Marketing research

Marketing Information System

Definition:
The Marketing Information System refers to the systematic collection,
analysis, interpretation, storage and dissemination of the market
information, from both the internal and external sources, to the marketers
on a regular, continuous basis.

The marketing information system distributes the relevant information to

the marketers who can make the efficient decisions related to the
marketing operations viz. Pricing, packaging, new product development,
distribution, media, promotion, etc.

Components of Marketing Information System

1. Internal Records:
The Company can collect information through its internal records
consisting of sales data, customer database, product database, financial
data, operations data, etc.

2. Marketing Intelligence System:

The marketing intelligence system provides the data about the
happenings in the market, i.e. data related to the marketing environment
which is external to the organization. It includes the information about the
changing market trends, competitor’s pricing strategy, change in the
customer’s tastes and preferences, new products launched in the market,
promotion strategy of the competitor, etc.

3. Marketing Research:
The Marketing Research is the systematic collection, organization,
analysis and interpretation of the primary or the secondary data to find
out the solutions to the marketing problems.Several Companies conduct
marketing research to analyze the marketing environment comprising of
changes in the customer’s tastes and preferences, competitor’s
strategies, the scope of new product launch, etc. by applying several
statistical tools. In order to conduct the market research, the data is to be
collected that can be either primary data (the first-hand data) or the
secondary data (second-hand data, available in books, magazines,
research reports, journals, etc.)
The secondary data are publicly available, but the primary data is to be
collected by the researcher through certain methods such as
questionnaires, personal interviews, surveys, seminars, etc.

Marketing research contributes a lot to the marketing information system

as it provides the factual data that has been tested several times by the
researchers.

4. Marketing Decision Support System:

It includes several software programs that can be used by the marketers
to analyze the data, collected so far, to take better marketing
decisions.With the use of computers, the marking managers can save the
huge data in a tabular form and can apply statistical programs to analyze
the data and make the decisions in line with the findings.
Marketing Information System Components
A Marketing Information System (MIS) comprises various
components that work together to facilitate the collection,
processing, storage, and dissemination of information for effective
marketing decision-making. These components are integral to the
overall functionality of the system:
1. Internal Records: Internal records are the foundation of an
MIS. These include data generated and maintained within the
organization. Examples include sales records, customer databases,
inventory levels, and financial information. Internal records provide
insights into the organization’s performance and customer
interactions.
2. Marketing Intelligence: Marketing intelligence involves
gathering external information related to the market environment.
This includes monitoring competitor activities, analyzing industry
trends, and staying abreast of changes in the economic and
regulatory landscape. Marketing intelligence helps in understanding
the external factors that can impact marketing strategies.
3. Marketing Research: Marketing research is a systematic
process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to
understand market opportunities and challenges. It involves both
primary research (direct data collection) and secondary research
(using existing data). Marketing research helps in gaining insights
into consumer behaviour, preferences, and market dynamics.
4. Data Warehousing: Data warehousing involves the centralized
storage of large volumes of data from various sources. It provides a
platform for organizing, managing, and retrieving information
efficiently. A well-designed data warehouse facilitates analysis and
reporting, supporting decision-makers in accessing relevant data
when needed.
5. Information Output: The final component involves presenting
information to decision-makers in a meaningful format. This can
include reports, dashboards, visualizations, and presentations. The
goal is to provide actionable insights derived from the processed
data. Effective information output ensures that decision-makers
can easily comprehend and utilize the information for strategic
planning.
Types of Data in a Marketing Information
System
In a Marketing Information System (MIS), different types of data
play a crucial role in understanding and making decisions about
marketing strategies. These data types can be classified into four
main categories: primary data, secondary data, quantitative data,
and qualitative data.
1. Primary Data: This type of data is collected firsthand, directly
from original sources. It involves gathering information specifically
for the purpose at hand. Examples of collecting primary data
include conducting surveys, interviews, or focus groups. It’s like
going directly to the source to get the information you need.
2. Secondary Data: In contrast to primary data, secondary data is
information that has already been collected by someone else for a
different purpose. This can include reports, articles, and publicly
available data. It’s like using existing information that others have
gathered to support your marketing insights.
3. Quantitative Data: Quantitative data involves numbers and
measurements. It’s about quantities and can be easily expressed in
numerical terms. For marketing, this could be data like sales
figures, website traffic, or the number of products sold. It’s all
about the hard, numerical facts.
4. Qualitative Data: Qualitative data, on the other hand, is non-
numeric and focuses on qualities. It helps in understanding the
underlying reasons, motivations, and attitudes of consumers.
Examples include customer feedback, reviews, or open-ended
survey responses. It provides a deeper, more nuanced
understanding beyond just numbers.
Steps Involved in a Marketing Information
System Process
The process of a Marketing Information System (MIS) involves
several key steps that collectively contribute to the system’s
effectiveness in providing valuable information for marketing
decision-making.
1. Data Collection: The first step involves gathering relevant data
from various sources. This can include internal sources such as
sales records, customer databases, and inventory levels, as well as
external sources like market research, competitor analysis, and
industry reports. The goal is to ensure a comprehensive dataset
that covers both internal and external aspects of the market.
2. Data Processing: Once the data is collected, it needs to be
organized and processed to extract meaningful insights. This step
involves cleaning and structuring the data, performing analyses,
and using statistical methods to identify patterns or trends. Data
processing transforms raw data into actionable information that
can guide marketing decisions.
3. Information Storage: Processed information needs to be
stored in a secure and accessible manner. This involves creating a
data repository or a data warehouse where information can be
stored centrally. Proper storage ensures that historical data is
available for future reference and analysis, contributing to a more
informed decision-making process.
4. Information Retrieval: Retrieval is the process of accessing
stored information when needed. Decision-makers should be able
to retrieve relevant data easily and quickly. This step ensures that
up-to-date information is available for analysis and decision-
making, supporting both strategic planning and day-to-day
marketing operations.
5. Information Dissemination: The final step involves presenting
the information to decision-makers. This can be done through
various means, such as reports, presentations, dashboards, or
visualizations. The goal is to communicate insights in a clear and
understandable manner, facilitating effective decision-making by
providing actionable information.
These steps are cyclical, as the information gathered and
processed often leads to further data collection and analysis.
Benefits of using a Marketing Information
System
1. Informed Decision Making: An MIS provides timely and
relevant information to marketing decision-makers, enabling them
to make informed and data-driven choices. This leads to more
effective planning and execution of marketing strategies.
2. Competitive Advantage: Access to real-time market data,
competitor analyses, and industry trends allows organizations to
stay ahead of the competition. The ability to adapt quickly to
changing market conditions provides a competitive edge.
3. Resource Optimization: By having a clear understanding of
market demands, consumer behaviour, and product performance,
businesses can optimize their resources. This includes efficient
allocation of budgets, manpower, and other marketing resources.
4. Improved Customer Satisfaction: A well-implemented MIS
helps in understanding customer preferences, behaviours, and
feedback. This knowledge allows companies to tailor their products
and services to meet customer expectations, ultimately enhancing
customer satisfaction.
5. Strategic Planning: The insights provided by an MIS support
long-term strategic planning. Marketing managers can develop and
implement effective marketing strategies based on a thorough
understanding of market dynamics, trends, and potential
opportunities.
6. Risk Management: The system assists in identifying potential
risks and challenges in the market. By being aware of these risks,
organizations can develop proactive strategies to mitigate them,
reducing the impact of uncertainties on their marketing activities.
7. Cost Efficiency: Efficient use of resources is achieved through
targeted marketing efforts. Instead of employing a trial-and-error
approach, organizations can focus on strategies that are proven
effective through data analysis, reducing unnecessary costs.
8. Market Research Efficiency: MIS streamlines the market
research process, making it more efficient and cost-effective. With
access to a wealth of data, organizations can avoid duplicating
efforts and leverage existing information for decision-making.
Tips for using a Marketing Information
System
1. Clearly Define Objectives: Start by having a clear
understanding of what you want to achieve with your MIS. Outline
specific goals and objectives that align with your business needs.
Whether it’s improving decision-making or understanding customer
behaviour, having well-defined objectives helps in tailoring the use
of your MIS to meet those particular needs.
2. Regularly Update Information: An MIS is only as good as the
data it holds. Make it a habit to update the system regularly with
the latest information. This ensures that decision-makers are
working with the most current and relevant data, enhancing the
accuracy and reliability of the insights derived from the system.
3. Provide User Training: Your MIS is a tool, and like any tool, it’s
most effective when the users know how to use it properly. Invest
in training sessions for your team so they can navigate the system
with ease. This empowers them to make the most out of the MIS,
ensuring that valuable insights are extracted efficiently.
4. Ensure Data Security: Protecting your data is paramount.
Implement robust security measures to safeguard sensitive
marketing information. This includes setting up access controls,
encryption, and regular security audits. Ensuring the integrity and
confidentiality of your data maintains the trustworthiness of your
MIS.
5. Integrate with Other Systems: Your MIS doesn’t operate in
isolation. For seamless business operations, integrate it with other
organizational systems. This could include linking it with your
Customer Relationship Management (CRM) system or financial
software. Integration fosters a smooth flow of information across
different departments, avoiding silos and promoting a holistic
approach to decision-making.
Examples of Marketing Information
Systems
Here are some real-world examples of Marketing Information
Systems (MIS) that businesses commonly use:
1. Google Analytics: This tool provides insights into website
traffic, user behaviour, and the effectiveness of online marketing
efforts. It helps businesses understand where their website visitors
come from, what they do on the site, and how different marketing
channels contribute to website performance.
2. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software: CRM
systems like Salesforce, HubSpot, or Zoho help businesses manage
customer information, interactions, and communications. They
track customer preferences, purchase history, and feedback,
providing valuable data for targeted marketing campaigns.
3. Social Media Analytics Tools: Platforms such as Hootsuite,
Buffer, or Sprout Social offer analytics features that track social
media performance. Businesses can measure engagement,
audience demographics, and the effectiveness of their social media
marketing efforts.
4. Email Marketing Software: Tools like Mailchimp, Constant
Contact, or Sendinblue not only facilitate email campaigns but also
provide analytics on email open rates, click-through rates, and
subscriber behaviour. This information helps refine email marketing
strategies.
5. E-commerce Platforms: Platforms like Shopify,
WooCommerce, or Magento offer built-in MIS features. These
systems track sales, customer behaviour, and inventory data,
helping businesses optimize their online sales and marketing
strategies.
6. Web Analytics Tools: In addition to Google Analytics, tools like
Adobe Analytics or Webtrends offer advanced web analytics
capabilities. They track user interactions on websites, providing
insights into user journeys, conversion rates, and the performance
of online campaigns.
7. Competitor Monitoring Tools: Services like SEMrush, Ahrefs,
or SimilarWeb help businesses keep an eye on their competitors.
These tools provide data on competitor website traffic, keywords,
and online strategies, aiding in competitive analysis.
accordingly.

Distinguish Between Marketing Information System and

Marketing Research:
Basis Market Information System Marketing Research

Meaning : MIS means to collect, analyze and supply Marketing Research (MR) is a
relevant marketing information to the systematic process of collecting and
marketing managers. The marketing analyzing information to solve a
managers use this information for taking specific marketing problem.
effective marketing decisions. It is a
permanent and continuous process.
Purpose : The main purpose of MIS is to provide However, the main purpose of
relevant information to marketing managers Marketing Research (MR) is to solve
and enable them to make effective a specific marketing problem.
marketing decisions.
Scope : The scope of MIS is wide. Marketing The scope of Marketing Research
Research (MR) is one of its components. It (MR) is narrow. It is one small part of
is not only used to solve problems but also MIS. It solves a specific present
helps to prevent problems in the future. marketing problem.
Nature : MIS is more nonspecific or general in Marketing Research (MR) is more
nature. It can solve many types of specific or particular in nature. At one
marketing problems. time, it can only solve a single type of
marketing problem.
Reports : MIS gives four types of reports namely, Marketing Research (MR) provides
plan-reports, periodic-reports, triggered- only one report called ‘MR Report.’
reports and demand reports.
Orientation Orientation of MIS is more future-oriented However, the orientation of
: when compared to MR. Marketing Research (MR) is more
past and present one when compared
to MIS. It concentrates more on
earlier and latest information. It uses
this information to solve a current
marketing problem.
Problems : MIS deals with and attempts to solve many Marketing Research (MR) only deals
different marketing problems at one time. with a single marketing problem at
For this, it collects, stores, analyzes and one time. It doesn't solve multiple
supplies relevant market information to the marketing problems simultaneously.
marketing managers.
Data : In MIS, the data is collected more In Marketing Research (MR), the data
frequently, usually almost daily. This is a is not collected as frequently as MIS.
must for every company. It is collected on a required basis.
Operation : MIS is a permanent and continuous system. Marketing Research (MR) is not a
Here, the inflow of market information continuous system. Here, data is
never stops. Data is constantly collected collected only when a company faces
and stored for further analysis. It is a specific marketing problem. It has a
properly analyzed, studied and well- starting and ending point.
organized before supplying to the
 marketing managers. MIS has a starting but
no ending point.
Computers MIS is heavily based on the use of Unlike MIS, Marketing Research
: computers. Here, computing technologies (MR) hardly makes use of computers.
are widely used to ease and facilitate data It uses computers only for analyzing
collection, its storage, analysis, retrieval some information and is not entirely
and supply of relevant information to based on computing technologies.
marketing managers of the company.
What is Research Design?
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques
chosen by a researcher to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to
sharpen the research methods suitable for the subject matter and set up
their studies for success.

Creating a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey

research, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and its sub-type
(experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study).

There are three main types of designs for research:

 Data collection
 Measurement
 Data Analysis

The research problem an organization faces will determine the design, not
vice-versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to use and
how they are used.

The Process of Research Design

The research design process is a systematic and structured approach to
conducting research. The process is essential to ensure that the study is
valid, reliable, and produces meaningful results.

1. Consider your aims and approaches: Determine the research

questions and objectives, and identify the theoretical framework and
methodology for the study.
2. Choose a type of Research Design: Select the appropriate
research design, such as experimental, correlational, survey, case
study, or ethnographic, based on the research questions and
objectives.
3. Identify your population and sampling method: Determine the
target population and sample size, and choose the sampling method,
such as random, stratified random sampling, or convenience
sampling.
 4. Choose your data collection methods: Decide on the methods,
such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments, and select
the appropriate instruments or tools for collecting data.
5. Plan your data collection procedures: Develop a plan for data
collection, including the timeframe, location, and personnel involved,
and ensure ethical considerations.
6. Decide on your data analysis strategies: Select the appropriate
data analysis techniques, such as statistical analysis, content
analysis, or discourse analysis, and plan how to interpret the results.

The process of research design is a critical step in conducting research. By

following the steps of research design, researchers can ensure that their
study is well-planned, ethical, and rigorous.

Research Design Elements

Impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases
trust in the accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the slightest
margin of error in experimental research is generally considered the desired
outcome. The essential elements are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections to research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis

Characteristics of Research Design

A proper design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies
provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create
a survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a design. There are four
key characteristics:

 Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make
assumptions about the data you expect to collect. The results
projected in the research should be free from research bias and
neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and
conclusions from multiple individuals and consider those who agree
with the results.
 Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects
similar results every time. You’ll only be able to reach the desired
results if your design is reliable. Your plan should indicate how to
form research questions to ensure the standard of results.
 Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the
only correct measuring tools are those which help a researcher in
 gauging results according to the objective of the research.
The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.
 Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a
population and not just a restricted sample. A generalized method
implies that your survey can be conducted on any part of a
population with similar accuracy.

Research Design Types

A researcher must clearly understand the various types to select which model
to implement for a study. Like the research itself, the design of your analysis
can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.

 Qualitative research
Qualitative research determines relationships between collected data and
observations based on mathematical calculations. Statistical methods can
prove or disprove theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon.
Researchers rely on qualitative observation research methods that conclude
“why” a particular theory exists and “what” respondents have to say about it.

 Quantitative research
Quantitative research is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect
actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide a better perspective for
making critical business decisions. Quantitative research methods are
necessary for the growth of any organization. Insights drawn from complex
numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when making
decisions about the business’s future.

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Focus on explaining and understanding Focus on quantifying and measuring

experiences and perspectives. phenomena.

Use of non-numerical data, such as words, Use of numerical data, such as

images, and observations. statistics and surveys.

Usually uses small sample sizes. Usually uses larger sample sizes.
 Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Typically emphasizes in-depth exploration Typically emphasizes precision and

and interpretation. objectivity.

Data analysis involves interpretation and Data analysis involves statistical

narrative analysis. analysis and hypothesis testing.

Results are presented numerically and

Results are presented descriptively.
statistically.

In summary or analysis, the step of qualitative research is more exploratory

and focuses on understanding the subjective experiences of individuals, while
quantitative research is more focused on objective data and statistical
analysis.

You can further break down the types of research design into five
categories:

1. Descriptive: In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely

interested in describing the situation or case under their research study. It is
a theory-based design method created by gathering, analyzing, and
presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into
the why and how of research. Descriptive design helps others better
understand the need for the research. If the problem statement is not clear,
you can conduct exploratory research.

2. Experimental: Experimental research establishes a relationship between

the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design where one
observes the impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent
variable. For example, one monitors the influence of an independent variable
such as a price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or
brand loyalty. It is an efficient research method as it contributes to solving a
problem.

The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on

the dependent variable. Social sciences often use it to observe human
behavior by analyzing two groups. Researchers can have participants change
their actions and study how the people around them react to understand
social psychology better.

3. Correlational research: Correlational research is a non-experimental

research technique. It helps researchers establish a relationship between two
closely connected variables. There is no assumption while evaluating a
relationship between two other variables, and statistical analysis techniques
calculate the relationship between them. This type of research requires two
different groups.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables

whose values range between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is
towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship between the variables, and -1
means a negative relationship between the two variables.

4. Diagnostic research: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to

evaluate the underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This
method helps one learn more about the factors that create troublesome
situations.

This design has three parts of the research:

 Inception of the issue

 Diagnosis of the issue
 Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory research: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and

thoughts on a subject to further explore their theories. The study explains
unexplored aspects of a subject and details the research questions’ what,
how, and why.

Benefits of Research Design

There are several benefits of having a well-designed research plan. Including:

 Clarity of research objectives: Research design provides a clear

understanding of the research objectives and the desired outcomes.
 Increased validity and reliability: To ensure the validity and
reliability of results, research design help to minimize the risk of bias
and helps to control extraneous variables.
 Improved data collection: Research design helps to ensure that the
proper data is collected and data is collected systematically and
consistently.
 Better data analysis: Research design helps ensure that the
collected data can be analyzed effectively, providing meaningful
insights and conclusions.
 Improved communication: A well-designed research helps ensure
the results are clean and influential within the research team and
external stakeholders.
 Efficient use of resources: reducing the risk of waste and
maximizing the impact of the research, research design helps to
ensure that resources are used efficiently.
A well-designed research plan is essential for successful research, providing
clear and meaningful insights and ensuring that resources are practical.

Types of Errors Affecting Research

Design
 Post last modified:13 August 2023
 Reading time:14 mins read
 Post category:Research Methodology

Types of Errors Affecting

Research Design
Designing a research project requires time, skill, and knowledge. If
you do not go through the process with clear intentions and
methods, you may come up with distorted details or a distorted
picture of what you are trying to achieve. With Qualtrics survey
software, we simplify the process of creating a survey, but you may
still feel frustrated with the scope of your research project.

This practical guide can help. While it is important to use the right
method in research, it is equally important to avoid making serious
mistakes that can result in negative results.

Some mistakes are made by asking the wrong questions:

 Population Specification Error

 Sampling Errors
 Selection Errors
 Frame Errors
 Survey Non-response Errors
Table of Content [Show]

Errors Related to Improper

Selection of Respondents
There are two general errors that may raise while the implications of
the research designs.

 Improper selections of the Respondents

 Errors related to the accuracy of the responses
Population Specification Error
Definitions of human speculation occur when the researcher does
not understand whom to examine. This can be tricky because there
are many people who may eat the product, but only one who buys
it, or they may lose the part they want to buy next time.

Example: Manufacturers of integrated goods often do research on

housewives, because they are easy to contact, and it is thought that
they decide what to buy and then make a real purchase. In this
case, there is often a misinterpretation of the people. A man can buy
an important share of the combined goods and have a visible direct
and indirect influence on the purchase. For this reason, the absence
of males in the samples may produce results aimed at the wrong
audience.
Sampling Errors
Sample error is a mathematical error that occurs when the analyst
does not select a sample that represents the total amount of data.
As a result, the results obtained from the sample do not represent
the results that would be available to the general population.
Sampling is an analysis done by selecting a certain number of
observations from most people. The selection method may specify
sample errors as well as non-sample errors.

Sample error is a deviation from the sample value compared to the

true population number. Sample errors occur because the sample is
not representative of the population or is biased in any way. Even
random samples will have some degree of sample error because the
sample is the only human measurement from which it is derived.
Sampling error can be reduced to some extent by designing a
sample in a better way.

Some important methods that result in less sampling errors are

discussed as follows:
  Increasing sample size: Increasing the sample size will
reduce sampling errors. If the sample size is equal to the
complete population, the scope of sampling error is zero.

 Stratification: It refers to dividing the given population into

homogeneous and non-overlapping units or sub-groups
(known as stratum) to make the sample more
representative. Grouping is done on the basis of one or more
common attributes. For example, there is a population of
1000 people, out of the entire population, 300 belong to
high-class, 400 belong to middle-class, and 300 belong to
low-class. The sizes of these strata are denoted by S1, S2
and S3.
Selection Errors
When respondents choose to participate in the study and respond
only to those who are interested, you may end up making a mistake
because there may already be a natural bias. This may also be the
case if participants do not comply with the study participants, or
where there is bias in the way participants are grouped.

Example: Inquiries conducting a survey of shopkeepers have a

natural tendency to choose the most responsive and acceptable
respondents if there is the freedom to do so. Such samples usually
consist of friends and acquaintances who have a certain degree of
similarity in characteristics of those of the desired tribe.
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How to Avoid This?

ticipate. The standard research process includes the start of a

prestudy contact requesting collaboration, actual testing, and post-
study follow-up. If no answer is found, a second request for a survey
is made, perhaps via telephone interviews or in person.

Frame Errors
Sample Frame Error – Frame error occurs when incorrect
demographics are used to select a sample. The flaw in the old
structure occurred in the 1936 presidential election between
Roosevelt and Landon. The sample framework was based on vehicle
registration and telephone references. In 1936, most Americans did
not own a car or a telephone, and those who did have a large
Republican population. The results mistakenly predicted the
Republic’s victory.
Survey Non-response Errors
Non-response errors pertain to errors that occur due to differences
between people that participate in surveys versus people who do
not participate in surveys. Non-response errors happen when the
respondents who complete the interview are somehow
systematically different compared to those who were unable to be
contacted and those who chose not to participate.

Example: In a telephone survey, some respondents are not

available because they are not at home when the first call is made.
Some have moved to or from home during the exam period. Non-
respondents at home tend to be younger than younger children and
have a much higher rate of working wives than home-based
households.
People who moved or did not travel during the inspection period had
significantly higher mobility than the average population. Therefore,
many studies can anticipate errors in non-communication with
respondents. Online surveys seek to avoid this error through email
distribution, thus removing non-home responders.

How to Avoid This?

When collecting responses, make sure your first respondents
participate and then use follow-up surveys and other access
methods if they do not respond initially. You can also use various
channels to reach your audience in person, in a web experiment, or
via SMS.

Errors Related to Accuracy of

Responses
This is the second type of errors while executing the research
designing the following errors will raise generally.

Non-response Errors
Non-response errors happen owing to failure to garner thorough
information on all units in the selected survey. Non-response error
affect survey results in two ways. First, there is shrinkage in sample
size or in the amount of information collected in response to a
particular question results in larger standard errors.
Secondly, a prejudice is introduced to the degree that the
distribution of some characteristics of non-respondents varies from
the distribution of the respondents within a selected survey. Your
respondents should accurately represent the number of people you
want to emulate. If non-respondents are not evenly distributed to
everyone, you will not have the right sample.

There are two ways in which an unanswered survey can take place:

 Contact (inability to communicate with all members of the

sample framework); and

 Refusal (non-response to one or all of the items in the

measuring instrument).
Respondents often represent positive or negative views on the topic
of the survey and may not represent the target audience as a whole.
Almost every survey contains some errors from non-access to the
list of respondent representatives. For example, in a telephone
study, non-respondents were not available because they were not at
home when the first calls were made or were called, moved, or were
not at home during the study period.
Surrogate Information Errors
In some research cases, the required information is not available.
Instead, you can receive replacement data that will act as a
representative of the required information. The need for
replacement information arises from the inability or unwillingness of
respondents to provide the requested information.

For example, decision-based behavioral research is always subject

to behavioral predictions. This prevents many advertising research
projects because one cannot see the future performance. Usually,
researchers find one or more types of consensus information that
are useful in predicting behavior.

Examples: You can get information about past behavior if you

believe it reflects your behavior in the future. For example, if you
want to market home computers in developing countries, you will
research, among other things, educational levels, income, and home
electricity. These changes affect the sale of home computers in
developing countries errors related to the accuracy of the answers.
Measurement Errors From Interviewers
This error occurs in many areas throughout the research process,
from the construction of your research to the analysis you found.
Rating error can be revealed by the interviewer, the interrogator, or
the respondent. Examples of measurement errors from the
interviewer and questionnaire could include incorrect question
names; bias in independent drawing objects; modification of
informal discussion of question terms; misunderstanding or
misinterpretation of the answer. On the respondent’s side, the rating
error incorporates how the respondent interprets the question, and
the respondent provides incorrect information.

Measurement Errors From Questions

Respondent error refers to any error included in the search results
due to respondents providing incorrect or incorrect information. It is
a form of formal bias. Several factors can lead to the error of the
respondents. Linguistic and educational problems can lead to
misunderstanding of the question by the respondent, or similarly,
misunderstanding the examiner’s response. Remembering
selections can lead to misinformation based on a poorly defined
respondent.

Public bias may cause the respondent to respond in a way that he or

she thinks is right or better or less embarrassing, rather than giving
truthful and honest answers. In some cases, it may even be the case
that some research is being done on an issue that is not publicly
accepted, such as the use of paint as done by DuPont in 2001-02.
Such a questionnaire may not be as effective as the Projective
Technique. Therefore, some cases can be categorised where
respondents may make a mistake by mistake.

Measurement Errors From Respondent

Measurement errors refer to those errors in the survey observations
that may be committed by interviewers, respondents, data
processors, and other survey personnel. At time, the reasons of
measurement errors are poorly designed questions or questionnaire
design, insufficient personal training or supervision, and
inappropriate quality control.

Measurement errors are often underlying in the data and are only
unravelled when the measurement process is repeated or responses
are compared to error-free measurements. If repeated
measurements are collated by the same measurement process,
systematic errors may remain concealed. Several analytical
techniques can be utilised to account for measurement errors in
data analysis and inference, such as structural equation modelling
instrumental variables and errors-in-variables modelling.

Common Flaws of Poor Research Design

Here is a checklist of research design flaws you may want to
avoid during research.

Ethical Implications

In your research design, it’s essential to mention how you

minimize risk for study participants. At the same time, you must
also ensure that you successfully address the research question
or problem effectively. Otherwise, the validity and objectivity of
the research may be questioned.

Invalid Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework allows you to construct a logical basis for

your study. Without a comprehensive logical hypothesis, it’s
difficult to test a logical hypothesis. It’s also important to ensure
that your research has basic postulates and assumptions that can
be tested by others. Otherwise, your research design may be
flawed.

Non-Specific

Researchers must ensure that their research design is concise

and clear. Otherwise, the research design is not strong.

Lack of Comprehensive Literature Review

A literature review compares your study and research work with

existing research work on that subject. If you don’t conduct a
comprehensive literature review, it’s difficult to identify gaps in
information and overall research assumptions.

Therefore, researchers may struggle at resolving those gaps. At

the same time, the absence of a comprehensive literature review
also makes it difficult to highlight the contributions of your
research to a particular topic, because you don’t challenge or
assess existing literature or attempt to relate new information to
existing information.

Improper Statistical Analysis

Studies must be scientifically proven, requiring proper statistical

analysis. However, failing to do so degrades the quality of
quantitative research. As a result, it significantly degrades the
quality of your experiment and makes it difficult to extract
meaningful interpretations.

Unclear Research Problem

A comprehensive research design consists of a clear research

problem. If your problem statement is not clear, it will be difficult
for you to construct the framework for developing meaningful
research questions address the core issue.

Research Limitations

All studies have limitations in some shape or form. As a

researcher, it’s your responsibility to understand those limitations
and incorporate them into your research design and findings.
Consider adding a statement in your manuscript that addresses
possible limitations. It would help if you add them in your
conclusion.

Research Instruments and Techniques

What kind of tools are you using for research? Is the data relevant
and updated? Does your research leverage the most trusted and
reliable surveys? As a researcher, you must define relevant
techniques and instruments in detail. Consider explaining how
you are using them to address the research problem or question.

Poor Sampling

Sampling errors lead to biased conclusions in various ways. It is

one of the most common flaws in research design. For instance,
proximity sampling is a sampling error where the researcher only
collects data from subjects who are easily accessible. Conclusions
derived from poor sampling techniques are considered faulty and
weak.

A poor research design can lead to a many issues, raising

questions about the quality of your research and the usability of
your findings. Our team can help you identify fundamental
research design flaws before your work is submitted to peer
criticism.
cales of Mea

What is the Scale?

A scale is a device or an object used to measure or quantify any event or another object.

levels of Measurements
There are four different scales of measurement. The data can be defined as being one of the
four scales. The four types of scales are:

 Nominal Scale
 Ordinal Scale
 Interval Scale
 Ratio Scale

Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as “tags” or
“labels” to classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals with the non-
numeric variables or the numbers that do not have any value.

Characteristics of Nominal Scale

  A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more categories. In this measurement
mechanism, the answer should fall into either of the classes.
 It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects.
 The numbers don’t define the object characteristics. The only permissible aspect of numbers
in the nominal scale is “counting.”
Example:

An example of a nominal scale measurement is given below:

What is your gender?

M- Male

F- Female

Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M or F.

Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking of data
without establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents the “order.”
Ordinal data is known as qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped, named and
also ranked.

Characteristics of the Ordinal Scale

 The ordinal scale shows the relative ranking of the variables

 It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable
 Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the rankings of
those variables
 The interval properties are not known
 The surveyors can quickly analyse the degree of agreement concerning the identified order
of variables
Example:

 Ranking of school students – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.

 Ratings in restaurants
 Evaluating the frequency of occurrences

 Very often

 Often

 Not often
  Not at all

 Assessing the degree of agreement

 Totally agree

 Agree

 Neutral

 Disagree

 Totally disagree

Interval Scale
The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale. It is defined as a quantitative
measurement scale in which the difference between the two variables is meaningful. In other
words, the variables are measured in an exact manner, not as in a relative way in which the
presence of zero is arbitrary.

Characteristics of Interval Scale:

 The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the values
 It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables
 To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values between
the variables
 The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any numerical values
to arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.
Example:

 Likert Scale
 Net Promoter Score (NPS)
 Bipolar Matrix Table

Ratio Scale
The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type of
variable measurement scale. It allows researchers to compare the differences or intervals. The
ratio scale has a unique feature. It possesses the character of the origin or zero points.

Characteristics of Ratio Scale:

 Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero

 It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature
  It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be orderly added,
subtracted, multiplied, divided. Mean, median, and mode can be calculated using the ratio
scale.
 Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows unit
conversions like kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.
Example:

An example of a ratio scale is:

What is your weight in Kgs?

 Less than 55 kgs

 55 – 75 kgs
 76 – 85 kgs
 86 – 95 kgs
 More than 95 kgs
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