Week 15

Oscillations and S.H.M

Dr Sohail Amjad
 Outline

Oscialltions
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
Angular Velocity and angular acceleration,
Rotation with constant angular acceleration
Relating linear and Angular kinematics
Energy in Rotational Motion

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Oscillations

x is the displacement of the body from

equilibrium and is also the change in the
length of the spring.
The x-component of the force that the
spring exerts on the body is and the
x-component of acceleration is given by
ax = Fx /m
Whenever the body is displaced from its
equilibrium position, the spring force tends
to restore it to the equilibrium position.
We call a force with this character a
restoring force

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 Oscillations

If we displace the body to the right to x = A and then let go, the
net force and the acceleration are to the left.

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 Oscillations

The speed increases as the body approaches the equilibrium position

O.
When the body is at O, the net force acting on it is zero.

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 Oscillations

Because of its motion it overshoots the equilibrium position.

On the other side of the equilibrium position the body is still moving
to the left, but the net force and the acceleration are to the right.
Hence the speed decreases until the body comes to a stop. With an
ideal spring, the stopping point is at x = −A.

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 Oscillations

The body then accelerates to the right, overshoots equilibrium

again, and stops at the starting point ready to repeat the whole
process. The body is oscillating!
If there is no friction or other force to remove mechanical energy
from the system, this motion repeats forever; the restoring force
perpetually draws the body back toward the equilibrium position,
only to have the body overshoot time after time.
In different situations the force may depend on the displacement x
from equilibrium in different ways.
But oscillation always occurs if the force is a restoring force that
tends to return the system to equilibrium.

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 Oscillations
Amplitude: The amplitude of the motion, denoted by A, is the
maximum magnitude of displacement from equilibrium–that is, the
maximum value of |x|. It is always positive. . The SI unit of A is the
meter.
cycle: A complete vibration, or cycle, is one complete round trip.
Note that motion from one side to the other is a half − cycle, not a
whole cycle.
Period: The period, T , is the time for one cycle. It is always
positive. The SI unit is the second, but it is sometimes expressed as
“seconds per cycle.”
Frequency: The f requency, is the number of cycles in a unit of
time. It is always positive. The SI unit of frequency is the hertz
(Hz).
Angular Frequency: The angular frequency, is times the frequency:
ω = 2πf
1 2π
f= =⇒ ω =
T T
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Simple Harmonic Motion

x always have opposite signs. The

x-component of force the spring exerts on
the body is the negative of this, so the
x-component of force on the body is
Fx = −kx.
When the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement from
equilibrium, the oscillation is called simple
harmonic motion, abbreviated SHM .
The acceleration a of a body in SHM is
given by

d2 x k
a= =− x
dt2 m
A body that undergoes simple harmonic
motion is called a harmonic oscillator.

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 Simple Harmonic Motion

Why is simple harmonic motion important? Keep in mind that not

all periodic motions are simple harmonic; in periodic motion in
general, the restoring force depends on displacement in a more
complicated way.
But in many systems the restoring force is approximately
proportional to displacement if the displacement is sufficiently small.
That is, if the amplitude is small enough, the oscillations of such
systems are approximately simple harmonic and therefore
approximately described by our equations above.
Thus we can use SHM as an approximate model for many different
periodic motions, such as the vibration of the quartz crystal in a
watch, the motion of a tuning fork, the electric current in an
alternating-current circuit, and the oscillations of atoms in molecules
and solids.

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Simple Harmonic Motion

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Circular Motion and the Equations of SHM

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 Circular Motion and the Equations of SHM

Top view of a horizontal disk of radius A with a ball attached to its

rim at point Q. The disk rotates with constant angular speed ω so
the ball moves in uniform circular motion.
A horizontal light beam shines on the rotating disk and casts a
shadow of the ball on a screen.
The shadow at point P oscillates back and forth as the ball moves in
a circle.
We then arrange a body attached to an ideal spring, that oscillates
parallel to the shadow.
We will prove that the motion of the body and the motion of the
ball’s shadow are identical if the amplitude of the body’s oscillation
is equal to the disk radius A,
and if the angular frequency 2πf of the oscillating body is equal to
the angular speed ω of the rotating disk.
That is, simple harmonic motion is the projection of uniform circular
motion onto a diameter.
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Circular Motion and the Equations of SHM

At time t the vector OQ from the origin to

the reference point Q makes an angle θ
with the positive x-axis.
As the point Q moves around the
reference circle with constant angular
speed the vector OQ rotates with the
same angular speed. Such a rotating
vector is called a phasor.
The x-component of the phasor at time t
is just the x-coordinate of the point Q:
x = Acosθ.

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Circular Motion and the Equations of SHM
This is also the x-coordinate of the
shadow P , which is the projection of Q
onto the x-axis.
The x-velocity of the shadow P along the
x-axis is equal to the x-component of the
velocity vector of point Q
The x-acceleration of P is equal to the
x-component of the acceleration vector of
Q.
Since point Q is in uniform circular
motion, its acceleration vector ⃗aQ is
always directed toward O.
The magnitude ⃗aQ of is constant and
given by (See next slide):

aQ = ω 2 A

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Relating Linear and Rotational Kinematics

The tangential component of

acceleration atan , the component
parallel to the instantaneous velocity,
acts to change the magnitude of the
particle’s velocity (i.e., the speed) and
is equal to the rate of change of speed.
Differenting v = rω w.r.t time,
dω
atan = r
dt
The quantity dω
dt is the rate of change
of angular speed.
For the radial acceleration:
v2
arad = = ω2 r
r

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Circular Motion and the Equations of SHM
The x-component of is ax = −aq cosθ.
Combining this with above:

ax = −aQ cosθ = −ω 2 Acosθ

k
ax = −ω 2 x [a = − x]
m
The acceleration of point P is directly
proportional to the displacement x and
always has the opposite sign. These are
precisely the hallmarks of simple harmonic
motion.
Equations are same if the angular speed is:
r
2 k k
ω = or ω =
m m

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Circular Motion and the Equations of SHM

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 Period and Amplitude in SHM

Above equations show that the period and frequency of simple

harmonic motion are completely determined by the mass m and the
force constant k.
In simple harmonic motion the period and frequency do not depend
on the amplitude A. For given values of m and k, the time of one
complete oscillation is the same whether the amplitude is large or
small.
Equation Fx = −kX shows why we should expect this.
Larger A means that the body reaches larger values of |x| and is
subjected to larger restoring forces.
This increases the average speed of the body over a complete cycle;
this exactly compensates for having to travel a larger distance, so
the same total time is involved.

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 Period and Amplitude in SHM

The oscillations of a tuning fork are essentially simple harmonic

motion, which means that it always vibrates with the same
frequency, independent of amplitude.
This is why a tuning fork can be used as a standard for musical pitch.
If it were not for this characteristic of simple harmonic motion, it
would be impossible to make familiar types of mechanical and
electronic clocks run accurately or to play most musical instruments
in tune.
If you encounter an oscillating body with a period that does depend
on the amplitude, the oscillation is not simple harmonic motion.

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Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration in SHM

To find the displacement x as a function of time for a harmonic

oscillator:
2
k
a = ddt2x = − m x for S.H.O is identical to ax = −ω 2 x for the
x-coordinate of the referenceppoint in uniform circular motion with
constant angular speed ω = k/m.
x = Acosθ describes the x-coordinate for both of these situations.
If at the phasor OQ makes an angle ϕ with the positive x-axis, then
at any later time t this angle is ωt + ϕ. We get:
p
x = Acos(ωt + ϕ) ω = k/m

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Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration in SHM

Graph of above eq for the particular case cosϕ = 0

The displacement x is a periodic function of time, as expected for
SHM.
We could also have written above eq in terms of a sine function
rather than a cosine by using the identity cosα = sin(α + π/2)
In simple harmonic motion the position is a periodic, sinusoidal
function of time.
The value of the cosine function is always between −1 and 1. so x is
always between −A and A.

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Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration in SHM

The period T is the time for one complete cycle of oscillation.

The cosine function repeats itself whenever (ωt + ϕ) increases by 2π
radians. Thus, if we start at time the time T to complete one cycle
is given by:
r r
k m
ωT = T = 2π or T = 2π
m k

Changing either m or k changes the period of oscillation. The

period does not depend on the amplitude A.

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A marksman holds a rifle of mass mR = 3.00kg loosely, so it can recoil
freely. He fires a bullet of mass mB = 5g with a velocity relative to the
ground of vBx = 300m/s. What is the recoil velocity vRx of the rifle?
What are the final momentum and kinetic energy of the bullet and rifle?

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Angular Displacement

A rigid body rotates about a fixed axis –

an axis that is at rest in some inertial
frame of reference and does not change
direction relative to that frame.
The axis passes through point O and is
perpendicular to the plane of the diagram
(xy−plane).
Instead of x− and y− coordinates of the
point P to specify the rotational position
of the body, we see that line OP is fixed
and rotates with the body.
The angle θ gives the rotational position
of the body; we will use this single
quantity θ as a coordinate for rotation.

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 Angular Displacement

The anle θ can be positive (anticlockwise) or

negative (clockwise).
Instead of usual degree, we measure θ is in
radians (Fixed for our studies).
One radian (1 rad) is the angle subtended at the
center of a circle by an arc with a length equal to
the radius of the circle.
If angle θ is subtended by an arc of length s on a
circle of radius r.
s
θ=
r
The circumference of a circle is 2π times the
s = rθ radius r, so there are 2π radians in one complete
revolution
180◦ = π radian
π 360◦
90◦ = radian 1 rad = = 57.3◦
2 2π
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Angular Velocity
Reference line OP in a rotating body makes
an angle θ1 with the +x-axis at time t1 . At a
later time t2 the angle has changed to θ2 .
The average angular velocity ωav of the body
in the time interval ∆t = t2 − t1 is the ratio of
the angular displacement ∆θ = θ2 − θ1 to ∆t:
θ2 − θ1 ∆θ
ωav = =
t2 − t1 ∆t
The instantaneous angular velocity ω:
∆θ dθ
ω = lim =
∆θ→0 ∆t dt
The unit of ω is radian per second (rad/s).
Revolution per minute (rev/min or rpm).
1 rev = 2π rad =⇒ 1 rpm = 2π 60 rad/s

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Angular Velocity
Different points on a rotating rigid body move
different distances in a given time interval,
depending on how far each point lies from the
rotation axis.
But because the body is rigid, all points rotate
through the same angle in the same time.
Hence at any instant, every part of a rotating
rigid body has the same angular velocity.
The unit of ω is radian per second (rad/s).
Also, revolution per minute (rev/min or rpm)
is a commonly used unit.
2π
1 rev = 2π rad =⇒ 1 rpm = rad/s
60
This means there are about 10 rpm in 1
rad/s.

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 Angular Velocity - Problem

The angular position θ of a 0.36-m-diameter flywheel is given by

θ = (3.0 rad/s2 )t2

(a)Find θ, in radians and in degrees, at t1 = 3.0s and t2 = 6.0s.

(b) Find the distance that a particle on the flywheel rim moves over the
time interval from t1 = 3.0s to t2 = 6.0s.
(c) Find the average angular velocity, in rad/s and in rev/min, over
that interval.
(d) Find the instantaneous angular velocities at t1 = 3.0s and t2 = 6.0s.

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 Angular Velocity - Vector

Just as vx is the x-component of the velocity vector ⃗v , ωz is the

z-component of an angular velocity vector ω
⃗ directed along the axis of
rotation.

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Angular Acceleration

When the angular velocity of a rigid body

changes, it has an angular acceleration.
If ω1 is the angular velocity at t1 and ω2 at
t2 , the average angular acceleration αav over
the interval ∆t = t2 − t1 is:
ω2 − ω1 ∆ω
αav = =
t2 − t1 ∆t
The instantaneous angular acceleration α:
∆ω dω
α = lim =
∆ω→0 ∆t dt
dω d dθ d2 θ
α= = = 2
dt dt dt dt
The unit of α is radian per second per second
(rad/s2 ).
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Angular Acceleration

Angular Acceleration is also a vector.

Mathematically, α⃗ is the time derivative of
the angular velocity vector ω
⃗
If the object rotates around the fixed z-axis,
then α⃗ has only a z-component; the quantity
αz is just that component.
In this case, α
⃗ is in the same direction as ω
⃗ if
the rotation is speeding up and opposite to ω ⃗
if the rotation is slowing down.

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 Angular Acceleration

When is the rotation speeding up?

When is the rotation slowing down?

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 Angular Velocity - Problem

The angular position θ of a 0.36-m-diameter flywheel is given by

θ = (3.0 rad/s2 )t2

(a) find the average angular acceleration between t1 = 3.0s and

t2 = 6.0s.
(b) Find the instantaneous angular accelerations at t1 = 3.0s and
t2 = 6.0s.

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 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration

Let ω0 and ω be the angular velocity of a rigid body at time t = 0

and time t, resp.
The angular acceleration α is constant and equal to the average
value for any interval
ω − ω0
α=
t−0
=⇒ ω = ω0 + αt

This is analogous to vf = vi + at of linear motion.

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 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration

The angular velocity omegaav can be defined in two ways:

ω + ω0 θ − θ0 1
ωav = , ωav = , =⇒ θ − θ0 = (ω0 + ω)t
2 t−0 2
Replacing ω by ω0 + αt and assuming θ0 = 0, we get
1
=⇒ θ = ω0 t + αt2
2

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 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration

Derive the following result:

ω 2 − ω02 = 2α(θ − θ0 )

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Rotation vs Linear Motion with Constant Angular
Acceleration

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 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration
Angular velocity of a rotating disc, at t = 0 is 27.5 rad/s, and its angular
acceleration is a constant −10.0 rad/s2 . A line P Q on the disc,s
surface lies along the +x-axis at t = 0
(a) Is the disc speeding up or slowing down?
(b) What is the disc’s angular velocity at t = 0.500s?
(c) What angle does the line PQ make with the +x-axis at this time?

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Relating Linear and Rotational Kinematics

P is a constant distance r from the

axis of rotation, so it moves in a circle
of radius r.
The angle θ (in radians) and the arc
length s are related by

s = rθ

Taking the time derivative:

ds dθ
=r
dt dt
ds dθ
dt is the linear velocity, while dt is the
angular velocity:

=⇒ v = rω

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Relating Linear and Rotational Kinematics

The tangential component of

acceleration atan , the component
parallel to the instantaneous velocity,
acts to change the magnitude of the
particle’s velocity (i.e., the speed) and
is equal to the rate of change of speed.
Differenting v = rω w.r.t time,
dω
atan = r
dt
The quantity dω
dt is the rate of change
of angular speed.
For the radial acceleration:
v2
arad = = ω2 r
r

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Relating Linear and Rotational Kinematics - Problem

An athlete whirls a discus in a circle of radius 80.0cm. At a certain

instant, the athlete is rotating at 10.0 rad/s and the angular speed is
increasing at 50.0rad/s2 . At this instant, find the tangential and
centripetal components of the acceleration of the discus and the
magnitude of the acceleration.

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Relating Linear and Rotational Kinematics - Problem

You are designing an airplane propeller that is to turn at 2400 rpm. The
forward airspeed of the plane is to be 75.0 m/s, and the speed of the tips
of the propeller blades through the air must not exceed 270 m/s.
(a) What is the maximum possible propeller radius?
(b) With this radius, what is the acceleration of the propeller tip?

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 Energy in Rotational Motion

Think of a body as being made up of a large number of particles,

with masses m1 , m2 , ..., at distances r1 , r2 , ... from the axis of
rotation.
Label the particles with the index i: The mass of the i−th particle is
mi and its distance from the axis of rotation is ri .
The particles don?t necessarily all lie in the same plane, so we
specify that ri is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the
i−th particle.
When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, the speed vi of the
i−th particle is given by vi = ri ω, where ω is the body’s angular
speed.
Different particles have different values of r, but ω is the same for
all (otherwise, the body wouldn’t be rigid).

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Energy in Rotational Motion - Moment of Inertia
The kinetic energy of the i−th particle can be expressed as
1 1
mi vi2 = mi ri2 ω 2
2 2
The total kinetic energy of the body is the sum of the kinetic
energies of all its particles:
1 1 X1
K = m1 r12 ω 2 + m2 r22 ω 2 + ... = mi ri2 ω 2
2 2 i
2

Taking the common factor ω 2 /2out of this expression, we get:

1 1 X
K = (m1 r12 + m2 r22 + ...)ω 2 = = ( mi ri2 )ω 2
2 2 i
The quantity in parentheses, obtained by multiplying the mass of
each particle by the square of its distance from the axis of rotation
and adding these products, is denoted by I and is called the
moment of inertia
X 1
I = m1 r12 + m2 r22 + ... = mi ri2 =⇒ K = Iω 2
i
2
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Energy in Rotational Motion - Moment of Inertia

The kinetic energy is simply the sum of the

kinetic energies of the individual particles
that make up the rotating rigid body.
ω must be measured in radians per
second, not revolutions or degrees per
second, to give K in joules.
Greater the moment of inertia, the greater
the kinetic energy of a rigid body rotating
with a given angular speed ω.
Greater a body’s moment of inertia, the
harder it is to start the body rotating if it’s
at rest and the harder it is to stop its
rotation if it’s already rotating. For this
reason, I is also called the rotational
inertia.

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 Energy in Rotational Motion - Moment of Inertia

A machine part consists of three disks linked by light- weight struts.

(a) What is this body’s moment of inertia about an axis through the
centre of disk A, perpendicular to the plane of the diagram?
(b) What is its moment of inertia about an axis through the centres of
disks B and C?
(c) What is the body’s kinetic energy if it rotates about the axis through
A with angular speed ω = 4.0 rad/s?

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 Energy in Rotational Motion - Moment of Inertia
(a) What is this body’s moment of inertia about an axis through the
centre of disk A, perpendicular to the plane of the diagram?
(b) What is its moment of inertia about an axis through the centres of
disks B and C?
(c) What is the body’s kinetic energy if it rotates about the axis through
A with angular speed ω = 4.0 rad/s?

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Energy in Rotational Motion - Moment of Inertia

Moment of inertia depends on the choice of axis

The results of parts (a) and (b) show that the moment of inertia of
a body depends on the location and orientation of the axis.
It’s not enough to just say, “The moment of inertia of this body is
0.048 kg.m2 ".
We have to be specific and say, “The moment of inertia of this body
about the axis through B and C is 0.048 kg.m2 ".

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Energy in Rotational Motion - Moment of Inertia

When the body is a continuous distribution of matter, such as a

solid cylinder or plate, the sum becomes an integral, and we need to
use calculus to calculate the moment of inertia.
Next slide shows moments of inertia for several familiar shapes in
terms of their masses and dimensions.
Each body shown is unif orm; that is, the density has the same
value at all points within the solid parts of the body.

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 Moment of Inertia - Problem

We wrap a light, non-stretching cable around a solid cylinder of mass 50

kg and diameter 0.120 m, which rotates in frictionless bearings about a
stationary horizontal axis. We pull the free end of the cable with a
constant 9.0-N force for a distance of 2.0 m; it turns the cylinder as it
unwinds without slipping. The cylinder is initially at rest. Find its final
angular speed and the final speed of the cable.

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 Parallel-Axis Theorem

A body doesn’t have just one moment of inertia. In fact, it has

infinitely many, because there are infinitely many axes about which it
might rotate.
But there is a simple relationship between
the moment of inertia Icm of a body of mass M about an axis
through its centre of mass
and the moment of inertia IP about any other axis parallel to the
original one but displaced from it by a distance d.
This relationship, called the parallel-axis theorem, states that:

IP = Icm + M d2

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Parallel-Axis Theorem

Consider two axes, both parallel to the z-axis:

one through the center of mass and the other
through a point P.
Take a very thin slice of the body, parallel to
the xy−plane and perpendicular to the z-axis.
Take the origin of our coordinate system to be
at the center of mass of the body; the
coordinates of the center of mass are then
xcm = ycm = zcm = 0.
The axis through the center of mass passes
through this thin slice at point O, and the
parallel axis passes through point P, whose
x− and y− coordinates are (a, b).
The distance of this axis from the axis through
the center of mass is d, where d2 = a2 + b2 .

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Parallel-Axis Theorem

Let mi be a mass element in our slice, with

coordinates (xi , yi , zi ) .
Then the moment of inertia Icm of the slice
about the axis through the center of mass (at
O) is
X
Icm = mi (x2i + yi2 )
i

The moment of inertia of the slice about the

axis through P is:
X
IP = mi [(xi − a)2 + (yi − b)2 ]
i

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 Parallel-Axis Theorem

X
Icm = mi (x2i + yi2 )
i
X
IP = mi [(xi − a)2 + (yi − b)2 ]
i
X X X X
=⇒ IP = mi (x2i + yi2 ) − 2a mi xi − 2b mi yi + (a2 + b2 ) mi
i i i i
X X X
mi (x2i + yi2 ) = Icm , mi xi = mi yi = 0 ,
i i i
X
a2 + b2 = d2 , mi = M
i
=⇒ IP = Icm + M d2

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 Parallel-Axis Theorem

IP = Icm + M d2

shows, that a rigid body has a lower moment of inertia about an axis
through its center of mass than about any other parallel axis.
Thus it’s easier to start a body rotating if the rotation axis passes
through the center of mass.
This suggests that it’s somehow most natural for a rotating body to
rotate about an axis through its center of mass;

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 Parallel-Axis Theorem - Problem

A part of a mechanical linkage has a mass of 3.6 kg. Its moment of

inertia IP about an axis 0.15 m from its center of mass is
IP = 0.132kg.m2 . What is the moment of inertia Icm about a parallel
axis through the center of mass?

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 Moment of Inertia Calculations
If a rigid body is a continuous distribution of mass, the sum of
masses and distances that defines the moment of inertia becomes an
integral.
Dividing the body into elements of mass dm at distance r, the
moment of inertia I is:
Z
I = r2 dm

Express dm in terms of an element of volume dV and the density ρ

of the body:
Z
I = r2 ρdV

If the body is uniform in density,

Z
I=ρ r2 dV

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 Moment of Inertia Calculations

dm = ρdV = ρ(2πrLdr)

V = πL(R22 − R12 )
Is this result in agreement
with the previously shown I M = ρV = ρπL(R22 − R12 )
for solid shapes? 1
=⇒ I = M (R12 + R22 )
2
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