MI for Composite Areas
• Q.- Determine the moment of inertia of the composite
area about the centroidal axis.
 MI for Composite Areas
• Sol.-
 MI for Composite Areas
• Sol.-

= 914x 106 mm4

 MI for Composite Areas
• DAH1 – Determine the distance y to the centroid of the
beam’s cross-sectional area; then determine the moment
of inertia about the x’ axis.
• Ans-
1. 22.5 mm
2. 34.4x 106 mm4
 MI for Composite Areas
• DAH2 – Determine the moment of inertia Ix’ of the
section. The origin of coordinates is at the centroid C.
• Ans- 124x 106 mm4