Unit 5 – Mental and Physical

Health

5.1 Introduction to Health Psychology

Health psychology examines how mental and behavioral factors influence physical
well-being. This field explores the intricate relationship between stress, lifestyle choices,
and health outcomes, highlighting the importance of holistic approaches to wellness.

Stress plays a central role in health psychology, impacting both physical and mental
health. Understanding different types of stress, coping mechanisms, and the body's
responses helps individuals develop strategies to manage stress and improve overall
well-being.

Health Psychology and Wellness

Health psychology studies how behavior, thoughts, and social factors affect physical
health and overall well-being. It helps people make healthier choices and manage
illness more effectively.

Key areas of health psychology include:

●​ How habits like diet, exercise, and sleep impact physical health

●​ How stress, anxiety, and emotions affect the body and recovery from illness

●​ The connection between mental state and physical health, such as stress
increasing heart disease risk

●​ Helping people follow medical treatments and overcome barriers to care

●​ Creating public health programs to prevent illness and promote healthy lifestyles

Stress and Its Effects

Stress affects both physical health and mental well-being. It can influence emotions,
thoughts, and behaviors, sometimes leading to long-term health problems.
How stress impacts the body and mind:

●​ Increased risk of illness due to a weakened immune system

●​ Physical symptoms like headaches, high blood pressure, and fatigue

●​ Mental health struggles such as anxiety, depression, and trouble focusing

Types of stress:

●​ Positive stress can be motivating and help with challenges

●​ Negative stress feels overwhelming and can harm well-being

●​ Stress can come from sudden traumatic events or build up over time through
daily struggles

Long-term effects of stress:

●​ Stressful experiences in childhood (ACEs) can have lasting effects on mental

and physical health

●​ Chronic stress over a lifetime can lead to emotional struggles and increased
health risks

Reactions to stress
When a person experiences stress, the body and mind go through a series of stages to
handle it. This process helps explain how stress affects emotions, thinking, and physical
health.

●​ The first stage is the alarm reaction, which happens when stress is first
encountered. The body responds with a fight, flight, or freeze reaction, releasing
energy to deal with the situation.

●​ The second stage is resistance, where the body stays alert and works to cope
with the stress. A person may try to solve the problem, adapt to the challenge, or
push through the situation.

●​ The final stage is exhaustion, which happens when stress lasts too long or takes
too much energy. At this point, the body’s resources are drained, leading to
fatigue, burnout, and a higher risk of illness.

Tend-and-befriend theory
The tend-and-befriend theory suggests that some people, especially women, respond to
stress by caring for themselves and others while seeking social support.

●​ Tending means taking care of one’s own needs or helping others, such as
comforting a child or providing emotional support to a friend.

●​ Befriending involves reaching out to others for connection, safety, and support
during stressful situations.

This response is believed to be influenced by biology and may have evolved as a way
to promote survival by strengthening social bonds in difficult times. Instead of reacting
with fight, flight, or freeze, people who use this response manage stress through
nurturing and social connection.

Coping with stress

People cope with stress in different ways, and the method they choose can affect their
emotions, thoughts, and actions. There are two main ways people handle stress:

●​ Problem-focused coping – This approach treats stress as a problem that needs

to be solved. A person using this method takes action to fix the situation, such as
making a plan, seeking advice, or finding a practical solution. This is useful when
the stressor is something that can be changed or controlled.

●​ Emotion-focused coping – This approach focuses on managing emotional

reactions to stress rather than changing the situation itself. Strategies include
deep breathing, meditation, exercise, talking to a friend, or using medication to
reduce anxiety. This is helpful when the stressor cannot be immediately changed,
such as dealing with grief or a long-term challenge.

The way a person copes with stress affects their mental well-being and behavior.
Problem-focused coping can lead to active problem-solving and a sense of control,
while emotion-focused coping helps regulate feelings and prevent emotional
exhaustion. A balance of both strategies can be beneficial depending on the situation.
5.2 Positive Psychology
Positive psychology focuses on factors that contribute to individual and societal thriving.
It emphasizes positive emotions, resilience, and psychological health, shifting away
from traditional psychology's focus on pathology and dysfunction to a more balanced
perspective.

This approach explores positive subjective experiences like gratitude, signature

strengths, and posttraumatic growth. These elements are linked to increased well-being,
happiness, and personal development, offering insights into how individuals can flourish
despite life's challenges.

Positive psychology approach

Positive psychology focuses on understanding what helps people live fulfilling and
meaningful lives. Instead of just studying mental illness or problems, it looks at the
factors that contribute to well-being and resilience.

This includes:

●​ What makes people happy and satisfied with life

●​ How people build resilience and cope with challenges

●​ The role of gratitude, optimism, and positive emotions in mental health

●​ How personal strengths and social connections improve overall well-being

How Positive Experiences Improve Well-Being

Positive psychology explores how certain experiences and behaviors contribute to
happiness, resilience, and mental health. By understanding and practicing these
approaches, people can improve their emotional well-being and overall quality of life.

Gratitude and well-being

Gratitude is the practice of recognizing and appreciating the positive aspects of life.
Research shows that people who regularly express gratitude experience higher levels of
happiness, stronger relationships, and lower stress levels.

●​ Gratitude helps shift focus away from negative thoughts and towards positive
experiences.
 ●​ It can improve social bonds by making people feel more connected and
appreciated.

●​ Simple habits like keeping a gratitude journal, writing thank-you notes, or

reflecting on positive moments each day can enhance well-being over time.

Using Personal Strengths to Enhance Happiness

When people engage in activities that align with their signature strengths, they tend to
feel more fulfilled and motivated. Signature strengths are personal qualities that come
naturally and contribute to well-being when applied effectively.

The Values in Action (VIA) classification system organizes character strengths into six
core virtues:

1.​ Wisdom – creativity, curiosity, love of learning, and perspective

2.​ Courage – bravery, perseverance, honesty, and zest

3.​ Humanity – love, kindness, and social intelligence

4.​ Justice – teamwork, fairness, and leadership

5.​ Temperance – forgiveness, humility, self-regulation, and prudence

6.​ Transcendence – appreciation of beauty, gratitude, hope, humor, and spirituality

Research shows that regularly using signature strengths leads to:

●​ Increased engagement in daily activities

●​ Greater sense of meaning and purpose

●​ Higher levels of happiness and well-being

Posttraumatic growth
Posttraumatic growth refers to the positive changes that some people experience after
facing trauma or major stress. While difficult experiences can cause distress, they can
also lead to personal development in meaningful ways.

Common areas of growth include:

●​ Enhanced appreciation for life

●​ Stronger relationships

●​ Greater personal strength

 ●​ Deeper sense of meaning or purpose

The process of growth typically requires:

1.​ Social support systems

2.​ Effective coping strategies

3.​ Ability to find meaning in difficult experiences

5.3 Explaining and Classifying
Psychological Disorders
Psychological disorders are complex conditions that affect a person's thoughts,
emotions, and behaviors. Understanding how to identify, classify, and explain these
disorders is crucial for mental health professionals and researchers.

Various perspectives, including behavioral, cognitive, and biological, offer different

insights into the causes and treatments of mental disorders. The biopsychosocial model
and diathesis-stress model provide integrated approaches to understanding these
complex conditions.

Identifying Psychological Disorders

Psychologists look at several factors to determine whether a person has a psychological
disorder. These factors help distinguish between typical behavior and signs of mental
health concerns.

●​ Dysfunction – When thoughts, emotions, or behaviors interfere with daily life,

such as difficulty maintaining relationships, working, or taking care of oneself.

●​ Distress – Feeling extreme sadness, anxiety, or emotional pain that affects

well-being. However, some disorders may not cause distress to the person but
may impact others.

●​ Deviation from Social Norms – Behaviors that are very different from what is
considered normal in a culture, such as unpredictable emotional reactions or
difficulty understanding social expectations.

Since mental health exists on a spectrum, no single factor alone determines a disorder.
Instead, psychologists consider a combination of these factors to assess and diagnose
mental health conditions.

Impact of Diagnosing Psychological Disorders

Classifying psychological disorders can have both benefits and challenges. The effects
of a diagnosis depend on the nature of the disorder, the individual receiving it, and the
cultural and societal context.

Positive effects of diagnosis:

●​ Helps individuals understand their condition and seek appropriate treatment

 ●​ Provides a framework for mental health professionals to develop treatment plans

●​ Allows for access to support groups, therapy, and medical care

●​ Reduces self-blame by identifying a condition as a medical or psychological

issue rather than a personal failure

Negative effects of diagnosis:

●​ Can lead to stigma, making individuals feel labeled or judged by society

●​ May reinforce discrimination based on factors like race, gender, age, or

socioeconomic status

●​ Some cultures may not recognize certain disorders or may view mental health
struggles differently, affecting treatment acceptance

●​ A diagnosis can sometimes limit opportunities in areas like employment,

education, or social relationships if others react negatively

Diagnosing Psychological Disorders

Diagnosing psychological disorders requires specialized training and the use of
evidence-based tools. Mental health professionals rely on classification systems to
ensure accurate and consistent diagnoses.

Two major classification systems are used worldwide. These systems are regularly
updated to reflect new research and improvements in mental health treatment. Using
standardized guidelines helps ensure that diagnoses are based on scientific evidence
rather than personal opinions or cultural biases. Proper diagnosis allows individuals to
receive the right treatment and support for their mental health needs.

The DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual):

●​ Developed by the American Psychiatric Association

●​ Primary diagnostic tool in the United States

●​ Updated periodically to reflect current research

The ICD (International Classification of Diseases):

●​ Created by the World Health Organization

●​ Used internationally

●​ Provides standardized diagnostic criteria

How each psychological perspective views disorders
Psychologists use different perspectives to understand and diagnose mental disorders.
Each perspective focuses on different causes and contributing factors, helping to create
a more complete picture of mental health.

Eclectic Perspective
Most psychologists use an eclectic approach, meaning they draw from multiple
psychological perspectives when diagnosing and treating clients. Instead of relying on
just one theory or method, they combine different approaches to best fit the needs of
each individual.

This approach allows psychologists to:

●​ Consider biological factors, such as brain function and genetics, when

understanding mental health conditions.

●​ Use cognitive and behavioral techniques to help clients change negative thought
patterns and behaviors.

●​ Explore emotional and unconscious influences, as seen in psychodynamic

therapy.

●​ Address social and cultural influences, recognizing how relationships and

societal expectations impact mental health.

Behavioral Perspective
Mental disorders can develop through learned associations between experiences and
responses. If a person repeatedly connects a situation with stress or fear, they may
develop unhealthy behaviors in response.

●​ Learned behaviors, such as avoidance or unhealthy coping mechanisms, can

contribute to mental disorders.

●​ Conditioning, both classical and operant, plays a role in shaping behavior.

●​ Therapy often focuses on relearning healthier responses through reinforcement

and behavioral techniques.

Psychodynamic Perspective
Unconscious thoughts and early life experiences shape mental health. Many emotional
struggles may come from conflicts or unresolved feelings buried in the subconscious.
 ●​ Childhood experiences can influence adult emotions and behaviors.

●​ Unconscious fears, desires, or traumas may contribute to psychological distress.

●​ Therapy helps uncover these hidden influences and bring them into awareness.

Humanistic Perspective
Mental disorders may arise when people feel disconnected, unsupported, or unable to
reach their full potential. A lack of personal growth and social support can lead to
distress.

●​ Feeling unfulfilled or lacking purpose can contribute to emotional struggles.

●​ Strong relationships and a sense of belonging help with mental well-being.

●​ Therapy encourages self-acceptance, personal growth, and building meaningful

connections.

Cognitive Perspective
The way people think affects how they feel and behave. Negative thought patterns,
unrealistic beliefs, and distorted perceptions can lead to mental health challenges.

●​ Persistent negative thinking can increase stress, anxiety, and depression.

●​ Cognitive distortions, such as overgeneralizing or catastrophizing, can impact

emotions.

●​ Therapy helps individuals recognize and change unhelpful thoughts.

Evolutionary Perspective
Some behaviors and mental processes that were once useful for survival may
contribute to psychological disorders today. Traits that helped early humans adapt might
now lead to difficulties in modern life.

●​ Fear and anxiety once helped ancestors avoid danger but may now cause
excessive stress.

●​ Social behaviors that ensured group survival may contribute to issues like social
anxiety.

●​ Understanding these traits can help in managing and adapting responses.

Sociocultural Perspective
Social and cultural environments shape mental health. The way people experience and
express psychological distress can be influenced by relationships, community
expectations, and societal pressures.

●​ Discrimination, poverty, and cultural norms can impact mental well-being.

●​ Social expectations and roles may contribute to stress and anxiety.

●​ Therapy may focus on understanding external influences and building coping

strategies.

Biological Perspective
Mental disorders can have a physiological or genetic basis. Brain function,
neurotransmitters, and inherited traits all play a role in mental health.

●​ Chemical imbalances in the brain can contribute to mood and behavior changes.

●​ Genetic factors may increase the likelihood of developing certain disorders.

●​ Medical treatments, such as medication, can help restore balance alongside

therapy.

Interaction Models of Psychological Disorders

Psychological disorders do not usually have a single cause. Instead, they develop
through a combination of different influences. Interaction models help explain how
biological, psychological, and environmental factors work together to shape mental
health.

Biopsychosocial model of disorders

This model suggests that mental disorders result from a mix of biological, psychological,
and social factors. No single factor alone causes a disorder, but instead, they interact to
influence a person’s mental health.

●​ Biological influences (genetics, brain chemistry, and physical health conditions)

●​ Psychological factors (thoughts, emotions, behaviors, patterns, coping skills)

●​ Social elements (relationships, cultural expectations, environment, life

circumstances)

Because this model considers multiple influences, treatment often combines medical,
psychological, and social support approaches. Therapy, medication, and lifestyle
changes may all play a role in improving mental health.
Diathesis-Stress Model
This model explains that some people have a genetic or biological vulnerability to
developing a disorder, but it only becomes active when combined with stressful life
events.

●​ Diathesis refers to a person’s inherited traits or predisposition for a disorder.

●​ Stress includes challenging experiences like trauma, loss, or ongoing difficulties.

For example, someone with a family history of depression may not develop symptoms
unless they go through a stressful event, such as job loss or a major life change. This
model highlights the importance of both genetics and environment in shaping mental
health.

5.4 Selection of Categories of

Psychological Disorders
Neurodevelopmental disorders impact behavior, cognition, and social skills during
development. ADHD and autism spectrum disorder are key examples. These disorders
can stem from environmental factors, physiological issues, or genetic influences.

Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Neurodevelopmental disorders appear early in childhood and affect a person's ability to
function in daily life. These disorders impact behavior, learning, communication, and
social interactions. Diagnosing them involves looking at whether a child’s development
aligns with typical expectations for their age and maturity level.

Characteristics of neurodevelopmental disorders

Neurodevelopmental disorders typically emerge during childhood and can significantly

impact daily functioning. These conditions affect how the brain develops and processes
information, leading to challenges in various areas of life.

Key characteristics include:

●​ Delays in reaching developmental milestones

●​ Difficulties with social interaction and communication

●​ Problems with attention, memory, or learning

 ●​ Challenges with motor skills or coordination

The most common disorders include:

●​ ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)

○​ Difficulty maintaining attention

○​ Hyperactive behavior

○​ Impulsive actions

●​ Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

○​ Social communication challenges

○​ Restricted interests

○​ Repetitive behaviors

Causes of neurodevelopmental disorders

Multiple factors can contribute to the development of these disorders. Understanding

these causes helps inform treatment approaches and early intervention strategies.

Environmental factors include:

●​ Exposure to toxins during pregnancy, such as lead or alcohol

●​ Premature birth or low birth weight

●​ Complications during birth affecting brain development

●​ Maternal stress or illness

●​ Early childhood trauma or neglect

Biological influences:

●​ Differences in brain structure and function, especially in areas related to attention

and social behavior

●​ Imbalances in neurotransmitters that affect mood and impulse control

●​ Hormonal irregularities

Genetic factors play a significant role through:

 ●​ Family history of neurodevelopmental disorders increasing the likelihood of
diagnosis

●​ Specific genetic mutations or variations linked to conditions like ADHD and ASD

Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders

Schizophrenic spectrum disorders involve disruptions in thinking, perception, emotion,
and behavior. These disorders can be acute (short-term and severe) or chronic
(long-lasting and persistent). Symptoms vary but generally affect one or more of five key
areas: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or speech, disorganized motor
behavior, and negative symptoms.

Symptoms of Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders

Symptoms are typically classified as positive symptoms, which involve the presence of
unusual behaviors or experiences, and negative symptoms, which involve the absence
of typical behaviors or emotions.

Delusions (false beliefs)

●​ Believing something untrue despite evidence to the contrary

●​ Common types include delusions of persecution (believing others are out to harm
them) and delusions of grandeur (believing they have special powers or
importance)

Hallucinations (false perceptions)

●​ Experiencing sensations that are not real, such as hearing voices or seeing
things that are not there

●​ Can involve any of the senses, though auditory hallucinations are the most
common

Disorganized thinking or speech

●​ Difficulty organizing thoughts, leading to fragmented or confused speech

●​ May result in word salad, where words are strung together without logical
meaning

Disorganized motor behavior

●​ Unpredictable or unusual movements, ranging from agitation to a complete lack

of movement
 ●​ May include catatonia, which can manifest as excessive movement or remaining
motionless for long periods

Negative symptoms (lack of typical behaviors)

●​ Flat affect, or showing little to no emotional expression

●​ Catatonic stupor, where a person is unresponsive and lacks movement or

speech

Causes of schizophrenia

The exact cause of schizophrenia is not fully understood, but research suggests a
combination of genetic and biological factors.

Genetic factors:

●​ A family history of schizophrenia increases the likelihood of developing the

disorder

●​ Specific gene variations may contribute to susceptibility

●​ Interactions between genes and environment

Biological factors:

●​ Imbalances in dopamine, a neurotransmitter involved in thinking and perception

(known as the dopamine hypothesis)

●​ Differences in brain structure and function, such as enlarged ventricles and

reduced activity in certain brain areas

●​ Neurotransmitter irregulaties

Prenatal and environmental factors:

●​ Exposure to viruses or malnutrition during pregnancy

●​ Stressful life events or drug use may trigger symptoms in genetically vulnerable
individuals

Obsessive-compulsive disorders
Symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorders
Obsessive-compulsive disorders are characterized by the presence of obsessions

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(intrusive, unwanted thoughts) and/or compulsions (repetitive behaviors or mental acts
aimed at reducing anxiety)

●​ Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) involves both obsessions and

compulsions that are time-consuming and cause significant distress or
impairment

●​ Hoarding disorder is persistent difficulty discarding possessions, leading to clutter

that impairs living spaces and causes distress

●​ Obsessions and compulsions can center around various themes like

contamination, symmetry, or harm

●​ Individuals with OCD often recognize their thoughts and behaviors as irrational
but feel unable to control them

●​ Learned associations (classical conditioning), maladaptive thinking patterns

(cognitive distortions), emotional dysregulation, and biological or genetic factors
can all contribute to the development of obsessive-compulsive disorders

Causes of obsessive-compulsive disorders

Obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD) develop from a mix of learned behaviors,

cognitive patterns, emotional responses, and biological factors. These influences
interact, shaping how obsessions and compulsions emerge and persist.

Learned associations

●​ Classical conditioning, where neutral stimuli become associated with anxiety or

distress through repeated pairings with aversive experiences

●​ Negative reinforcement, where compulsive behaviors are strengthened by their

ability to temporarily reduce anxiety

●​ Observational learning, where individuals develop obsessions or compulsions by

witnessing others' behaviors

Maladaptive thinking patterns

●​ Cognitive distortions like overestimating the likelihood or severity of negative

outcomes (thought-action fusion)

●​ Inflated sense of responsibility for preventing harm or making mistakes

 ●​ Difficulty tolerating uncertainty or ambiguity, leading to excessive checking or
reassurance-seeking

Emotional dysregulation

●​ Inability to effectively manage or cope with intrusive thoughts or urges

●​ Heightened sensitivity to feelings of disgust or contamination

●​ Avoidance behaviors that prevent learning to tolerate or overcome obsessions

Biological and genetic factors

●​ Imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine

●​ Abnormalities in brain structure or function, particularly in regions involved in

habit formation (basal ganglia) and emotional regulation (prefrontal cortex)

●​ Family history of OCD or related disorders, suggesting a genetic component

●​ Interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental triggers (stressful

life events, trauma)

Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative disorders involve disruptions in awareness, memory, identity, and
perception. These disruptions can be temporary or long-lasting and often occur in
response to trauma or extreme stress.

Symptoms of dissociative disorders

People with dissociative disorders may experience a disconnect between their thoughts,
emotions, identity, or surroundings. Symptoms vary depending on the type of disorder.

●​ Dissociative amnesia is inability to recall important personal information, often

related to a stressful or traumatic event

●​ Dissociative fugue involves amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or

wandering and confusion about one's identity

●​ Dissociative identity disorder (formerly multiple personality disorder) is

characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states or
identities

○​ Dissociative symptoms can be sudden and transient or more persistent

and chronic
 ○​ Individuals with dissociative disorders may feel detached from their
thoughts, feelings, or body (depersonalization) or from their surroundings
(derealization)

●​ Traumatic experiences, chronic stress, and a history of childhood abuse or

neglect are the primary causes of dissociative disorders

Causes of dissociative disorders

Dissociative disorders are primarily linked to trauma and chronic stress, particularly
during childhood.

Traumatic experiences

●​ Exposure to severe, repeated, or prolonged trauma, particularly during childhood

(physical, sexual, or emotional abuse)

●​ Witnessing or experiencing life-threatening events (natural disasters, combat,

violent assaults)

●​ Dissociation as a coping mechanism to detach from overwhelming emotions or

memories

Chronic stress

●​ Persistent exposure to high levels of stress, leading to emotional exhaustion and

detachment

●​ Lack of healthy coping strategies or support systems to manage ongoing

stressors

●​ Dissociation as a means of escaping from feelings of helplessness or

hopelessness

Childhood abuse or neglect

●​ Early experiences of abuse or neglect can disrupt normal identity development

and emotional regulation

●​ Dissociation as a way to compartmentalize or "split off" painful memories or

aspects of the self

●​ Lack of secure attachment relationships or consistent caregiving can contribute

to dissociative tendencies

Genetic and biological factors

 ●​ Some evidence suggests a genetic component to dissociation, with higher rates
among first-degree relatives

●​ Abnormalities in brain structure or function, particularly in regions involved in

memory and emotion processing

●​ Interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental stressors

Trauma Disorders
Trauma disorders develop after exposure to a highly stressful or life-threatening event.
These disorders involve intense psychological distress and can significantly impact daily
functioning.

Symptoms of trauma disorders

Trauma disorders involve psychological distress following exposure to a traumatic or

stressful event. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the primary trauma disorder in
scope for the AP Psych exam

Symptoms of PTSD may include:

●​ intrusive memories – flashbacks and nightmares that bring back the traumatic
experience

●​ avoidance behaviors – where individuals stay away from trauma-related places,

people, or conversations

●​ negative changes in mood and thinking – persistent fear, guilt, or detachment

from others

●​ hyperarousal – heightened alertness, irritability, difficulty sleeping, or being easily

startled

Duration and impact:

●​ PTSD can be acute (lasting less than 3 months) or chronic (lasting 3 months or
more)

●​ Trauma disorders can significantly impair social, occupational, and academic

functioning

Causes of trauma disorders

The development of trauma disorders is influenced by exposure to traumatic events,

individual coping mechanisms, and biological factors.
 ●​ Exposure to traumatic events

○​ Direct experience of actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual

violence

○​ Witnessing traumatic events happening to others, particularly loved ones

○​ Learning about traumatic events happening to close family members or

friends

○​ Repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of traumatic events

(first responders, journalists)

●​ Individual differences in coping and resilience

○​ Pre-existing mental health conditions (depression, anxiety) can increase

vulnerability to PTSD

○​ Lack of healthy coping strategies or social support systems to process

traumatic experiences

○​ Tendency to blame oneself or feel guilt or shame related to the traumatic

event

●​ Biological and genetic factors

○​ Imbalances in stress-related hormones (cortisol) and neurotransmitters

(norepinephrine)

○​ Abnormalities in brain structure or function, particularly in regions involved

in fear processing (amygdala) and memory consolidation (hippocampus)

○​ Family history of PTSD or other mental health conditions, suggesting a

genetic component

○​ Interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental stressors

Eating Disorders
Feeding and eating disorders involve disturbances in food intake that affect both
physical health and mental well-being. These disorders often lead to serious medical
complications and emotional distress.

Symptoms of eating disorders

Eating disorders impact a person’s relationship with food, body image, and self-control.
Two key disorders in this category are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Both
disorders can have serious health consequences, including heart problems, digestive
issues, and hormonal imbalances. Psychological effects include anxiety, depression,
and social withdrawal.

Anorexia nervosa

●​ Extreme restriction of food intake, leading to significant weight loss and

nutritional deficiencies

●​ Intense fear of gaining weight, even when underweight

●​ Distorted body image, where individuals see themselves as overweight despite

being dangerously thin

●​ Excessive exercise, fasting, or use of weight-control measures to maintain low

body weight

Bulimia nervosa

●​ Cycles of binge eating, where large amounts of food are consumed in a short
period

●​ Compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as vomiting, excessive

exercise, or laxative use

●​ Feelings of loss of control during binge episodes, followed by guilt or shame

●​ Maintaining a weight that is often within a normal range, making it less visibly
obvious than anorexia

Causes of Eating Disorders

The development of eating disorders is influenced by biological, psychological, and

social factors. Since multiple factors contribute to these disorders, treatment often
involves medical care, therapy, and nutritional counseling. Early intervention can
improve recovery outcomes and help individuals develop a healthier relationship with
food and their bodies.

Biological and genetic factors

●​ Imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine, which regulate

appetite and mood
 ●​ Genetic predisposition, with a higher risk if a family member has an eating
disorder

●​ Hormonal differences that may affect hunger and satiety cues

Psychological factors

●​ Perfectionism and high self-criticism, leading to strict control over food and body
image

●​ Low self-esteem and anxiety, which contribute to unhealthy eating behaviors

●​ Distorted body image and fear of gaining weight, often reinforced by social
pressures

Social and cultural influences

●​ Societal emphasis on thinness and beauty standards, especially in media and

fashion

●​ Peer pressure and dieting culture, which can normalize extreme weight-control
behaviors

●​ Stressful life events, trauma, or family dynamics that contribute to disordered

eating patterns

Personality Disorders
Personality disorders involve long-term patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that
deviate from cultural expectations and cause significant distress or difficulty in daily life.
These patterns typically emerge in adolescence or early adulthood and remain stable
over time.

Personality disorders are grouped into three clusters based on shared characteristics:
Cluster A (odd or eccentric), Cluster B (dramatic or emotional), and Cluster C (anxious
or fearful). Each cluster has distinct symptoms and possible causes.

Cluster A: Odd or Eccentric Personality Disorders

People with these disorders may appear socially detached, suspicious, or unusual in
their thoughts and behaviors.

Paranoid Personality Disorder

●​ Extreme distrust and suspicion of others

 ●​ Belief that others have harmful intentions, even without evidence

●​ Difficulty trusting close friends, family, or coworkers

Schizoid Personality Disorder

●​ Strong preference for being alone and avoiding social relationships

●​ Limited emotional expression and indifference to praise or criticism

●​ Lack of interest in forming close connections

Schizotypal Personality Disorder

●​ Unusual thinking patterns, beliefs, or behaviors

●​ Social anxiety and discomfort in close relationships

●​ Odd speech, appearance, or belief in supernatural influences (such as telepathy)

Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Personality Disorders

This cluster includes disorders where individuals experience intense emotions, unstable
relationships, impulsivity, and difficulty regulating behavior.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

●​ Disregard for rules, laws, and the rights of others

●​ Manipulative or deceitful behavior, lack of empathy

●​ Impulsivity and frequent aggression

Borderline Personality Disorder

●​ Intense fear of abandonment and unstable relationships

●​ Rapid mood swings and impulsive behaviors

●​ Self-harming tendencies and chronic feelings of emptiness

Histrionic Personality Disorder

●​ Excessive attention-seeking and emotional overreaction

●​ Strong emotions that shift quickly

●​ Constant need for approval and dramatic behavior

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

●​ Inflated sense of self-importance and entitlement

●​ Lack of empathy for others, need for excessive admiration

●​ Sensitivity to criticism despite appearing confident

Cluster C: Anxious or Fearful Personality Disorders

This cluster includes disorders where individuals struggle with excessive anxiety, fear of
social rejection, and need for control or reassurance.

Avoidant Personality Disorder

●​ Fear of rejection and strong feelings of inadequacy

●​ Avoidance of social situations despite wanting relationships

●​ Extreme sensitivity to criticism

Dependent Personality Disorder

●​ Strong need for reassurance and support from others

●​ Difficulty making decisions without guidance

●​ Fear of being alone and submissive behavior in relationships

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)

●​ Preoccupation with order, perfection, and rigid control

●​ Difficulty delegating tasks and extreme focus on work over relationships

●​ Strong need for structure and resistance to change

Causes of Personality Disorders

Personality disorders develop from a mix of biological, psychological, and environmental

factors. While the exact causes vary, research suggests that genetics, brain function,
early life experiences, and social influences all play a role in shaping personality and
behavior.

Genetic and Biological Factors

●​ Family studies suggest a genetic link, as personality disorders are more common
in individuals with relatives who have similar conditions.
 ●​ Differences in brain structure and function may affect emotional regulation,
impulse control, and social behavior.

●​ Imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine may contribute to

mood instability, impulsivity, and aggression.

Early Life Experiences

●​ Childhood trauma and neglect – Abuse, emotional neglect, or chaotic family

environments can shape personality and coping mechanisms.

●​ Inconsistent or extreme parenting styles – Overly strict, neglectful, or

unpredictable parenting may contribute to insecure attachment and emotional
dysregulation.

●​ Unresolved childhood conflicts – Experiences of abandonment, rejection, or

instability may lead to difficulties in relationships and self-identity.

Social and Environmental Influences

●​ Cultural and societal expectations – Pressure to conform to specific social roles

or ideals may contribute to perfectionism, dependency, or avoidance behaviors.

●​ Peer relationships and social rejection – Bullying, isolation, or difficulty forming

connections can reinforce maladaptive personality traits.

●​ Stressful life events – Significant losses, instability, or prolonged stress may

trigger or worsen symptoms of personality disorders.
5.5 Treatment of Psychological
Disorders
Psychological disorders can be treated through various methods, from psychotherapy to
medication. These approaches aim to alleviate symptoms and improve overall mental
health. Understanding the effectiveness and ethical considerations of different
treatments is crucial for both practitioners and patients.

Treatment options have evolved over time, with a shift towards community-based care
and combination therapies. Ethical guidelines ensure responsible practice, while
different therapeutic techniques address specific mental health issues. Biological
interventions and group therapies offer additional avenues for managing psychological
disorders.

Research and Trends in Treating Psychological

Disorders
Psychotherapy
Meta-analysis studies have revolutionized our understanding of psychotherapy
effectiveness by providing comprehensive data analysis across multiple studies. These
analyses consistently show that psychotherapy is an effective treatment option for many
mental health conditions.

Meta-analytic studies, which combine results from multiple research studies, have found
that:

●​ Most people who receive psychotherapy show significant improvement compared

to those who do not receive treatment.

●​ No single therapy works for everyone; treatment effectiveness depends on the

individual and the disorder being treated.

●​ A combination of therapy and medication is often the most effective approach for
conditions like depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia.

Evidence-Based Treatment Approaches

Psychologists increasingly rely on evidence-based interventions, meaning treatments
that have been scientifically tested and proven effective. Some widely used approaches
include:
 ●​ Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) – Helps individuals identify and change
negative thought patterns and behaviors.

●​ Exposure therapy – Gradually reduces fear responses by safely confronting

anxiety-provoking situations.

●​ Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) – Combines mindfulness and emotional

regulation techniques, often used for personality disorders.

●​ Medication-assisted treatment – Used in combination with therapy for disorders

like schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and severe depression.

Importance of Cultural Humility in Therapy

Therapists must consider cultural and individual differences when treating clients. This
involves:

●​ Cultural humility – Recognizing and respecting a client’s cultural background,

values, and experiences.

●​ Adapting therapy – Modifying treatment methods to align with a client’s personal

and cultural identity.

●​ Reducing stigma – Encouraging open discussions about mental health in diverse

communities.

The Role of the Therapeutic Alliance

A strong therapeutic alliance, or the relationship between the therapist and the client, is
one of the biggest predictors of successful treatment.

●​ Trust and collaboration between therapist and client improve therapy outcomes.

●​ Clients are more likely to stay engaged in treatment when they feel understood
and supported.

●​ Empathy, active listening, and a nonjudgmental approach enhance the

effectiveness of therapy.

Deinstitutionalization and Modern Treatment

The late 20th century saw a major shift in how psychological disorders were treated.
Deinstitutionalization, or the large-scale release of patients from hospitals and asylums,
occurred due to advances in psychotropic medications and a shift toward
community-based care.
Reasons for Deinstitutionalization

●​ Increased use of psychotropic medications – Medications like antipsychotics,

antidepressants, and mood stabilizers helped manage symptoms, allowing many
individuals to function outside of institutions.

●​ Concerns about institutional care – Long-term hospitalization often led to poor

conditions, mistreatment, and social isolation. Deinstitutionalization aimed to
provide more humane and effective care.

●​ Expansion of outpatient services – Community mental health centers, therapy

programs, and outpatient clinics became more common, reducing the need for
long-term hospitalization.

Today, treatment for psychological disorders is decentralized, meaning that most care
takes place outside of hospitals.

●​ Combination of medication and therapy – Many therapists use both psychotropic

medications and psychological treatments like cognitive-behavioral therapy
(CBT) to help clients manage their conditions.

●​ Community-based care – Mental health services are now provided in outpatient

clinics, private therapy practices, and online platforms, making treatment more
accessible.

●​ Emphasis on independent living – Programs such as supported housing and job

training help individuals integrate into society while managing their mental health.

Ethical principles in treatment

Psychologists follow ethical guidelines to ensure that therapy and treatment are
conducted in a responsible and respectful manner. These principles, established by the
American Psychological Association (APA), help protect clients' well-being and maintain
professional standards in mental health care.

Nonmaleficence (must avoid causing harm to their clients)

●​ Providing treatments that are safe, effective, and supported by research.

●​ Avoiding techniques that could cause emotional or psychological distress.

●​ Recognizing when a client’s needs are beyond their expertise and referring them
to an appropriate professional.

Fidelity and Integrity (focus on trust and honesty in therapy.)

 ●​ Therapists must keep their commitments to clients, such as maintaining
confidentiality and following treatment plans.

●​ They must be honest about their qualifications, treatment methods, and potential
risks or benefits.

●​ Avoiding conflicts of interest ensures that clients receive unbiased, professional

care.

Respect for People’s Rights (recognizing patient rights to privacy, autonomy, and
dignity)

●​ Clients should be able to make informed decisions about their treatment.

●​ Therapists must respect cultural differences, personal values, and beliefs in

therapy.

●​ Clients should feel safe and supported, free from discrimination or bias.

Techniques in Psychological Therapies

Psychodynamic Therapies
Psychodynamic therapy focuses on uncovering unconscious thoughts, emotions, and
past experiences that influence present behavior. This approach helps individuals gain
insight into unresolved conflicts and emotional struggles.

Techniques Used in Psychodynamic Therapy

●​ Free Association – Clients are encouraged to speak freely about whatever

comes to mind without censorship. This helps uncover hidden thoughts,
memories, and emotions that may be influencing behavior.

●​ Dream Interpretation – Dreams are analyzed to reveal unconscious desires,

fears, and conflicts. Therapists look for symbolic meanings to help clients
understand deeper emotional issues.

Goals of Psychodynamic Therapy

●​ Identifying unresolved conflicts from childhood or past experiences.

●​ Understanding patterns in thoughts and behaviors that may be causing distress.

●​ Bringing unconscious emotions into awareness to promote healing and

self-growth.
Cognitive Therapies
Cognitive therapy focuses on identifying and changing maladaptive thought patterns
that contribute to emotional distress and unhealthy behaviors. This approach helps
individuals develop more balanced and constructive ways of thinking.

Techniques Used in Cognitive Therapy

●​ Cognitive Restructuring – Identifying and challenging negative or irrational

thoughts and replacing them with more realistic and positive beliefs.

●​ Fear Hierarchies – Gradually exposing individuals to feared situations in a

structured way, helping them reduce anxiety through controlled exposure.

The Cognitive Triad Cognitive therapy suggests that negative thinking patterns
contribute to mental health issues. These negative thoughts often focus on:

●​ Oneself – Viewing oneself as inadequate, unworthy, or incapable.

●​ The World – Believing that life is unfair or that external events are
overwhelmingly negative.

●​ The Future – Expecting failure, disappointment, or continued suffering.

Applied Behavior Analysis and Conditioning-Based Therapies

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) uses principles of conditioning and reinforcement to
modify behavior. This approach is often used to treat mental disorders, anxiety, and
developmental disabilities, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Behavioral Therapies Based on Conditioning

●​ Exposure Therapies – Help individuals confront fears gradually in a controlled

environment.

●​ Systematic Desensitization – A step-by-step method where a person is gradually

exposed to their fear while practicing relaxation techniques.

●​ Aversion Therapy – Pairs unwanted behaviors with unpleasant stimuli to

discourage those behaviors, such as using a bitter substance to stop nail-biting.

●​ Token Economies – Uses a reward system where individuals earn tokens for
desired behaviors, which can later be exchanged for privileges or rewards.

Biofeedback and Self-Regulation Biofeedback helps individuals gain control over

involuntary body functions to manage stress and anxiety.
 ●​ Sensors track heart rate, muscle tension, or breathing, providing real-time
feedback.

●​ Clients learn relaxation techniques to regulate the sympathetic and

parasympathetic nervous systems, reducing symptoms of anxiety or depression.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies
Cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT) combine cognitive techniques (changing thought
patterns) with behavioral techniques (modifying actions) to treat mental and behavioral
disorders. This approach helps individuals recognize and change negative thinking
while developing healthier coping strategies. CBT and its variations are widely used for
anxiety, depression, personality disorders, and impulse-control issues, offering
structured and practical strategies for improving mental health.

There are two types:

Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)

●​ Originally developed to treat borderline personality disorder, now used for various
emotional and behavioral challenges.

●​ Focuses on mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotional regulation, and

interpersonal effectiveness.

●​ Teaches clients how to accept their emotions while working on changing harmful
behaviors.

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)

●​ Developed by Albert Ellis, REBT challenges irrational and self-defeating beliefs

that contribute to emotional distress.

●​ Helps clients recognize and replace exaggerated or unrealistic thoughts with

more logical and constructive ones.

●​ Emphasizes that emotions are influenced by how we interpret events rather than
the events themselves.

How Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies Work

●​ Help individuals identify negative thoughts and replace them with healthier ones.

●​ Use behavioral techniques like exposure therapy and reinforcement to modify

actions.
 ●​ Encourage practicing coping skills in real-life situations to build long-term
resilience.

Group vs Individual Therapy

Group therapy and individual therapy are both effective forms of psychological
treatment, but they differ in structure, approach, and benefits. While individual therapy
focuses on personalized support, group therapy provides shared experiences and peer
encouragement. Many therapists recommend a combination of both approaches
depending on a client's needs.

Group Therapy

●​ Involves multiple participants led by one or more therapists.

●​ Provides a supportive environment where individuals can share experiences and

learn from others.

●​ Encourages social interaction and helps clients develop communication skills.

●​ Can be more affordable than individual therapy.

●​ Often used for addiction recovery, anxiety, depression, and social skill-building.

Individual Therapy

●​ One-on-one setting between a client and therapist.

●​ Allows for personalized treatment tailored to the client’s specific needs.

●​ Provides a private and confidential space for discussing sensitive issues.

●​ Often used for deep self-exploration, trauma recovery, and personal

development.

Hypnosis
Hypnosis is a therapeutic technique that involves focused attention, deep relaxation,
and heightened suggestibility. While hypnosis can be useful for pain relief, anxiety
reduction, and habit control, it is not reliable for memory recovery or age regression. It is
most effective when used alongside other therapeutic approaches.

Proven Uses of Hypnosis

●​ Pain Management – Hypnosis has been effective in reducing chronic pain,

surgical pain, and pain from medical conditions like migraines or arthritis.
 ●​ Anxiety Reduction – Used to help individuals with generalized anxiety, phobias,
and stress-related conditions by promoting relaxation and altering negative
thought patterns.

●​ Behavioral Change – Can assist with overcoming habits like smoking, nail-biting,
or overeating by reinforcing positive behaviors.

Limitations of Hypnosis

●​ Memory Retrieval – Research does not support the use of hypnosis for
recovering forgotten or repressed memories, as it can create false memories.

●​ Age Regression – The idea that hypnosis can take someone back to past life
stages or reveal childhood memories accurately is not scientifically supported.

Biological Interventions
The biological perspective in psychology focuses on how brain function,
neurotransmitters, and genetics influence mental health. Treatments based on this
approach aim to correct biological imbalances and improve neurological functioning.

Medications
Psychoactive medications are used to treat mental disorders by modifying
neurotransmitter activity in the central nervous system. These drugs help regulate
mood, anxiety, and thought processes by targeting specific brain chemicals. These
medications are often used alongside therapy for a more comprehensive treatment
plan. Regular monitoring by healthcare providers helps manage side effects and adjust
dosages for the best therapeutic outcome.

Types of Psychoactive Medications

●​ Antidepressants – Increase neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine

to treat depression and anxiety disorders.

●​ Antianxiety Drugs – Enhance GABA activity, which helps reduce excessive

nervous system activity and promotes relaxation.

●​ Mood Stabilizers (such as Lithium) – Regulate glutamate and serotonin levels to

manage mood swings, particularly in bipolar disorder.

●​ Antipsychotic Medications – Block dopamine receptors to reduce symptoms of

schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders.

Potential Side Effects

 ●​ Weight gain, drowsiness, and dizziness with antidepressants and antianxiety
drugs.

●​ Nausea, tremors, and kidney issues in long-term lithium use.

●​ Tardive dyskinesia, a movement disorder caused by long-term antipsychotic use,

which affects involuntary muscle movements due to dopamine regulation issues.

Surgical and Invasive Interventions

Some severe mental disorders that do not respond to medication or therapy may
require surgical or invasive interventions. These treatments directly alter brain activity to
help manage symptoms. While psychosurgery is rare, techniques like ECT and TMS
continue to be refined and are used for individuals with severe, treatment-resistant
mental disorders. These interventions are carefully considered only when other
treatments have not been successful.

Psychosurgery

●​ Involves lesioning or altering specific brain areas to reduce severe symptoms.

●​ Lobotomy was a common psychosurgical procedure in the mid-20th century, but

it is now almost entirely abandoned due to its severe side effects.

●​ Modern targeted brain surgeries are sometimes used for extreme cases of
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) or epilepsy.

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

●​ Uses controlled electrical currents to trigger seizures in the brain, which can help
relieve severe depression, bipolar disorder, and psychosis.

●​ Typically used when medication and therapy have not been effective.

●​ Modern ECT is much safer than in the past and is done under anesthesia.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

●​ Uses magnetic pulses to stimulate nerve cells in the brain, helping to regulate
mood.

●​ Primarily used for depression, anxiety, and OCD, especially when medication
does not work.

●​ A non-invasive alternative to ECT with fewer side effects.