ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM EMEG4221

UNIT 3
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS:

Introduction, analysis of unbalanced load against balanced Three-

phase supply, neutral shift. Resolution of unbalanced phasors into their symmetrical
components, Phase shift of symmetrical components in star-delta transformer bank,
Power in terms of symmetrical components, Analysis of balanced and unbalanced loads
against unbalanced 3 phase supply, Sequence impedances and networks of power
system elements (alternator, transformer and transmission line) Sequence networks of
power systems. Measurement of sequence impedance of synchronous generator. 12 Hours

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Power systems are large and complex three-phase systems. In the normal operating
conditions, these systems are in balanced condition and hence can be represented as an
equivalent single phase system. However, a fault can cause the system to become
unbalanced. Specifically, the unsymmetrical faults: open circuit, LG, LL, and LLG faults
cause the system to become unsymmetrical. The single-phase equivalent system method of
analysis (using SLD and the reactance diagram) cannot be applied to such unsymmetrical
systems. Now the question is how to analyze power systems under unsymmetrical
conditions? There are two methods available for such an analysis: Kirchhoff’s laws method
and Symmetrical components method.

The method of symmetrical components developed by C.L. Fortescue in 1918 is a powerful

technique for analyzing unbalanced three phase systems. Fortescue defined a linear
transformation from phase components to a new set of components called symmetrical
components. This transformation represents an unbalanced three-phase system by a set of
three balanced three-phase systems. The symmetrical component method is a modeling
technique that permits systematic analysis and design of three-phase systems. Decoupling a
complex three-phase network into three simpler networks reveals complicated phenomena in
more simplistic terms.

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Consider a set of three-phase unbalanced voltages designated as Va, Vb, and Vc. According to
Fortescue theorem, these phase voltages can be resolved into following three sets of
components.

1. Positive-sequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced

from each other by 1200 in phase, and having the same phase sequence as the original
phasors, designated as Va1, Vb1, and Vc1
2. Negative-sequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced
from each other by 1200 in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite to that of the
original phasors, designated as Va2, Vb2, and Vc2
3. Zero-sequence components, consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude, and with zero
phase displacement from each other, designated as Va0, Vb0, and Vc0
Since each of the original unbalanced phasors is the sum of its components, the original
phasors expressed in terns of their components are

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0

Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0
Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0 (3.1)

The synthesis of a set of three unbalanced phasors from the three sets of symmetrical
components is shown in Figure1.

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Figure 3.1 Graphical addition of symmetrical components

To obtain unbalanced phasors.

3.2 THE OPERATOR ‘a’

The relation between the symmetrical components reveals that the phase displacement among
them is either 1200 or 00. Using this relationship, only three independent components is
sufficient to determine all the nine components. For this purpose an operator which rotates a
given phasor by 1200 in the positive direction (counterclockwise) is very useful. The letter ‘a’
is used to designate such a complex operator of unit magnitude with an angle of 120 0. It is
defined by

a = 1 1200 = -0.5 + j 0.866 (3.2)

If the operator ‘a’ is applied to a phasor twice in succession, the phasor is rotated through
2400. Similarly, three successive applications of ‘a’ rotate the phasor through 3600.

To reduce the number of unknown quantities, let the symmetrical components of

Vb and Vc can be expressed as product of some function of the operator a and a component of
Va. Thus,

Vb1 = a 2 Va1 Vb2 = a Va2 Vb0 = Va0

Vc1 = a Va1 Vc2 = a 2 Va2 Vc0 = Va0
Using these relations the unbalanced phasors can be written as

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Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Vb = Va0 + a 2Va1 + a Va2
Vc = Va0 + a Va1 + a 2Va2 (3.3)

In matrix form,

va 1 1 1 va 0
vb 1 a2 a va1 (3.4)
2
vc 1 a a va 2

va va 0 1 1 1
Let Vp vb ; Vs va1 ; A 1 a2 a (3.5)
2
vc va 2 1 a a

The inverse of A matrix is

1 1 1
1
A 1
3 1 a a2 (3.6)
2
1 a a
With these definitions, the above relations can be written as

Vp = A Vs; Vs = A-1Vp (3.7)

Thus the symmetrical components of Va, Vb and Vc are given by

Va0 = 1/3 (Va + Vb + Vc)

Va1 = 1/3 (Va + a Vb + a 2Vc)
Va2 = 1/3 (Va + a 2Vb + a Vc) (3.8)

Since the sum of three balanced voltages is zero, the zero-sequence component voltage in a
balanced three-phase system is always zero. Further, the sum of line voltages of even an
unbalanced three-phase system is zero and hence the corresponding zero-sequence
component of line voltages.

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NUMERICAL EXAMPLES

Example 1 : The line currents in a 3-ph 4 –wire system are Ia = 100<300 ; Ib = 50<3000 ; Ic
= 30<1800. Find the symmetrical components and the neutral current.

Solution:
Ia0 = 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 27.29 < 4.70 A
Ia1 = 1/3(Ia + a Ib + a2Ic) = 57.98 < 43.30 A
Ia2 = 1/3(Ia + a2 Ib + a Ic) = 18.96 < 24.90 A
In = Ia + Ib + Ic = 3 Ia0 = 81.87 <4.70 A

Example 2: The sequence component voltages of phase voltages of a 3-ph system are:
Va0 = 100 <00 V; Va1 = 223.6 < -26.60 V ; Va2 = 100 <1800 V. Determine the phase
voltages.

Solution:
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = 223.6 <-26.60 V
Vb = Va0 + a2Va1 + a Va2 = 213 < -99.90 V
Vc = Va0 + a Va1 + a2 Va2 = 338.6 < 66.20 V

Example 3: The two seq. components and the corresponding phase voltage of a 3-ph system
are Va0 =1<-600 V; Va1=2<00 V ; & Va = 3 <00 V. Determine the other phase voltages.

Solution:
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2
Va2 = Va – Va0 – Va1 = 1 <600 V
Vb = Va0 + a2Va1 + a Va2 = 3 < -1200 V
Vc = Va0 + a Va1 + a2 Va2 = 0 V

Example 4: Determine the sequence components if Ia =10<600 A; Ib =10<-600 A; Ic = 10

<1800 A.
Solution:
Ia0 = 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic) =0A

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Ia1 = 1/3(Ia + a Ib + a2Ic) = 10<600 A

Ia2 = 1/3(Ia + a2 Ib + a Ic) =0A
Observation: If the phasors are balanced, two sequence components will be zero.

Example 5: Determine the sequence components if Va = 100 <300 V; Vb = 100 <1500 V

& Vc = 100 <-900 V.

Solution:
Va0 = 1/3(Va + Vb + Vc) =0V
Va1 = 1/3(Va + a Vb + a2Vc) =0V
Va2 = 1/3(Va + a2 Vb + a Vc) = 100<300 V
Observation: If the phasors are balanced, two sequence components will be zero.

Example 6: The line b of a 3-ph line feeding a balanced Y-load with neutral grounded is
open resulting in line currents: Ia = 10<00 A & Ic = 10<1200 A. Determine the sequence
current components.

Solution:
Ib = 0 A.
Ia0 = 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 3.33<600 A
Ia1 = 1/3(Ia + a Ib + a2Ic) = 6.66<00 A
Ia2 = 1/3(Ia + a2 Ib + a Ic) = 3.33<-600 A

Example 7: One conductor of a 3-ph line feeding a balanced delta-load is open. Assuming
that line c is open, if current in line a is 10<00 A , determine the sequence components of the
line currents.

Solution:
Ic = 0 A; Ia = 10<00 A.  Ib = 10<1200 A
Ia0 = 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 0A
Ia1 = 1/3(Ia + a Ib + a2Ic) = 5.78<-300 A
Ia2 = 1/3(Ia + a2 Ib + a Ic) = 5.78< 300 A
Note: The zero-sequence components of line currents of a delta load (3-ph 3-wire) system are
zero.

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3.3 POWER IN TERMS OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

The power in a three-phase system can be expressed in terms of symmetrical components of

the associated voltages and currents. The power flowing into a three-phase system through
three lines a, b and c is

S = P + j Q = Va Ia* + Vb Ib* + Vc Ic * (3.9)

where Va , Vb and Vc are voltages to neutral at the terminals and I a , Ib, and Ic are the
currents flowing into the system in the three lines. In matrix form

* T *
Ia Va Ia
S va vb vc Ib Vb Ib
Ic Vc Ic
Thus
S = [A V]T [AI]*

Using the reversal rule of the matrix algebra

S = VT AT A* I*

Noting that AT = A and a and a 2 are conjugates,

1 1 1 1 1 1
I a0
S va 0 va1 va 2 1 a 2 a 1 a a2 I a1
2 2
1 a a 1 a a
I a2
or, since A T A* is equal to 3U where U is 3x3 unit matrix

*
I a0
S 3 va 0 va1 va 2 I a1
I a2
Thus the complex three-phase power is given by

S = Va Ia* + Vb Ib* + Vc Ic * = 3 Va0 Ia0 + 3 Va1 Ia1 + 3 Va2 Ia2 (3.10)

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Here, 3Va0Ia0, 3Va1Ia1 and 3Va2Ia2 correspond to the three-phase power delivered to the zero-
sequence system, positive-sequence system, and negative-sequence system, respectively.
Thus, the total three-phase power in the unbalanced system is equal to the sum of the power
delivered to the three sequence systems representing the three-phase system.

3.4 PHASE SHIFT OF COMPONENTS IN Y-Δ TRANSFORMER BANKS

The dot convention is used to designate the terminals of transformers. The dots are placed at
one end of each of the winding on the same iron core of a transformer to indicate that the
currents flowing from the dotted terminal to the unmarked terminal of each winding produces
an mmf acting in the same direction in the magnetic circuit. In that case, the voltage drops
from dotted terminal to unmarked terminal in each side of the windings are in phase.

The HT terminals of three-phase transformers are marked as H1, H2 and H3 and the
corresponding LT side terminals are marked X1, X2 and X3. In Y-Y or Δ-Δ transformers, the
markings are such that voltages to neutral from terminals H1, H2, and H3 are in phase with
the voltages to neutral from terminals X1, X2, and X3, respectively. But, there will be a
phase shift (of 300) between the corresponding quantities of the primary and secondary sides
of a star-delta (or delta-star) transformer. The standard for connection and designation of
transformer banks is as follows:
1. The HT side terminals are marked as H1, H2 and H3 and the corresponding LT side
terminals are marked X1, X2 and X3.
2. The phases in the HT side are marked in uppercase letters as A, B, and C. Thus for the
sequence abc, A is connected to H1, B to H2 and C to H3. Similarly, the phases in the LT
side are marked in lowercase letters as a, b and c.
3. The standard for designating the terminals H1 and X1 on transformer banks requires that
the positive-sequence voltage drop from H1 to neutral lead the positive sequence voltage
drop from X1 to neutral by 300 regardless of the type of connection in the HT and LT
sides. Similarly, the voltage drops from H2 to neutral and H3 to neutral lead their
corresponding values, X2 to neutral and X3 to neutral by 30 0.

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Figure 3.2 Wiring diagram and voltage phasors of a Y-Δ transformer

With Y connection on HT side.

Consider a Y- Δ transformer as shown in Figure a. The HT side terminals H1, H2, and H3 are
connected to phases A, B, and C, respectively and the phase sequence is ABC. The windings
that are drawn in parallel directions are those linked magnetically (by being wound on the
same core). In Figure a winding AN is the phase on the Y-side which is linked magnetically
with the phase winding bc on the Δ side. For the location of the dots on the windings VAN is
in phase with Vbc. Following the standards for the phase shift, the phasor diagrams for the
sequence components of voltages are shown in Figure b. The sequence component of V AN1 is
represented as VA1 (leaving subscript ‘N’ for convenience and all other voltages to neutral are
similarly represented. The phasor diagram reveals that V A1 leads Vb1 by 300. This will enable
to designate the terminal to which b is connected as X1. Inspection of the positive-sequence
and negative-sequence phasor diagrams revels that Va1 leads VA1 by 900 and Va2 lags VA2 by
900.

From the dot convention and the current directions assumed in Figure a, the phasor diagram
for the sequence components of currents can be drawn as shown in Figure c. Since the
direction specified for IA in Figure a is away from the dot in the winding and the direction of

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Ibc is also away from the dot in its winding, I A and Ibc are 1800 out of phase. Hence the phase
relation between the Y and Δ currents is as shown in Figure c. From this diagram, it can be
seen that Ia1 leads IA1 by 900 and Ia2 lags IA2 by 900. Summarizing these relations between
the symmetrical components on the two sides of the transformer gives:

Figure 3.3 Current phasors of Y-Δ transformer with Y connection on HT side.

Va1 = +j VA1 Ia1 = +j IA1

Va2 = -j VA2 Ia1 = -j IA2 (3.11)
Where each voltage and current is expressed in per unit. Although, these relations are
obtained for Y- Δ transformer with Y connection in the HT side, they are valid even when the
HT side is connected in Δ and the LT side in Y.

NUMERICAL EXAMPLES

Example 8: Three identical resistors are Y-connected to the LT Y-side of a delta-star

transformer. The voltages at the resistor loads are |Vab| = 0.8 pu., |Vbc|=1.2 pu., and
|Vca|=1.0 pu. Assume that the neutral of the load is not connected to the neutral of the
transformer secondary. Find the line voltages on the HT side of the transformer.

Solution:
Assuming an angle of 1800 for Vca, find the angles of other voltages

Vab = 0.8<82.80 pu
Vbc = 1.2<-41.40 pu
Vca = 1.0<1800 pu
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The symmetrical components of line voltages are

Vab0 = 1/3 (Vab +Vbc + Vca) = 0

Vab1 = 1/3 (Vab +aVbc + a2Vca) = 0.985<73.60 V
Vab1 = 1/3 (Vab +a2Vbc + aVca) = 0.235<220.30 V

Since Van1 = Vab1<-300 and Van2 = Vab2<300

Van1 = 0.985<73.60-300
= 0.985<43.60 pu (L-L base)
Van2 = 0.235<220.30+300
= 0.235<250.30 pu(L-L base)

Since each resistor is of 1.0<0 pu. Impedance,

Ian1 = (Van1/Z) = 0.985<43.60 pu.
Ian2 = (Van2/Z) = 0.235<250.30 pu.

The directions are +ve for currents from supply toward the delta primary and away from the
Y-side toward the load. The HT side line to neutral voltages are

VA1 = - j Va1 = 0.985<-46.40

VA2 = +j Va2 = 0.235<-19.70
VA = VA1 +VA2 = 1.2<-41.30 pu.
VB1 = a2VA1 and VB2 = a VA2
0
VB = VB1 + VB2 = 1<180 pu.
VC1 = a VA1 and VC2 = a2VA2
VC = VC1 + VC2 = 0.8<82.90 pu.

The HT side line voltages are

VAB = VA – VB = 2.06<-22.60 pu. (L-N base)

= (1/3) VAB = 1.19<-22.60 pu. (L-L base)
VBC = VB – Vc = 1.355<215.80 pu. (L-N
base)
= (1/3) VBC = 0.782<215.80 pu. (L-L base)
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VCA = VC – VA = 1.78<116.90 pu. (L-N base)

= (1/3) VCA = 1.028<116.90 pu. (L-L base)

3.5 UNSYMMETRICAL IMPEDANCES

Figure 3.4 Portion of three-phase system representing three

unequal series impedances.

Consider the network shown in Figure. Assuming that there is no mutual impedance between
the impedances Za, Zb, and Zc, the voltage drops Vaa’, vbb’, and Vcc’ can be expressed in
matrix form as

Vaa ' Za 0 0 Ia
Vbb ' 0 Zb 0 Ib (3.12)
Vcc ' 0 0 Zc Ic

And in terms of symmetrical components of voltage and current as

Vaa '0 Za 0 0 I a0
A Vaa '1 0 Zb 0 A I a1 (3.13)
Vaa '2 0 0 Zc Ia2

If the three impedances are equal ( i.e., if Za = Zb = Zc), Eq reduces to

Vaa’1 = Za Ia1; Vaa’2 = Za Ia2; Vaa’0 = Za Ia0 (3.14)

Thus, the symmetrical components of unbalanced currents flowing in balanced series

impedances (or in a balanced Y load) produce voltage drops of like sequence only. However,

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if the impedances are unequal or if there exists mutual coupling, then voltage drop of any one
sequence is dependent on the currents of all the sequences.

Figure 3.5 Sequence impedances of a Y-connected load.

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NUMERICAL EXAMPLES

Example 9: A Y-connected source with phase voltages Vag = 277<00, Vbg = 260<-1200 and
Vcg = 295<1150 is applied to a balanced Δ load of 30<400 Ω/phase through a line of
impedance 1<850 Ω. The neutral of the source is solidly grounded. Draw the sequence
networks of the system and find source currents.

Solution:
Va0 = 15.91<62.110 V
Va1 = 277.1<-1.70 V
Va2 = 9.22<216.70 V
Y eq. of Δ load = 10<400 Ω/phase
Zline = 1<850 Ω.
Zneutral = 0

Ia0 = 0<00 A
Ia1 = 25.82<-45.60 A
Ia2 = 0.86<172.80 A

Ia = 25.15<-46.80 A
Ib = 25.71<196.40 A
Ic = 26.62<73.80 A

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3.6 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES AND SEQUENCE NETWORKS

The impedance of a circuit to positive-sequence currents alone is called the impedance to

positive-sequence current or simply positive-sequence impedance, which is generally denoted
as Z1. Similarly, the impedance of a circuit to negative-sequence currents alone is called the

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impedance to negative-sequence current or simply negative-sequence impedance, which is

generally denoted as Z2. The impedance of a circuit to zero-sequence currents alone is called
the impedance to zero-sequence current or simply zero-sequence impedance, which is
generally denoted as Z0. In the analysis of an unsymmetrical fault on a symmetrical system,
the symmetrical components of the unbalanced currents that are flowing are determined.
Since in a balanced system, the components currents of one sequence cause voltage drops of
like sequence only and are independent of currents of other sequences, currents of any one
sequence may be considered to flow in an independent network composed of the generated
voltages, if any, and impedances to the current of that sequence only.

The single-phase equivalent circuit consisting of the impedances to currents of any one
sequence only is called the sequence network of that particular sequence. Thus, the sequence
network corresponding to positive-sequence current is called the positive-sequence network.
Similarly, the sequence network corresponding to negative-sequence current is called
negative-sequence network, and that corresponding to zero-sequence current is called zero-
sequence network. The sequence networks are interconnected in a particular way to represent
various unsymmetrical fault conditions. Therefore, to calculate the effect of a fault by the
method of symmetrical components, it is required to determine the sequence networks.

3.7 SEQUENCE NETWORKS OF UNLOADED GENERATOR

Consider an unloaded generator which is grounded through a reactor as shown in Figure.

When a fault occurs, unbalanced currents depending on the type of fault will flow through the
lines. These currents can be resolved into their symmetrical components. To draw the
sequence networks of this generator, the component voltages/currents, component
impedances are to be determined. The generated voltages are of positive-sequence only as the
generators are designed to supply balanced three-phase voltages. Hence, positive-sequence
network is composed of an emf in series with the positive-sequence impedance. The
generated emf in this network is the no-load terminal voltage to neutral, which is also equal
to the transient and subtransient voltages as the generator is not loaded. The reactance in this
network is the subtransient, transient, or synchronous reactance, depending on the condition
of study.

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Figure 3.6 Circuit of an unloaded generator grounded through reactance.

The negative- and zero-sequence networks are composed of only the respective sequence
impedances as there is no corresponding sequence emf. The reference bus for the positive-
and negative-sequence networks is the neutral of the generator.

The current flowing in the impedance Zn between neutral and ground is 3I a0 as shown in Fig.
Thus the zero-sequence voltage drop from point a to ground, is (-Ia0Zg0 – 3Ia0Zn) where
Zg0 is the zero-sequence impedance of the generator. Thus the zero-sequence network, which
is single-phase equivalent circuit assumed to carry only one phase, must have an zero-
sequence impedance of Zo = (Zg0 +3Zn).

From the sequence networks, the voltage drops from point a to reference bus (or ground) are
given by

Va1 = Ea - Ia1Z1
Va2 = - Ia2Z2
Va0 = - Ia0 Z0 (3.15)

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Figure 3.7 Sequence current paths in a generator and

The corresponding sequence networks.

Eq. 3.15 applicable to any unloaded generator are valid for loaded generator under steady
state conditions. These relations are also applicable for transient or subtransient conditions of
a loaded generator if Eg’ or Eg” is substituted for Ea.

3.8 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE OF CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

For obtaining the sequence networks, the component voltages/ currents and the component
impedances of all the elements of the network are to be determined. The usual elements of a
power system are: passive loads, rotating machines (generators/ motors), transmission lines
and transformers. The positive- and negative-sequence impedances of linear, symmetrical,

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static circuits are identical (because the impedance of such circuits is independent of phase
order provided the applied voltages are balanced).

The sequence impedances of rotating machines will generally differ from one another. This is
due to the different conditions that exists when the sequence currents flows. The flux due to
negative-sequence currents rotates at double the speed of rotor while that the positive-
sequence currents is stationary with respect to the rotor. The resultant flux due to zero-
sequence currents is ideally zero as these flux components adds up to zero, and hence the
zero-sequence reactance is only due to the leakage flux. Thus, the zero-sequence impedance
of these machines is smaller than positive- and negative-sequence impedances.

The positive- and negative-sequence impedances of a transmission line are identical, while
the zero-sequence impedance differs from these. The positive- and negative-sequence
impedances are identical as the transposed transmission lines are balanced linear circuits. The
zero-sequence impedance is higher due to magnetic field set up by the zero-sequence currents
is very different from that of the positive- or negative-sequence currents ( because of no
phase difference). The zero-sequence reactance is generally 2 to 3.5 times greater than the
positive- sequence reactance. It is customary to take all the sequence impedances of a
transformer to be identical, although the zero-sequence impedance slightly differs with
respect to the other two.

3.9 SEQUENCE NETWORKS OF POWER SYSTEMS

In the method of symmetrical components, to calculate the effect of a fault on a power

system, the sequence networks are developed corresponding to the fault condition. These
networks are then interconnected depending on the type of fault. The resulting network is
then analyzed to find the fault current and other parameters.

Positive- and Negative-Sequence Networks: The positive-sequence network is obtained by

determining all the positive-sequence voltages and positive-sequence impedances of
individual elements, and connecting them according to the SLD. All the generated emfs are
positive-sequence voltages. Hence all the per unit reactance/impedance diagrams obtained in
the earlier chapters are positive-sequence networks. The negative-sequence generated emfs

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are not present. Hence, the negative-sequence network for a power system is obtained by
omitting all the generated emfs (short circuiting emf sources) and replacing all impedances
by negative-sequence impedances from the positive-sequence networks.

Since all the neutral points of a symmetrical three-phase system are at the same potential
when balanced currents are flowing, the neutral of a symmetrical three-phase system is the
logical reference point. It is therefore taken as the reference bus for the positive- and
negative-sequence networks. Impedances connected between the neutral of the machine and
ground is not a part of either the positive- or negative- sequence networks because neither
positive- nor negative-sequence currents can flow in such impedances.

Zero-Sequence Networks: The zero-sequence components are the same both in magnitude
and in phase. Thus, it is equivalent to a single-phase system and hence, zero-sequence
currents will flow only if a return path exists. The reference point for this network is the
ground (Since zero-sequence currents are flowing, the ground is not necessarily at the same
point at all points and the reference bus of zero-sequence network does not represent a
ground of uniform potential. The return path is conductor of zero impedance, which is the
reference bus of the zero-sequence network.).

If a circuit is Y-connected, with no connection from the neutral to ground or to another

neutral point in the circuit, no zero-sequence currents can flow, and hence the impedance to
zero-sequence current is infinite. This is represented by an open circuit between the neutral of
the Y-connected circuit and the reference bus, as shown in Fig. 3.6a. If the neutral of the Y-
connected circuit is grounded through zero impedance, a zero-impedance path (short circuit)
is connected between the neutral point and the reference bus, as shown in Fig. 3.6b. If an
impedance Zn is connected between the neutral and the ground of a Y-connected circuit, an
impedance of 3Zn must be connected between the neutral and the reference bus (because, all
the three zero-sequence currents (3Ia0) flows through this impedance to cause a voltage drop
of 3Ia0 Z0 ), as shown in Fig. 3.6c.

A Δ-connected circuit can provide no return path; its impedance to zero-sequence line
currents is therefore infinite. Thus, the zero-sequence network is open at the Δ-connected

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circuit, as shown in Fig.3.7 However zero-sequence currents can circulate inside the Δ-
connected circuit.

Figure 3.8 Zero-sequence equivalent networks of Y-connected load

Figure 3.9 Zero-sequence equivalent networks of Δ -connected load

The zero-sequence equivalent circuits of three-phase transformers deserve special attention.

The different possible combinations of the primary and the secondary windings in Y and Δ
alter the zero-sequence network. The five possible connections of two-winding transformers
and their equivalent zero-sequence networks are shown in Fig.3.8. The networks are drawn
remembering that there will be no primary current when there is no secondary current,

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neglecting the no-load component. The arrows on the connection diagram show the possible
paths for the zero-sequence current. Absence of an arrow indicates that the connection is such
that zero-sequence currents cannot flow. The letters P and Q identify the corresponding
points on the connection diagram and equivalent circuit.
1. Case 1: Y-Y Bank with one neutral grounded: If either one of the neutrals of a Y-Y
bank is ungrounded, zero-sequence current cannot flow in either winding ( as the absence
of a path through one winding prevents current in the other). An open circuit exists for
zero-sequence current between two parts of the system connected by the transformer
bank.
2. Case 2: Y-Y Bank with both neutral grounded: In this case, a path through transformer
exists for the zero-sequence current. Hence zero-sequence current can flow in both sides
of the transformer provided there is complete outside closed path for it to flow. Hence the
points on the two sides of the transformer are connected by the zer0-sequence impedance
of the transformer.
3. Case 3: Y- Δ Bank with grounded Y: In this case, there is path for zero-sequence
current to ground through the Y as the corresponding induced current can circulate in the
Δ. The equivalent circuit must provide for a path from lines on the Y side through zero-
sequence impedance of the transformer to the reference bus. However, an open circuit
must exist between line and the reference bus on the Δ side. If there is an impedance Zn
between neutral and ground, then the zero-sequence impedance must include 3Zn along
with zero-sequence impedance of the transformer.
4. Case 4: Y- Δ Bank with ungrounded Y: In this case, there is no path for zero-sequence
current. The zero-sequence impedance is infinite and is shown by an open circuit.
5. Case 5: Δ-Δ Bank: In this case, there is no return path for zero-sequence current. The
zero-sequence current cannot flow in lines although it can circulate in the Δ windings.
6. The zero-sequence equivalent circuits determined for the individual parts separately are
connected according to the SLD to form the complete zero-sequence network.

Procedure to draw the sequence networks

The sequence networks are three separate networks which are the single-phase equivalent of
the corresponding symmetrical sequence systems. These networks can be drawn as follows:

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1. For the given condition (steady state, transient, or subtransient), draw the reactance
diagram (selecting proper base values and converting all the per unit values to the
selected base, if necessary). This will correspond to the positive-sequence network.

Figure 3.8 Zero-sequence equivalent networks of three-phase

transformer banks for various combinations.

2. Determine the per unit negative-sequence impedances of all elements (if the values of
negative sequence is not given to any element, it can approximately be taken as equal to
the positive-sequence impedance). Draw the negative-sequence network by replacing all

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emf sources by short circuit and all impedances by corresponding negative-sequence

impedances in the positive-sequence network.
3. Determine the per unit zero-sequence impedances of all the elements and draw the zero-
sequence network corresponding to the grounding conditions of different elements.

NUMERICAL EXAMPLES

Example 10: For the power system shown in the SLD, draw the sequence networks.

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EXERCISE PROBLEM: For the power system shown in the SLD, draw the sequence
networks.

=============

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UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS: L-G, L-L, L-L-G faults on an unbalanced alternator with

and without fault impedance. Unsymmetrical faults on a power system with and without
fault impedance. Open conductor faults in power system. 14 Hours

5.1 PREAMBLE

The unsymmetrical faults will have faulty parameters at random. They can be analyzed by
using the symmetrical components. The standard types of unsymmetrical faults considered
for analysis include the following (in the order of their severity):

 Line–to–Ground (L-G) Fault

 Line–to–Line (L-L) Fault
 Double Line–to–Ground (L-L-G)Fault and
 Three-Phase–to–Ground (LLL-G) Fault.

Further the neutrals of various equipment may be grounded or isolated, the faults can occur at
any general point F of the given system, the faults can be through a fault impedance, etc. Of
the various types of faults as above, the 3- fault involving the ground is the most severe
one. Here the analysis is considered in two stages as under: (i) Fault at the terminals
of a Conventional (Unloaded) Generator and (ii) Faults at any point F, of a given Electric
Power System (EPS).

Consider now the symmetrical component relational equations derived from the three
sequence networks corresponding to a given unsymmetrical system as a function of sequence
impedances and the positive sequence voltage source in the form as under:

Va0 = - Ia0Z0
Va1 = Ea - Ia1Z1
Va2 = - Ia2Z2 (5.1)

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These equations are refered as the sequence equations. In matrix Form the sequence
equations can be considered as:

Va0 0 Z0 0 0 Ia0
Va1 = Ea – 0 Z1 0 Ia1
Va2 0 0 0 Z2 Ia2 (5.2)

This equation is used along with the equations i.e., conditions under fault (c.u.f.), derived to
describe the fault under consideration, to determine the sequence current Ia1 and hence the
fault current If, in terms of Ea and the sequence impedances, Z1, Z2 and Z0. Thus during
unsymmetrical fault analysis of any given type of fault, two sets of equations as follows are
considered for solving them simultaneously to get the required fault parameters:

 Equations for the conditions under fault (c.u.f.)

 Equations for the sequence components (sequence equations) as per (5.2) above.

4.2 SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT ON A CONVENTIONAL (UNLOADED)

GENERATOR

Figure 5.1 LG Fault on a Conventional Generator

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A conventional generator is one that produces only the balanced voltages. Let Ea, nd Ec be
the internally generated voltages and Zn be the neutral impedance. The fault is assumed to be
on the phase’a’ as shown in figure 4.1. Consider now the conditions under fault as under:

c.u.f.:

Ib = 0; Ic = 0; and Va = 0. (5.3)

Now consider the symmetrical components of the current Ia with Ib=Ic=0, given by:

Ia0 1 1 1 Ia
Ia1 = (1/3) 1 a a2 0
2
Ia2 1 a a 0 (5.4)
Solving (4.4) we get,

Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = (Ia/3) (5.5)

Further, using equation (4.5) in (4.2), we get,

Va0 0 Z0 0 0 Ia1
Va1 = Ea – 0 Z1 0 Ia1
Va2 0 0 0 Z2 Ia1 (5.6)

Pre-multiplying equation (4.6) throughout by [1 1 1], we get,

Va1+Va2+Va0 = - Ia1Z0 + Ea – Ia1Z1 – Ia2Z2

i.e., Va = Ea – Ia1 (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) = zero,

Or in other words,

Ia1 = [Ea/(Z1 + Z2 + Z0)] (5.7)

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.
Figure 5.2 Connection of sequence networks for LG Fault

on phase a of a Conventional Generator

The equation (4.7) derived as above implies that the three sequence networks are connected
in series to simulate a LG fault, as shown in figure 4.2. Further we have the following
relations satisfied under the fault conditions:

1. Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = (Ia/3) = [Ea/(Z1 + Z2 + Z0)]

2. Fault current If = Ia = 3Ia1 = [3Ea/(Z1 + Z2 + Z0)]
3. Va1 = Ea - Ia1Z1 = Ea(Z2+Z0)/(Z1+Z2+Z0)
4. Va2 = - EaZ2/(Z1+Z2+Z0)
5. Va0 = - EaZ0/(Z1+Z2+Z0)
6. Fault phase voltage Va = 0,
7. Sound phase voltages Vb = a2Va1+aVa2+Va0; Vc = aVa1+a2Va2+Va0
8. Fault phase power: VaIa* = 0, Sound pahse powers: VbIb* = 0, and VcIc* = 0,
9. If Zn = 0, then Z0 = Zg0,
10. If Zn = , then Z0 = , i.e., the zero sequence network is open so that then, I f=Ia=0.

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4.3 LINE TO LINE FAULT ON A CONVENTIONAL GENERATOR

Figure 4.3 LL Fault on a Conventional Generator

Consider a line to line fault between phase ‘b’ and phase ‘c’ as shown in figure 4.3, at the
terminals of a conventional generator, whose neutral is grounded through a reactance.
Consider now the conditions under fault as under:
c.u.f.:
Ia = 0; Ib = - Ic; and Vb = Vc (4.8)
Now consider the symmetrical components of the voltage V a with Vb=Vc, given by:
Va0 1 1 1 Va
Va1 = (1/3) 1 a a2 Vb
Va2 1 a2 a Vb (4.9)

Solving (4.4) we get,

Va1 = Va2 (4.10)
Further, consider the symmetrical components of current Ia with Ib=-Ic, and Ia=0; given by:
Ia0 1 1 1 0
Ia1 = (1/3) 1 a a2 Ib
Ia2 1 a2 a -Ib (4.11)
Solving (4.11) we get,
Ia0 = 0; and Ia2 = -Ia1 (4.12)

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Using equation (4.10) and (4.12) in (4.2), and since Va0 = 0 ( Ia0 being 0), we get,
0 0 Z0 0 0 0
Va1 = Ea – 0 Z1 0 Ia1
Va1 0 0 0 Z2 -Ia1 (4.13)
Pre-multiplying equation (4.13) throughout by [0 1 -1], we get,
Va1-Va1 = Ea – Ia1Z1 – Ia1Z2 = 0
Or in other words,
Ia1 = [Ea/(Z1 + Z2)] (4.14)

Figure 4.4 Connection of sequence networks for LL Fault on

phases b & c of a Conventional Generator

The equation (4.14) derived as above implies that the three sequence networks are connected
such that the zero sequence network is absent and only the positive and negative sequence
networks are connected in series-opposition to simulate the LL fault, as shown in figure 4.4.
Further we have the following relations satisfied under the fault conditions:
1. Ia1 = - Ia2 = [Ea/(Z1 + Z2)] and Ia0 = 0,
2. Fault current If = Ib = - Ic = [ 3Ea/(Z1 + Z2)] (since Ib = (a2-a)Ia1 = 3Ia1)
3. Va1 = Ea - Ia1Z1 = EaZ2/(Z1+Z2)
4. Va2 = Va1 = EaZ2/(Z1+Z2)
5. Va0 = 0,
6. Fault phase voltages;V b = Vc = aVa1+a2Va2+Va0 = (a+a2)Va1 = - Va1
7. Sound phase voltage; Va = Va1+Va2+Va0 = 2Va1;
8. Fault phase powers are VbIb* and VcIc*,
9. Sound phase power: VaIa* = 0,
10. Since Ia0=0, the presence of absence of neutral impedance does not make any
difference in the analysis.

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4.4 DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT ON A CONVENTIONAL GENERATOR

Figure 4.5 LLG Fault on a Conventional Generator

Consider a double-line to ground fault at the terminals of a conventional unloaded generator,

whose neutral is grounded through a reactance, between phase ‘b’ and phase ‘c’ as shown in
figure 4.5, Consider now the conditions under fault as under:

c.u.f.:

Ia = 0 and Vb = Vc = 0 (4.15)

Now consider the symmetrical components of the voltage with V b=Vc=0, given by:

Va0 1 1 1 Va
Va1 = (1/3) 1 a a2 0
Va2 1 a2 a 0 (4.16)
Solving (4) we get,

Va1 = Va2 = Va0 = Va/3 (4.17)

Consider now the sequence equations (4.2) as under,

Va0 0 Z0 0 0 Ia0
Va1 = Ea – 0 Z1 0 Ia1
Va2 0 0 0 Z2 Ia2 (4.18)

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Pre-multiplying equation (4.18) throughout by

1/Z0 0 0

Z-1 = 0 1/Z1 0

0 0 1/Z2 (4.19)

We get,

Va1 0 Z0 0 0 Ia0
Z-1 Va1 = Z-1 Ea – Z-1 0 Z1 0 Ia1
Va1 0 0 0 Z2 Ia2 (4.20)

Using the identity: Va1= (Ea – Ia1Z1) in equation (4.19), pre-multiplying throughout by [1 1
1] and finally adding, we get,

Ea/Z0 - Ia1(Z1/Z0) + (Ea/Z1)- Ia1 + Ea/Z2 - Ia1(Z1/Z2) = (Ea/Z1) – (Ia0+Ia1+Ia2)

= (Ea/Z1) - Ia = (Ea/Z1) (4.21)

Since Ia = 0, solving the equation (4.21), we get,

Ia1 = { Ea/ [Z1 + Z2Z0/(Z2+Z0)] } (4.22)

Figure4.6 Connection of sequence networks for LLG Fault on

phases b and c of a Conventional Generator

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The equation (4.22) derived as above implies that, to simulate the LLG fault, the three
sequence networks are connected such that the positive network is connected in series with
the parallel combination of the negative and zero sequence networks, as shown in figure 4.6.
Further we have the following relations satisfied under the fault conditions:

1. Ia1 = {Ea/ [Z1+Z2Z0/(Z2+Z0)]}; Ia2= -Ia1Z0/(Z2 + Z0) and Ia0 = -Ia1Z2/(Z2 + Z0),
2. Fault current If: Ia0=(1/3)(Ia+Ib+Ic) = (1/3)(Ib+Ic) = If/3, Hence If = 3Ia0
3. Ia = 0, Vb=Vc=0 and hence Va1=Va2=Va0=Va/3
4. Fault phase voltages;V b = Vc = 0
5. Sound phase voltage; Va = Va1+Va2+Va0 = 3Va1;
6. Fault phase powers are VbIb* = 0, and VcIc* = 0, since Vb=Vc=0
7. Healthy phase power: VaIa* = 0, since Ia=0
8. If Z0= , (i.e., the ground is isolated), then I a0=0, and hence the result is the same as
that of the LL fault [with Z0= , equation (4.22) yields equation (4.14)].

4.5 THREE PHASE TO GROUND FAULT ON A CONVENTIONAL GENERATOR

Figure 4.7 Three phase ground Fault on a Conventional Generator

Consider a three phase to ground (LLLG) fault at the terminals of a conventional unloaded
generator, whose neutral is grounded through a reactance, between all its three phases a, b
and c, as shown in figure 4.7, Consider now the conditions under fault as under:

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c.u.f.:

Va = Vb = Vc = 0, Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 (4.23)

Now consider the symmetrical components of the voltage with Va=Vb=Vc= 0, given by:

Va0 1 1 1 0
Va1 = (1/3) 1 a a2 0
Va2 1 a2 a 0 (4.24)

Solving (4.24) we get,

Va1 = Va2 = Va0 = 0 (4.25)

Thus we have

Va1 = Ea1 – Ia1Z1 (4.26)

So that after solving for Ia1 we, get,

Ia1 = [ Ea / Z1 ] (4.27)

Figure 4.8 Connection of sequence networks for 3-phase ground Fault

on phases b and c of a Conventional Generator

The equation (4.26) derived as above implies that, to simulate the 3-phase ground fault, the
three sequence networks are connected such that the negative and zero sequence networks are
absent and only the positive sequence network is present, as shown in figure 4.8. Further the
fault current, If in case of a 3-phase ground fault is given by
If = Ia1= Ia = (Ea/Z1) (4.28)

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It is to be noted that the presence of a neutral connection without or with a neutral impedance,
Zn will not alter the simulated conditions in case of a three phase to ground fault.

4.6 UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS

In all the analysis so far, only the fault at the terminals of an unloaded generator have been
considered. However, faults can also occur at any part of the system and hence the power
system fault at any general point is also quite important. The analysis of unsymmetrical fault
on power systems is done in a similar way as that followed thus far for the case of a fault at
the terminals of a generator. Here, instead of the sequence impedances of the generator, each
and every element is to be replaced by their corresponding sequence impedances and the fault
is analyzed by suitably connecting them together to arrive at the Thevenin equivalent
impedance if that given sequence. Also, the internal voltage of the generators of the
equivalent circuit for the positive sequence network is now V f (and not Ea), the pre-fault
voltage to neutral at the point of fault (PoF) (ref. Figure 4.9).

Figure 4.9 Unsymmetrical faults in Power Systems

Thus, for all the cases of unsymmetrical fault analysis considered above, the sequence
equations are to be changed as under so as to account for these changes:

Va0 0 Z0 0 0 Ia0
Va1 = Vf – 0 Z1 0 Ia1
Va2 0 0 0 Z2 Ia2 (4.29)

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(i) LG Fault at any point F of a given Power system

Let phase ‘a’ be on fault at F so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ib = 0; Ic = 0; and Va = 0.
Hence the derived conditions under fault would be:
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = (Ia/3)
Ia1 = [Vf / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)] and
If = 3Ia1 (4.30)

(ii) LL Fault at any point F of a given Power system

Let phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ be on fault at F so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ia = 0; Ib = - Ic; and Vb = Vc
Hence the derived conditions under fault would be:
Va1 = Va2; Ia0 = 0; Ia2 = -Ia1
Ia1 = [Vf / (Z1 + Z2)] and
If = Ib = - Ic = [ 3 Vf / (Z1 + Z2)] (4.31)

(ii) LLG Fault at any point F of a given Power system

Let phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ be on fault at F so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ia = 0 and Vb = Vc = 0
Hence the derived conditions under fault would be:
Va1 = Va2 = Va0 = (Va/3)

Ia1 = {Vf / [Z1+Z2Z0/(Z2+Z0)]}

Ia2= -Ia1Z0/(Z2 + Z2); Ia0 = -Ia1Z2/(Z2 + Z2) and

If = 3Ia0 (4.32)

(ii) Three Phase Fault at any point F of a given Power system

Let all the 3 phases a, b and c be on fault at F so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Va = Vb = Vc = 0, Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
Hence the derived conditions under fault would be:
Va1 = Va2 = Va0 = Va/3

Va0 = Va1 = Va2 = 0; Ia0 = Ia2 = 0,

Ia1 = [Vf /Z1] and If = Ia1=Ia (4.33)

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4.7 OPEN CONDUCTOR FAULTS

Various types of power system faults occur in power systems such as the shunt type faults
(LG, LL, LLG, LLLG faults) and series type faults (open conductor and cross country faults).
While the symmetrical fault analysis is useful in determination of the rupturing capacity of a
given protective circuit breaker, the unsymmetrical fault analysis is useful in the
determination of relay setting, single phase switching and system stability studies.

When one or two of a three-phase circuit is open due to accidents, storms, etc., then
unbalance is created and the asymmetrical currents flow. Such types of faults that come in
series with the lines are refered as the open conductor faults. The open conductor faults can
be analyzed by using the sequence networks drawn for the system under consideration as
seen from the point of fault, F. These networks are then suitably connected to simulate the
given type of fault. The following are the cases required to be analyzed (ref. fig.4.10).

Figure 4.10 Open conductor faults.

(i) Single Conductor Open Fault: consider the phase ‘a’ conductor open so that then the
conditions under fault are:
Ia = 0; Vbb’ = Vcc’ = 0
The derived conditions are:
Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 0 and
Vaa1’ = Vaa2’ = Vaa0’ = (Vaa’/3) (4.34)
These relations suggest a parallel combination of the three sequence networks as shown in
fig. 4.11.

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Figure 4.11 Sequence network connections for 1-conductor open fault

It is observed that a single conductor fault is similar to a LLG fault at the fault point F of the
system considered.

(ii) Two Conductor Open Fault: consider the phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ under open condition so that
then the conditions under fault are:
Ib = Ic = 0; Vaa’ = 0
The derived conditions are:
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = Ia/3 and
Vaa1’ = Vaa2’ = Vaa0’ = 0 (4.35)
These relations suggest a series combination of the three sequence networks as shown in fig.
4.12. It is observed that a double conductor fault is similar to a LG fault at the fault point F
of the system considered.

Figure 4.12 Sequence network connection for 2-conductor open fault.

(iii) Three Conductor Open Fault: consider all the three phases a, b and c, of a 3-phase
system conductors be open. The conditions under fault are:
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
The derived conditions are:
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = 0 and
Va0 = Va2 = 0 and Va1 = Vf (4.36)

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These relations imply that the sequence networks are all open circuited. Hence, in a strict
analystical sense, this is not a fault at all!

4.8 FAULTS THROUGH IMPEDANCE

All the faults considered so far have comprised of a direct short circuit from one or two lines
to ground. The effect of impedance in the fault is found out by deriving equations similar to
those for faults through zero valued neutral impedance. The connections of the hypothetical
stubs for consideration of faults through fault impedance Zf are as shown in figure 4.13.

Figure 4.13 Stubs Connections for faults through fault impedance Zf.

(i) LG Fault at any point F of a given Power system through Z f

Let phase ‘a’ be on fault at F through Zf, so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ib = 0; Ic = 0; and Va = 0.
Hence the derived conditions under fault would be:
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = (Ia/3)
Ia1 = [Vf / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0+3Zf)] and
If = 3Ia1 (4.37)

(ii) LL Fault at any point F of a given Power system through Zf

Let phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ be on fault at F through Zf, so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ia = 0; Ib = - Ic; and Vb = Vc
Hence the derived conditions under fault would be:
Va1 = Va2; Ia0 = 0; Ia2 = -Ia1
Ia1 = [Vf / (Z1 + Z2+Zf)] and
If = Ib = - Ic = [ 3 Vf / (Z1 + Z2+Zf)] (4.38)

(iii) LLG Fault at any point F of a given Power system through Z f

Let phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ be on fault at F through Zf,, so that then, the c.u.f. would be:
Ia = 0 and Vb = Vc = 0
Hence the derived conditions under fault would be:
Va1 = Va2 = Va0 = (Va/3)
Ia1 = {Vf / [Z1+Z2(Z0+3Zf)/(Z2+Z0+3Zf)]}
Ia2= -Ia1(Z0+3Zf)/(Z2+Z0+3Zf); Ia0 = -Ia1Z2/(Z2+(Z0+3Zf) and
If = 3Ia0 (4.39)

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(iv) Three Phase Fault at any point F of a given Power system through Zf
Let all the 3 phases a, b and c be on fault at F, through Z f so that the c.u.f. would be: Va = IaZf
; Hence the derived conditions under fault would be: I a1 = [Vf /(Z1+Zf); The connections of
the sequence networks for all the above types of faults through Zf are as shown in figures
4.14 and 4.15.

LG Fault LL Fault
Figure 4.14 Sequence network connections for
LG & LL faults through impedance

LLG Fault 3-Ph. Fault

Figure 4.15 Sequence network connections for

LLG & LLLG faults through impedance

4.9 EXAMPLES

Example-1: A three phase generator with constant terminal voltages gives the following
currents when under fault: 1400 A for a line-to-line fault and 2200 A for a line-to-ground
fault. If the positive sequence generated voltage to neutral is 2 ohms, find the reactances of
the negative and zero sequence currents.
Solution:
Case a) Consider the conditions w.r.t. the LL fault:
Ia1 = [Ea1/(Z1 + Z2)]
If = Ib = - Ic = 3 Ia1
= 3 Ea1 / (Z1 + Z2) or

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(Z1 + Z2) = 3 Ea1 / If

i.e., 2 + Z2 = 3 [2000/1400]
Solving, we get, Z2 = 0.474 ohms.
Case b) Consider the conditions w.r.t. a LG fault:
Ia1 = [Ea1/(Z1 + Z2+Z0)]
If = 3 Ia1
= 3 Ea1 / (Z1 + Z2+Z0) or
(Z1 + Z2+Z0) = 3 Ea1 / If
i.e., 2 + 0.474 + Z0 = 3 [2000/2200]
Solving, we get, Z0 = 0.253 ohms.

Example-2: A dead fault occurs on one conductor of a 3-conductor cable supplied y a 10

MVA alternator with earhed neutral. The alternator has +ve, -ve and 0-sequence components
of impedances per phase respectively as: (0.5+j4.7), (0.2+j0.6) and (j0.43) ohms. The
corresponding LN values for the cable up to the point of fault are: (0.36+j0.25), (0.36+j0.25)
and (2.9+j0.95) ohms respectively. If the generator voltage at no load (E a1) is 6600 volts
between the lines, determine the (i)Fault current, (ii)Sequence components of currents in lines
and (iii)Voltages of healthy phases.
Solution:
There is LG fault on any one of the conductors. Consider the LG fault to be on conductor in
phase a. Thus the fault current is given by:
(i) Fault current: If = 3Ia0 = [3Ea/(Z1 + Z2 + Z0)]
= 3(6600/ 3)/ (4.32+j7.18)
= 1364.24 58.970.
(ii) Sequence components of line currents:
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = Ia/3 = If/3
= 454.75 58.970.
(iii) Sound phase voltages:
Va1 = Ea - Ia1Z1 = Ea(Z2+Z0)/(Z1+Z2+Z0) = 1871.83 -26.170,
Va2 = - EaZ2/(Z1+Z2+Z0) = 462.91 177.60,
Va0 = - EaZ0/(Z1+Z2+Z0) = 1460.54 146.50,
Thus,
Sound phase voltages Vb = a2Va1+aVa2+Va0 = 2638.73 -165.80 Volts,
And Vc = aVa1+a2Va2+Va0 = 3236.35 110.80 Volts.

Example-3: A generator rated 11 kV, 20 MVA has reactances of X 1=15%, X2=10% and
X0=20%. Find the reactances in ohms that are required to limit the fault current to 2 p.u.
when a a line to ground fault occurs. Repeat the analysis for a LLG fault also for a fault
current of 2 pu.

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Solution:
Case a: Consider the fault current expression for LG fault given by:
If = 3 Ia0
i.e., 2.0 = 3Ea / j[X1+X2+X0]
= 3(1.0 00) / j[0.15+0.1+0.2+3Xn]
Solving we get
3Xn = 2.1 pu
= 2.1 (Zb) ohms = 2.1 (112/20) = 2.1(6.05)
= 12.715 ohms.
Thus Xn = 4.235 ohms.

Case b: Consider the fault current expression for LLG fault given by:
If = 3Ia0 = 3 { -Ia1X2/(X2 + X0+3Xn)}= 2.0,
where, Ia1 = {Ea/ [X1+X2(X0+3Xn)/(X2+X0+3Xn)]}
Substituting and solving for Xn we get,
Xn = 0.078 pu
= 0.47 ohms.

Example-4: A three phase 50 MVA, 11 kV generator is subjected to the various faults and
the surrents so obtained in each fault are: 2000 A for a three phase fault; 1800 A for a line-to-
line fault and 2200 A for a line-to-ground fault. Find the sequence impedances of the
generator.
Solution:
Case a) Consider the conditions w.r.t. the three phase fault:
If = Ia = Ia1 = Ea1/Z1
i.e., 2000 = 11000/ ( 3Z1)
Solving, we get, Z1 = 3.18 ohms (1.3 pu, with Zb = (112/50) = 2.42 ohms).
Case b) Consider the conditions w.r.t. the LL fault:
Ia1 = [Ea1/(Z1 + Z2)]
If = Ib = - Ic = 3 Ia1
= 3 Ea1 / (Z1 + Z2) or
(Z1 + Z2) = 3 Ea1 / If
i.e., 3.18 + Z2 = 3 (11000/ 3)/1800
Solving, we get, Z2 = 2.936 ohms = 1.213 pu.
Case c) Consider the conditions w.r.t. a LG fault:
Ia1 = [Ea1/(Z1 + Z2+Z0)]
If = 3 Ia1

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= 3 Ea1 / (Z1 + Z2+Z0) or

(Z1 + Z2+Z0) = 3 Ea1 / If
i.e., 3.18+ 2.936 + Z0 = 3 (11000/ 3)/ 2200
Solving, we get, Z0 = 2.55 ohms = 1.054 pu.

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