The Score, the Orchestra, and the Conductor

The Score, the Orchestra,

and the Conductor
G U S TAV M E I E R

1
2009
1
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Meier, Gustav, 1929–
The score, the orchestra, and the conductor / Gustav Meier.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-532635-2; 978-0-19-532636-9 (pbk.)
1. Conducting. 2. Orchestral music—Interpretation (Phrasing, dynamics, etc.)
I. Title.
MT85.M337 2009
781.45—dc22 2008027044

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

on acid-free paper
for emy

With love and appreciation I dedicate this book

to Emy, my wife and best friend, who made
it possible for the book to become a reality.
This page intentionally left blank
contents

Introduction 3

chapter 1 The Beat 5

Introduction 5
A. Basic Techniques 6
1. The Baton 6
2. Placement of the Beat 6
3. The Size of the Beat 6
4. A System for Notating Beats 7
B. The Preparatory Beat 8
Introduction 8
1. Response to the Preparatory Beat 9
2. Influence of Orchestration on the Preparatory Beat 10
3. Preparatory Beat to Count 1 (without Setting Tempo) 15
4. Preparatory Beat to Count 1 (Setting Tempo):
The Rebound 17
5. Beat Patterns 18
6. Preparatory Beat to Counts Other Than 1 19
7. Preparatory Beat to Upbeats 21
C. Types of Beats 26
1. Standard Beat 26
2. Staccato Beat 27
3. Legato Beat 29
4. Nonrebound Beat 30
5. Neutral Beat 31
6. Circular Beat 32
D. Other Preparatory Beats 33
1. Multiple Preparatory Beats 33
2. The Added Nondurational Preparatory Beat 35
3. No Preparatory Beat for Solo Entrances 36
E. Irregular Meters 37
1. Description of the Patterns 37
2. Preparatory Beat to Count 1 39
viii Contents

3. Preparatory Beat to Other Counts 43

4. Preparatory Beat to Upbeats 43
F. Subdivision 44
1. Full Subdivision 44
2. Modified Subdivision 45
G. Ritardando and Accelerando 46
1. Definition 46
2. Subdivision in Ritardandos 47
3. Compounding Beats in Accelerandos 47
H. Bars to Be Conducted in One 48
1. Individual Bars 48
2. Groups of Bars 50
I. Subito Tempo and Dynamic Changes 53
1. Subito Tempo Changes from Slow to Fast at the Same
Dynamic Level 53
2. Subito Tempo Changes from Fast to Slow at the Same
Dynamic Level 54
3. Combination Fast to Slow, Slow to Slower, and Slow to Fast 54
4. Subito Dynamic Changes from ff to  55
5. Subito Dynamic Changes from  to ff 56
6. z and  58
7. Successive Preparatory Beats 58
8. Splitting a Single Preparatory Beat 59
J. Beat Options 61
1. Choosing the Beat Unit 61
2. Some Metrical Problems 61
a. Hemiola and Rebarring 61
b. Other Conflicting Patterns and Rebeaming 65
c. Polyrhythmic Sections 66
3. Suppressing the Rebound 67
4. Dictating 68
5. Cutoffs and Exits 71
6. The Luftpause 72
7. Fermatas 74
8. Tied Notes 81
9. Syncopations 82
10. Tacet Bars and Grand Pauses 84
11. Sudden Silences and Their Continuation 86
12. Stopping the Beat 88
13. To Conduct or Not to Conduct 88
14. Composite Rhythmic Textures 89
 Contents ix

chapter 2 Reading the Score 97

A. Notation 97
B. Rhythm and Tempo 98
C. Metronome Markings 100
D. The Common Denominator 105
E. Dynamics 128
F. Phrasing and Articulation 129

chapter 3 Preparation of the Score for Conducting 131

A. Analysis 131
B. Reading Through the Orchestral Part of Each Instrument 131
C. Notation Issues 133
D. Cuing 142
E. Security 147
F. Marking the Score for Irregular Meters 149

chapter 4 Seating Arrangements: Symbols for a Cuing System 151

A. General and Historical Information 151
B. The String Section 152
C. The Woodwind Section 153
D. The Brass Section 154
E. The Percussion Section, Harp, Piano, and Celesta 155
F. Symbols and Positions 156
1. The String Section 156
2. The Woodwind Section 159
3. The Brass Section 165
G. Using Numbers Instead of Symbols to Indicate the Order
of Entrances 169
1. The String Section 170
2. The Woodwind Section 192
3. The Brass Section 206
H. Combined Traffic Patterns 208

chapter 5 Sorting the Orchestration 223

chapter 6 The Zigzag Way 243
A. Leading the Orchestra 243
B. The Zigzag Way 257
1. Beethoven, Symphony no. 2, First Movement—
Adagio molto 258
x Contents

2. Beethoven, Symphony no. 2, Second Movement—

Larghetto 265
3. Beethoven, Symphony no. 2, Third Movement—
Scherzo (Allegro) 268
4. Beethoven, Symphony no. 2, Fourth Movement—
Allegro molto 268
5. Beethoven, Egmont Overture 269
6. Sibelius, Violin Concerto, First Movement—
Allegro moderato 273
7. Debussy, Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun 275
8. Bartók, Concerto for Orchestra, First Movement
(Introduzione)—Andante non troppo and
Allegro vivace 280
9. Copland, Appalachian Spring Suite 284
10. Tchaikovsky, Romeo and Juliet Fantasy-Overture 285

chapter 7 Special Techniques 299

A. Accompanying 299
B. Operatic Conducting 308
1. General Procedures 308
2. Casting an Opera 311
3. Voice Categorization 312
4. Voice Charts 313
5. Opera Chart 318
6. Recitative Conducting 321
a. Opera 321
b. Sample Zigzag Way: Mozart, The Magic Flute 325
c. Oratorio 327
d. Orchestra 327
C. Choral Conducting 329
D. Band Conducting 334
E. Ballet Conducting 335
F. Backstage Conducting 336
G. Cross-Rhythms 336

chapter 8 Additional Concerns 341

A. Ear Training 341
B. Memorization 341
C. Specialization 342
D. Cosmetics 342
E. General Attitude and Behavior 344
 Contents xi

F. Orchestra Musicians on Probation 345

G. Programming 345
H. Auditions 347
I. At the Rehearsal 350
J. Intonation 352
K. Bowings 354
L. About Breathing 354

appendices
A. Instrumental Charts 357
B. Notation of Instruments 361
C. Harmonics 447
D. Harmonics Charts 453
E. Cross-Rhythm Charts 463

Acknowledgments 477
Index of Musical Examples 481
General Index 485
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The Score, the Orchestra, and the Conductor
This page intentionally left blank
introduction

One man or woman stands in front of 100 fellow human beings—

unlike them, without the capacity to make sound—and yet has the
power to shape the great works of sonic art. The conductor’s eyes
dart about, seemingly all-seeing, ears all-hearing, a musical intelli-
gence called upon to grasp a work’s architecture and then convey it.
He or she is curator of masterpieces, incubator of new works and
public performer.—New York Times, Daniel J. Wakin

Singers and instrumentalists are able to look at a musical work and transform it im-
mediately into musical sound. Aural and physical feedback allows them to discover
technical and musical problems early on and begin at once to work on solutions. In
contrast, conductors spend the majority of their preparation time for a performance
without access to their “instrument,” the orchestra. Their musical and technical exper-
imentation occurs in a vacuum. Conductors lack an opportunity to predict ensemble
problems, experiment with tools of communication, or test their effectiveness in form-
ing musical ideas prior to the first orchestra rehearsal.
The score provides all the information needed to form a musical interpretation of
a composition; however, a conductor must be able to read and understand the score;
know the various clefs; be familiar with transposing instruments; imagine sound, colors
and textures; develop a deep and true musical concept; and decide how to communi-
cate and lead most effectively through physical gestures.
Generally the orchestra plays the score together only a few days before an audience
hears the performance. In addition, rehearsal time is limited, and frequently musicians
have at best only a few opportunities to rehearse their parts together. Conductors must
be aware that, from the first rehearsal, orchestra members expect a musical frame-
work within which the composition will be performed and a consistent set of physi-
cal signals.
All of this requires intense preparation. Depending on the particular demands
of each score and the conductor’s training, different methods or even fundamentally
different techniques may be used. This text is a practical approach to the conductor’s
preparation of a score for performance; it categorizes and illuminates the essential
tools of the conductor’s craft. I hope it will help conductors gain the knowledge and
confidence needed to step on the podium.

3
4 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

Since beginning my teaching at Yale University, I have wanted to write a book about
the conductor’s craft. I have had the great privilege of long association with fine teach-
ers, wonderful colleagues, and dedicated orchestra musicians, singers, and soloists. The
many excellent conductors who have participated in my classes and seminars have
taught me firsthand what leading an orchestra is all about. In this book I try to relate
what I have learned: how to listen to music, read a score, connect to the composer’s
thought and emotion, and share the transcendent beauty of music with listeners.
Often I am asked what a person needs in order to become a fine conductor. I can
offer a few suggestions: study an instrument and listen to music as early in life as pos-
sible, learn all you can about music and composers, study with a fine teacher, become
educated in languages and the humanities, observe other conductors, harness energy
for hard work, cultivate patience to work long hours alone without an instrument, and
garner strength to deal with the inevitable rejections. The lifelong company of other
musicians is a wonderful bonus.
The most frustrating part of my experience as a conducting teacher has been the
need to limit the size of my classes and workshops. I dislike having to choose only a
few participants from a number of sincere and talented conductors. Many have been
disappointed, and some wonderful conductors may not have been given the opportu-
nities they deserved. For this I am truly sorry.
Being a conducting teacher is always interesting and exciting; the students and the
music are constantly stimulating. I look forward to every class and seminar, and I am
very proud of my students. Fate doesn’t always bring what each person deserves, but
their lives are enhanced by association with this great art. My best wishes and affec-
tion go out to all of you whom I’ve had the privilege to teach.
chapter one

The Beat

introduction

A performance, whether a violin sonata, piano quintet, or any other ensemble, succeeds
only if the players have worked out a system of communication among themselves.
Rehearsals help to resolve ensemble challenges, but without designated signals, the
musicians cannot effectively monitor the musical flow of a composition. The players
need flexibility during performances to make spontaneous changes. Proper signaling
allows this and prevents disruption in the music or actual breakdowns.
In ensemble playing, a leader from within the group uses physical signals to guide
the others. The signals are transmitted with the head, eyes, arms, hands, breath, an
instrument, or a combination of them. All signals are gestures that anticipate forth-
coming musical happenings. Some indicate when to start or end a work, while others
show when to retain, change, monitor, or set up a tempo. Signals give cues or cutoffs
and show when to hold or end a fermata. The leader in traditional chamber groups is
usually the player of the highest-pitched instrument: the first violin in a string quartet,
the flutist in a woodwind quintet, or the first trumpeter in a brass quintet. In a mixed
ensemble, the player whose part has priority from a compositional point of view takes
over the leadership.
When the task of signaling and cuing becomes complex, or when too many mu-
sicians must be led from within an ensemble, a separate person—the conductor—is
designated to direct the group and make musical and technical decisions. The con-
ductor becomes a spokesperson for the composer and a facilitator for the musicians.
Conducting gestures are equivalent to the signaling motions used by leaders in
chamber ensembles; the “fingering” of the conductor and the signals of the leader
in chamber music serve the same purpose. Obviously a leader cannot simultaneously
play an instrument and simulate the conductor’s beat patterns, but the leader can
shape gestures using a mental image of the patterns. In fact, many leaders do use a
compressed beat pattern, with the beats resembling vertical downbeat motions.
Most subtleties of phrasing and refinement in articulation can be transmitted
through appropriate body language. How to express them is an individual matter. The

5
6 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

strength of the communication comes from the conductor’s awareness, understand-

ing, and total commitment to the composition.

a. basic techniques

1. The Baton

Though not essential, most conductors use a baton to increase the visibility of the
beat information. When a baton is used (in either hand), it serves as an extension of
the arm and points toward the center of the ensemble.

2. Placement of the Beat

The physical placement of the beat—the spot where information is passed on to

the orchestra—is very important for effective communication. To locate the proper
placement of the beat, let both arms hang down naturally, lift the hands and the fore-
arms to a horizontal position, and then move the hands toward each other. This po-
sition, with the hands positioned directly in front of the conductor’s body at the base
of the sternum, is the ideal location for delivery of the beat.
From here the hands and arms are able to move horizontally, vertically, and diag-
onally, either alone or together. They can move up or down with a wrist motion and
pivot at the same time. For powerful attacks, the hands are positioned with the thumb
on top.

Center

As the hands move away from the center of the body, the strength and effectiveness
of the beat decrease. Conducting information is not confined to this area, but rhyth-
mic control is most effective when hand movements issue from this central location.

3. The Size of the Beat

All information physically expressed by a conductor should reflect the prevailing

dynamic level as it occurs in the composition. Generally speaking, large movements
 The Beat 7

represent  playing and small ones  playing. However, the physical size of the con-
ductor’s beat is less important than the character and expressivity of the gesture. In a
passage marked ff, small gestures projected with great inner strength have the same
dynamic power as larger ones. Conversely, a  passage may be conducted with rather
large motions if both body language and facial expression support the .
Although many well-known and successful conductors routinely use large beats
to communicate with their orchestras, the effectiveness of these motions is limited in
the long run. Musicians tire of rhythmic information delivered in this manner and
have difficulty understanding where and when the beat begins and ends. Economy of
movement promotes the musicians’ self-reliance and encourages them to listen to one
another. Moreover, constant use of large beats prevents the conductor from shaping
phrases and indicating the architecture of the composition.

4. A System for Notating Beats

The beginning of a preparatory beat, indicated by “ST” Preparatory Beat

(start), moves upward until it reaches the apex. At that point,
Apex
the beat notation is interrupted and moves horizontally to the
right. ST
Upward Motion
The beat notation resumes at the next count in the music. Starting Point
The point at which the beat notation continues is marked “C.”
The downward movement ends, and at this point a new beat Ictus or Impulse

begins.

Continuation (conclusion)

3 4
4   or 4   C
Apex

Downward Motion
C C C C
to next beat
ST ST

C
8 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

The following symbols are used to indicate the different types of beats:

Basic Symbols

ST
Downbeat Start
Pattern continuing to the left ST

C
Downbeat Continue
Pattern continuing to the right C

SP
Crossover Stop
SP

U
Hold
U

Alterations to Basic Symbols

Regular to Legato Beat

Regular to Strong Ictus

Measured to Unmeasured Beat

Regular to Neutral Beat C

Regular to Short Duration

q. h
Specified Duration

ST ST

b. the preparatory beat

Introduction

The first piece of information—the initial signal—needed to start an ensemble is

called the preparatory beat. It may establish the upcoming tempo, or it may initiate an
orchestral entrance without setting a tempo.
The preparatory beat begins with the hand or hands in a stationary position di-
rectly in front of the body. After an extremely small but intense downward push called
the ictus, the hand, as though having received an imaginary electrical shock, moves
upward in a pull-away motion. As this motion reaches the apex of the trajectory, it
gradually exhausts itself as if pulled down by the force of gravity, and falls downward
 The Beat 9

to its original point of departure. The ensemble enters at the end of the downward
motion, at which point the beat simply stops. The beat’s trajectory—a boomerang
motion—helps the musicians predict the exact time of their entrances. When exe-
cuted properly, the complete trajectory, beginning with the initial ictus and ending
with the return to the same point, contains all the information needed to initiate a
unified entrance of the ensemble. Although any other spot can be equally effective if
the ictus is properly delivered, the beat is clearest when the downward motion con-
cludes in the vicinity in which the ictus originated. The strength of the ictus and the
resulting speed of the upward motion predict the precise arrival of the forthcoming
entrance. Once the ictus is given, its upward motion must be allowed to continue
without any physical interference. It simply runs its course. The downward path of the
beat is the final confirmation of the communication to the orchestra.
Breathing is synchronized with the physical movement of the preparatory beat:
inhalation as the ictus begins and exhalation as the beat concludes. The ictus itself
initiates tension, with relaxation setting in at the completion of the preparatory beat.
The physical size of the beat, which may vary from conductor to conductor, should
have no bearing on the rhythmic information. The formation of the ictus, the surge of
the upward motion, and the synchronized breathing convey the information needed
for a precise entrance.

1. Response to the Preparatory Beat

Each orchestral musician will respond to the preparatory beat according to his
or her individual technical proficiency and experience. Reaction time to the signals
received varies considerably from one instrument or section to another; consequently,
the instrument or combination of instruments making the entrance significantly in-
fluences the shape of the preparatory beat.
Lower-pitched instruments respond to signals more slowly than higher-pitched
ones. In the string section, the heavier and thicker strings of the lower-pitched in-
struments require more physical effort to vibrate than the higher strings. As the con-
ductor moves from the violins to the double basses, responses to signals become
slower. Similarly, in the brass section, the lower-pitched instruments must set in mo-
tion a larger column of air than the higher-pitched ones.
The situation is different in the woodwinds, where variations in response to the
conductor’s preparatory beat are based not on the instrument’s volume of sound, but
rather on the means of tone production. The attacks of the double-reed instruments
are generally more distinct than those of the single reeds. For example, the clarinets,
owing to the particular way players produce a tone, have a tendency toward late en-
trances. The range of response to the conductor’s signals, from the fastest to the slow-
est, is oboe, piccolo, flute, English horn, bassoon, contrabassoon, clarinet, and bass
clarinet.
10 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

Another factor affecting the musicians’ response to the conductor’s beat infor-
mation is the physical distance separating the players from the conductor. A delayed
response becomes more likely the farther a musician is seated from the podium.

2. Influence of Orchestration
on the Preparatory Beat

The most significant influence on the preparatory beat is the orchestration: what
instruments enter, whether they enter alone or with others, and under what technical,
dynamic, and musical circumstances they make their entrance.
Producing consistently reliable attacks in the extreme registers (high or low) is
difficult for wind instruments. Additional challenges occur throughout the entire
range when extreme dynamics or specific articulations (accents, sforzatos, tenutos,
and forte-pianos) or special effects such as flutter-tonguing or muted notes in the
brasses are required.
String players, on the other hand, do not have problems with tone production in
the lower registers or difficulties with extreme dynamics; however, high positions on
any string may cause some hesitation. In addition, a delay may occur while a string
player searches for the proper division point (node) on the open or shortened string
for a harmonic, because certain harmonics “speak” more readily than others. Pizzicato
production is distinct and final; therefore, pizzicato entrances often are not together.
A clear and pointed preparatory beat is needed for a precise and unified pizzicato
entrance.
In summary, there is a risk of a late response when a musician or section faces
technical challenges such as notes placed in an extreme register, excessive dynamic
requests, demanding articulations, difficult harmonics, double stops, pizzicatos, re-
quests for mutes or stopped pitches (in the horn section), or any combination of the
above.
The following examples illustrate how the preparatory beat can be shaped to meet
the complexity and subtlety of the orchestration. The overture to Wagner’s Rienzi
demonstrates how the orchestration in three entrances with the same pitch, duration,
and dynamic level nevertheless requires three different preparatory beats. The first
entrance is orchestrated for solo trumpet. Because the trumpet enters alone in a com-
fortable range, little assistance is needed. Securing a precise attack from the two trum-
pets in the next entrance, however, requires a stronger and more assertive preparatory
beat. The third entrance needs a less aggressive preparatory beat than the second be-
cause the combination of four trumpets more easily absorbs a slight imprecision.
 The Beat 11

& w œ ‰ ŒÓ w œ ‰ŒÓ w
Tromba I in A
p
J p
J Wagner, Overture
f f p
to Rienzi,
& ∑ ∑ w œ ‰ŒÓ w
Tromba II in A J bars 69–73
p f p
Trombi III & IV in A & ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ww
p
? ## ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
Tromboni I & II

? ## ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
Trombone III

? ## ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
Tuba

? Ÿ Ÿ
Timpani in D & A ∑ w ∑ w ∑
f p f p
Tamburo militare & ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
Tamburo rollo
# trem.
& # ∑ ∑ ∑
Violino I
n b ˙˙æ ˙˙æ # n ˙˙æ ˙˙æ
f p f p
#
Violono II & # ∑
n b ˙˙æ ˙˙æ ∑
# n ˙˙æ ˙˙æ ∑
f p f p
Viola B ## ∑ # ˙æ ˙æ ∑ n ˙æ ˙æ ∑
f p f p
? ## ∑ ∑ ∑
Violoncello ˙æ ˙æ ˙æ ˙æ
f p f p
? ## ∑ ∑ ∑
Contrabasso ˙æ ˙æ ˙æ ˙æ
f p f p

As in the previous example, the two trumpets in Dvořák’s Symphony no. 8 require
a distinct ictus to guarantee a unified attack.

Allegro ma non troppo Dvořák,

^
# ^ . ^. œ œ^ œ . œ œ. œ^.
Trumpets a2

& 42 œ œ œ œ
Symphony no. 8,
J fourth movement,
ƒ bars 1–4

Frequently a number of musicians enter simultaneously, each requiring a different

kind of preparatory beat. Those most in need of the conductor’s assistance are given
priority.
The entrance of the strings in the second movement of Bizet’s Symphony no. 1
would normally call for a preparatory beat without ictus to produce a true . But the
simultaneous entrance of the three horns calls for an alternative approach. Each horn
plays a different partial of the chord, so a strong preparatory beat is needed to secure a
precise attack, especially given the dynamic level required of . Hence, the preparatory
12 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

beat required for the benefit of the three horns takes precedence over the preparatory
beat more suited to the string entrance. A left-hand signal will prevent the strings
from entering at a louder level than desired.

Bizet, Symphony no. 1, second movement, Haydn, Symphony no. 101, first
bar 1 movement, bar 1

œ œœ
1. .
ten. Adagio
Adagio
9 Œ ‰ Œ ‰ ˙.
zu 2
Flûtes 1, 2 &8
p 2 Flauti & b 43
p
& 98 Œ ‰ Œ œ . œ œ ‰
ten. 1.
Clarinettes 1, 2 .
zu 2
en ut p 2 Oboi & b 43 ˙
œ p
? 98 Œ ‰ Œ œ . œ ‰
1.
ten.

Bassons 1, 2
p
Clarinetti in A & b 43 ∑
˙. œœ ‰ zu 2
Cors 1, 2 & 98 ˙ . 2 Fagotti
? b 43 œ œ œ
en fa π p
Cor 3 en mi & 98 ∑ 2 Corni in D & 43 ∑

Cor 4 en ut & 98 ˙ . œ ‰ 2 Trombe in D & 43 ∑

π
? 43 ∑
Timpani in D-A
Adagio
.
(divisi)

1 & 98 ˙˙ .. œ ‰
œ Violino I & b 43 ˙
Violons π p
3
& 98 ˙ . &b 4 œ œ œ
(divisi)
2 œ ‰ Violino II
˙. œ p
π
B 98 ˙˙ .. œœ ‰ Viola B b 43 ˙ .
Altos (divisi) p
π
Violoncello e ? b 43 œ œ œ
? 98 ˙ . œ ‰ Contrabasso
Violoncelles p
π
? 98 ˙ . œ ‰
Contre-Basses
π

In Haydn’s Symphony no. 101, the woodwind sextet determines the strength of the
preparatory beat.
 The Beat 13

In the passage from the Overture to Weber’s Der Freischütz, special consideration
must be given to the oboes and second bassoon, who have a  entrance in their low
range. Many conductors have the oboes and bassoons enter at a  level approximately
in the middle of the bar after the strings and clarinets have reached a m.

Adagio Weber, Overture

Flauti &c ∑ ∑ to Der Freischütz,
bars 1–2

Oboi & c ww œ . œj œ Œ
J
π
j
& c ww œ. #œ œ Œ
Clarinetti in B b œ. #œ œ
π

?c w œ. œ œ
Fagotti œ. œ œ Œ
w J
π

Violino I &c w œ. œ œ Œ
J
π f

Violino II &c w œ. œ œ Œ
J
π f

Viola B c œ . œj œ Œ
w
π f
œ. œ œ
?c w J Œ
Violoncello
π f
œ. œ œ
?c w J Œ
Basso
π f
 14 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

In the second and fourth movements of Brahms’s Symphony no. 1, the conductor
should focus on the strings and let the bassoonist and contrabassoonist identify the
appropriate moment to enter.

Brahms, ##
& ## 43
Andante sostenuto

Symphony no. 1, 2 Flöten ∑ ∑

second movement, ##
bars 1–2 2 Oboen & ## 43 ∑ ∑
#
2 Klarinetten in A & 43 ∑ ∑

? # # # # 43 1.œ œ œ œ. œ œ
Œ
2 Fagotte
p
? # # # # 43 ∑ ∑
Kontrafagott

2 Hörner in E & 43 ∑ Œ ‰œœœ

p œ. œ. œ.
2 Trompeten in E & 43 ∑ ∑

? 43 ∑ ∑
Pauken in H E
##
1. Violine & ## 43 œ œ œ œ. œ œ Œ
p
##
2. Violine & ## 43 œ œ œ Œ
œ œ
p
Bratsche B #### 43 ˙˙ œ œœ œœ Œ
œ
p
? #### 43 œ œ œ œ œ Œ
Violoncell
p
? # # # # 43 œ œ œ œ Œ
Kontrabaß œ
p

Brahms, Í
Symphony no. 1, Œ Œ ˙ #œ œ
fourth movement,
? b b c œœ œ
œ
œœ
bar 1 b œ w
œ œ œ w
p Í
Contrabassoon
Viola
Cello
Bass
 The Beat 15

The pizzicatos in the following examples are the priority and need a strong prepara-
tory beat, although both the violas and cellos in Dukas’s Sorcerer’s Apprentice and the
muted upper strings in Tchaikovsky’s Symphony no. 1 would be better served with a
smoother preparatory beat and a less strongly emphasized ictus.

Tchaikovsky, Symphony no. 1,

Dukas, The Sorcerer’s Apprentice, bar 1 second movement, bar 1

Assez lent Adagio cantabile

b b b 9 œJ ‰ ‰ Ó . b
pizz. con sord
1re Violons & b 8 I & b b c ˙ bœ œ
(avec sourdines) π p
Violini
b j
pizz.
b
& b b b 98 œ ‰ ‰ Ó .
con sord
2ds Violons II & bb c
(avec sourdines)
π ˙ nœ bœ
œ p
con sord

Altos B b b b b 98 ·˙.. ·œ .
. Viole B b b b c ˙˙ # ˙
p p
œ
? b b b 98 · . ·œ .. ? b b c œpizz.Œ œ Œ
Violoncelles b ˙. Violoncelli b
p π

? b b b 98 ∑ ? bb c œ Œ œ Œ
pizz.

Contrebasses b Contrebassi b
π

3. Preparatory Beat to Count 1

(without Setting Tempo)

In the following examples the preparatory beat does not need to contain rhythmic
information for an anticipated tempo. It reflects the music, and its duration may vary;
the strength of the ictus matches the orchestration and dynamic level.
 16 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

Each of the following examples requires a strong preparatory beat.

Haydn, Symphony no. 93, first movement,

Beethoven, Egmont Overture, bar 1 bars 1–2

Sostenuto ma non troppo Adagio

U
w. # a 2 U̇ ‰ . œ U̇
b w. 2 Flauti & # 43 R Œ
2 Flauti
(Flauto II später Fl. picc.)
& b b b 32 ƒ
# a2 U U
& # 43 ˙ ‰ . œr ˙
f Œ
U
w. 2 Oboi
b
2 Oboi & b b b 32 w. ƒ
fU
2 Fagotti
? # # 4a32 U˙ ‰ . œ U
˙ Œ
b 32 w. R
2 Clarinetti in B &b w. ƒ
U r U
43 ˙ ‰ . œ
f ˙ Œ
U 2 Corni in D &
? b b b 32 w. ƒ˙ œ ˙
2 Fagotti b w. U r U
43 ˙ ‰ . œ ˙
f Œ
U 2 Trombe in D &
I II in F & 32 w. ƒ˙ œ ˙
.
fw
UŸ U
Ÿ˙
4 Corni Timpani in D, A
? 43 ˙ ‰ . Rœ Œ
zu 2 U
& 32 w . ƒ
III IV in Es
f ## 3 U ‰ . r U
Œ
U Violino I & 4 ˙ œ ˙
2 Trombe in F & 32 w. ƒ
f
w. ## 3 U ‰ . r U
U Violino II & 4 ˙ Œ
? 32 ∑ ƒ œ ˙
Timpani in F-C
U U
Viola B # # 43 ˙ ‰ . œ ˙ Œ
b U R
Violino I & b b b 32 w. ƒ
f Violoncello ? # # 43 U˙ ‰ . œ U˙ Œ
b U R
Violino II & b b b 32 w.
e Basso ƒ
f
U
Viola B b b b b 32 w.
f
? b b b 32 U
Violoncello b w.
f
? b b b 32 U
Contrabasso b w.
f

By contrast, the opening of the third movement of Hindemith’s Symphonie Mathis

der Maler is orchestrated for strings only and starts as softly as possible; therefore, the
preparatory beat must not contain an ictus. The preparatory beat is intentionally
vague. The hands move upward cautiously and then return downward slowly, en-
couraging every musician to start playing, but not at any specific moment. The indi-
vidual players will enter at slightly different times, resulting in an extremely  opening.
The orchestra may not enter unless the conductor remembers to breathe and exhale
and mentally project the moment when the sound is expected to emerge.
 The Beat 17

Sehr langsam, frei im Zeitmaß Hindemith,

ohne Dpfr.

&4 4 U b œ bœ nœ nœ r
Symphonie

œ œ- b >œ- >-œ b >œrubato

1
bœ > > > > n œ .. œ Mathis der Maler,
Viol.
π F> cresc.
third movement,
ohne Dpfr.
U bar 1*
2 & 44 bœ
œ b œ b >œ > n >œ n >œ n œ .. œ
r
bœ œ œ b œ- >- >rubato
π F >- > cresc.
ohne Dpfr.
U > > > b >
œ >
>œ- b >œ b œ n œ n >œ r
Br. B 44 b œ œ œ- b œ- n œ .. œ
cresc.
π F rubato
> >
> > >- > b >œ b œ n œ n >œ n œ .. œ
ohne Dpfr.

Vcl.
B 44 bUœ œ œ- b œ- œ b œ R
cresc.
π F rubato

? ohne
44 Dpfr. U
Kb. ∑

4. Preparatory Beat to Count 1

(Setting Tempo): The Rebound

If the conductor wishes to set a tempo, the preparatory beat must contain the du-
ration of the desired pulse. At its completion, the end of the downward motion, the
ensemble begins to play, and a new ictus is initiated. This causes an upward motion
identical to the original preparatory beat. The renewed preparatory beat, the rebound,
prepares the following count. The process is repeated with each successive pulse.
The preparatory beat should reveal whether the inner rhythmic division of the up-
3

coming beat is in 2 ( ) or 3 (œ œ œ ) . When the first count contains two halves (inner 2),
the upward motion stops briefly and almost unnoticeably at the apex, then moves
quickly downward to the position from which the next beat originates. When the beat
contains three parts (inner 3), or any uneven number of parts, the beat sails smoothly
around the apex, giving the entire beat the impression of an uninterrupted boomerang
motion. In slow tempos, or less, preparatory beats containing an uneven number of
inner beats lead to precise entrances because the travel path is not interrupted.

inner 2 inner 3
SP C

versus ST
ST

The rebound of beat 1 is crucial for setting the desired tempo. Although the pre-
paratory beat to count 1 should be sufficient to establish a tempo, the pulse has to be
confirmed by moving convincingly toward count 2.

*© 1934 B. Schott Söhne, Mainz. © Renewed. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission of European
American Music Distributors LLC, sole U.S. and Canadian agent for Schott Music.
18 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

5. Beat Patterns

The beat pattern is generally shown with the baton hand. Special gestures for in-
dicating dynamics, articulations, cutoffs, cues, and other information are usually
assigned to the non-baton hand. Within the beat pattern itself, the motions of the two
hands occasionally mirror one another, moving together vertically but in opposite
directions horizontally. The conductor must know when it is possible to deviate from,
or even abandon, a beat pattern without jeopardizing effective control of the ensemble.
Beats connect to form patterns based on the number of counts in each bar. A few
basic patterns have evolved and are universally accepted today. These are represented
in the following examples. Using approximately the same amount of space for each
beat and beginning each ictus on more or less the same horizontal plane is important.

Beat Patterns
Conducted Beats Standard Legato
ST ST
ST C

2
1 2

ST ST
ST C C

3*
1 2 3

ST ST
ST CC C

4
1 2 3 4

ST ST
ST C C C C C

6
1 2 3 4 5 6

ST
ST C C CC C
(2 + 4)
6
1 2 3 4 5 6

1+4 4+1 2+3 3+2 1+3+1

5** 2+2+1 1+2+2 2+1+2

4+3 3+4 2+2+3 3+2+2 2+3+2

7** 1+3+3 3+1+3 3+3+1

* The first downbeat may be slightly moving to the left in order to place the second beat
more into the center.
** The first beat of each bar should be physically recognizable in order to distinguish it from
any other beat within the bar. This is accomplished by giving it a slightly larger size,
minimizing any other vertical downbeat.
 The Beat 19

Different Meters
Conducted Beats Meter
per Measure Combinations

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

2 4 6 8 10 12
2 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

3 9 15 18
3 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

4 8 12 16
4 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

5 10 15
5 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

6 12
6 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

7 14
7 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Meters are formed by choosing one number from

the numerator and one from the denominator.

5
5 10 15 33 6 9 12

64 32 16 8
8 4 2 1 64 32 16 8 44 2 1

6. Preparatory Beat to Counts Other Than 1

All preparatory beats discussed thus far serve to bring in the ensemble on the first
count of a bar. The preparatory beat to any other count within a bar is basically the
same, but it must originate within the space of the given beat pattern, one count prior
to the point at which the orchestra enters.

With Tempo Mozart, The

2 Œ Q & 42 œ
Allegro Abduction from
4 f
œ œ œ the Seraglio, act 1,
no. 5, bar 1
ST C ST C
 20 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

Hindemith, Without Tempo

Kammermusik
3 ΠUH
no. 4, fourth
movement,
4
ST C
bars 1–2*


With Tempo Lebhafte Viertel

3 ΠQ Q >.
& 43 Œ b œ œ
marcato
> œ bœ
4 F fl
bœ. J
ST C C ST C

Schumann, Without Tempo

Symphony no. 4,
3 UQ H.
first movement,
bar 1
4
ST C

With Tempo
3
Ziemlich langsam
œ œ.
Q H. & 43 œ
4 f
œ. œ œ œ
π
ST C ST C

Shostakovich, Without Tempo

Symphony no. 5,
4 ΠUH .
third movement,
bar 1
4
ST C

With Tempo
4 ΠQ Q Q ##
Largo

& # 44 Œ œ œ œ
4 p espress.
ST C ST C

*© 1925. © Renewed. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission of European American Music Distribu-
tors LLC, sole U.S. and Canadian agent for Schott Music.
 The Beat 21

Without Tempo Mozart,

4 U
H Q
Eine kleine
4 Nachtmusik,
second movement,
ST C
bar 1

or
C

ST


With Tempo
4 Q Q Q œ
Andante
œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ
4 &C J ‰ J ‰
p
J
ST C ST C
*

*Assuming that the upbeats are

conducted with 2 quarter-note beats

Without Tempo Brahms,

4 U
Q w
Symphony no. 2,
4 second movement,
bar 1
ST C

With Tempo
##
4
Adagio non troppo

Q Q Q & # ## c œ œ
4 poco
œ
f espressivo
œ. œ #œ

ST C ST C

7. Preparatory Beat to Upbeats

The preparatory beats described so far have been for notes or chords that begin on
one of the main counts of a bar. A rhythmic fragment that directly precedes a main
count and is shorter in duration than one complete count is an upbeat.1
The duration of the upbeat affects the preparatory beat itself. If the upbeat’s dura-
tion is half of the basic pulse or less, the normal preparatory beat for bringing in the
orchestra on the main count is sufficient. A slightly stronger impulse or ictus at the

1. When bars are conducted in one, any number of notes, even an entire bar or more, may constitute an
upbeat.
 22 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

beginning of the preparatory beat adds clarity. Breathing must always accompany and
reinforce the preparatory beat.

Pick-ups Given With

One Preparatory Beat
(Half of the basic pulse or shorter)
234 C 3
Meter: 444 4 (in 1)
Beat Unit: q h h.
r
e qqqq eqq

x. q qq q. q
5

e ≈q q q q xqqqq
3
Pick-up:
qq qq q ≈q q q

qqq q‰q

e q

Beethoven, Allegro molto

# œ œ. Ÿ
& # C J ‰ œJ œ . œœ
Symphony no. 2,
fourth movement,
f f S
bar 1 C
ST

Schumann, Lebhaft
b ˙ ˙
Symphony no. 3, & bb C œ
fifth movement,
f dolce
bar 1 C
ST

Smetana, Vivacissimo >

œ ˙
Overture to The
&b C Œ ‰ J
Bartered Bride, ƒ
bar 1 ST C
 The Beat 23

Allegro animato e grazioso Schumann,

b œ œ
&b C Œ œ œœ œ Symphony no. 1,
œœ œœ œœ fourth movement,
f
ST C bar 1

Allegro con fuoco Mendelssohn,

b œ œ. œ.
& b b c œ. œ. œ œ œ. œ. œ
Symphony no. 1,
fourth movement,
f bar 1
C

ST

Moderato assai, molto ritmico e pesante Falla, The Three-

&C Œ œœ œ œ œ ‰ œ ‰ Cornered Hat,
ƒ Suite no. 2, second
ST C movement, bar 15

& 42 ‰ .
Stravinsky,
œ œ. œ
L’histoire du soldat,
ST
f C
The Soldier’s
March, bar 1

Nicht schnell Schumann,

B bbbb c j œœ œ Symphony no. 3,
œ œ œ œ third movement,
p
bar 1
ST C

Con moto moderato Mendelssohn,

## œ #œ œ œ œ nmœ œ œ œ
& # 43
Symphony no. 4,
œ
p third movement,
bars 1–2
ST C

Allegro non troppo e molto maestoso Tchaikovsky,

b
& b b b b 43 Œ ‰ œ
œ œ
Piano Concerto
œ no. 1, first
ƒ
ST C movement,
bars 1–2
 24 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

Rossini, Overture œœ œœ # # œœ. œœ. œœ

to L’Italiana in &c ‰
p
Algeri, bars 32–33 ST C

If the upbeat’s duration is longer than half of the basic pulse, an additional pre-
paratory beat is required. This beat occupies the space within the pattern just prior to
the final upbeat. The first preparatory beat does not contain an ictus; it must be smooth
and nonaggressive, otherwise some member of the orchestra may begin to play pre-
maturely. The first preparatory beat conveys the exact speed of the upcoming pulse
and leads to the second one with a sense of anticipation (as though a crescendo con-
nected the two), moving intensely to the point at which the final preparatory beat
begins. When there are two preparatory beats, the inhalation occurs with the first one.
Some conductors prefer to give the first preparatory beat with the left hand.

Pick-ups Given With

Two Preparatory Beats
(Longer than half of the basic pulse)
234 C 3
Meter: 444 4 (in 1)
Beat Unit: q h h.
3

     

       

5 5

Pick-up:        

3
            

     

Rimsky-Korsakov, Andantino quasi allegretto

# œ. œ
Scheherazade,
& 68 œ œ œ
third movement,
p
bar 1 ST
C C
 The Beat 25

Vivace Dvořák,
6 œ œ. œ. œ. œ. Symphony no. 7,
b
& 4 ‰ J Œ
third movement,
p
C C bar 1
ST

Allegro con brio Beethoven,

b U
& b b 24 ‰ œ œ œ ˙
Symphony no. 5,
C
ƒ C
first movement,
bars 1–2
ST SP

Allegro molto e vivace Beethoven,

œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ.
& 42 ≈ œ. Symphony no. 1,
œ. œ.
fourth movement,
p
C C C bar 7
ST

(U) U
& 44 Ó
Weber, Overture
‰
œ œ œ œ œ œ to Der Freischütz,
ƒ bar 282
C
ST

n # # 22 ‰
U
& b 46 ! ! ! Wagner, Overture
∑
! œ! œ! n œ # œ œ! œ to The Flying
#œ
f Dutchman,
C C
bars 321–322
C

Allegro vivace Schumann,

& 42 ≈ œ œ œ .. b >œ œ œ # œ Symphony no. 2,
bœ œ œ œ
second movement,
F
C C C
bar 1
ST

Allegro molto con brio R. Strauss,

## ˙
& ## C ≈ nœ nœ
Don Juan, bar 1
n œ œ
nœ œ œ
ƒ
C C
ST
 26 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

Schumann, Presto
Symphony no. 4, ? ## C Ó ‰ œ œ œ
fourth movement, sempre forte
bar 211 ST
C

œ. œ
Mozart, Eine Allegro
# œ. œ. ..
& C ‰
kleine Nachtmusik,
fourth movement, p
bar 1 C C
ST

Stravinsky, œ œ œ œ œ
b
Pulcinella Suite,
& b 68 Œ ‰ ‰
Tarantella, ƒ
bars 1–2 C C
ST

Tchaikovsky, Moderato. Tempo di Valse

#
& 43 Œ
dolce e molto grazioso
Serenade, second
movement, œ œ œ œ œ
bars 1–2 p

C C

ST

When bars are conducted in one, the first preparatory beat always begins at the
level of the sternum.

c. types of beats

The shape of the beat depends on the orchestration, compositional context, dynamics,
articulation, and mood. In the following examples, the music always starts on the first
count of a full bar.

1. Standard Beat

The standard, most common beat, best described as neither legato nor staccato,
begins with an ictus of moderate strength. The upward motion determines the speed
of the upcoming pulse. At the apex the beat moves downward, and at its conclusion
 The Beat 27

the orchestra enters. At that moment the beat (rebound) renews itself, and the entire
process is repeated. The rebound may move in any chosen direction depending on the
beat pattern.

Andante maestoso Brahms,

##
& # # 68 œ œ nœ. nœ œ œ nœ . nœ
Symphony no. 4,
f second movement,
C C C C C C
bar 1
ST

Gluck, Overture
Un poco moderato
œ œ
?b C œ œ to Alceste, bar 1

ƒ
C C C C
ST

Andante Stravinsky,
? b b b b 44 œ
2 œ œ œ Firebird Suite
bb (1919 version),
p
C C C C
Berceuse, bar 1*
ST

ten.
Beethoven,
? 42 œœ œœœ œœœ
œ Symphony no. 7,
œ œ. œ. second movement,
p
C C
bar 3
ST

# Ÿ̇ œ Handel, Water
& # 32 ˙ ˙ ˙
Music, Suite no. 2,
Alla Hornpipe,
C C C
bars 1–2
ST

2. Staccato Beat

The staccato beat requires a change in the character of the ictus and the speed of
the rebound. The ictus is more pronounced and is followed by an increase in the

2. Viola and harp.

*With kind permission of European American Music Distributors LLC, sole U.S. and Canadian agent for
Schott Music.
 28 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

speed of the upward motion. Because the beat reaches the apex earlier than usual, the
beat stops at the apex for a split second before continuing with the downward motion.
The follow-through downward motion to the original point of departure is executed
quickly, as is the rebound. This process is repeated for each successive beat. In slow
tempos the conductor may elect to prepare each consecutive staccato beat with a fast,
renewed preparatory beat given after the rebound has stopped.
Deliberately stopping the rebound at its apex lessens the predictability of the suc-
ceeding beat and reduces the conductor’s rhythmic control of the ensemble. However,
if the basic pulse is steady, this particular type of beat works well. If there is a change
of tempo, the rebound returns to its original function of clearly predicting the antici-
pated tempo of the next pulse.

Schumann, Lebhaft
œ œœ œ
Symphony no. 4, ## c œ ‰ ‰ œ ‰ Œ
fourth movement, & œ œ œ
bar 17 J J J
ƒ

SPC SP C C
ST

SP

Rossini, Overture œœ œ
œ. œ. œ. œ.
to La scala di &c
Seta, bar 1 f
SPC SP C C SP SP C
ST

Mussorgsky, Scherzino. Vivo leggiero

Pictures at an œ
j
œ. œ
j
n œ.
J J
Exhibition (arr. & b 42 ‰ ‰
Ravel), no. 5, π
rehearsal no. 48, CSP SP C
ST
Ballet of the Chicks
in Their Shells
Stravinsky, ? 43 j
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Firebird Suite Sƒ e π subito
(1919 version),
CSP C SP SP C
Danse infernale ST
du roi Kastcheï,
bar 1*
The staccato beat is not suitable for string staccato music in fast tempos. Its in-
flexibility distracts the players. A circular beat works better (see below), because it
allows the players to focus on listening.

*With kind permission of European American Music Distributors LLC, sole U.S. and Canadian agent for
Schott Music.
 The Beat 29

Scherzo Allegro vivace Beethoven,

b
& b b 43 œ. œ. œ.
Symphony no. 3,
œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. third movement,
π sempre pianissimo e stacc. bars 1–4
ST C C C C

or ST C C C C

Allegro molto vivace Tchaikovsky,

. . .
. œ. œ. œ # œ œ œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ œ. œ œ
Strings
# c 12 œ œ œ
Symphony no. 6,
& œ œ
( 8 ) . œ. . . # œ. . . . . third movement,
p bars 1–3
non-staccato beat

œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ.
Woodwinds

#
&
p
staccato beat

3. Legato Beat

The ictus is deactivated for the legato beat. The upward motion is smooth, and the
return motion touches the arrival point of each succeeding beat as discreetly as pos-
sible. This beat pattern has no corners—just smooth sailing, with downbeat and re-
bound connecting gently. Like the staccato beat, the legato beat provides less rhythmic
control than the standard beat. The decision on when to return to a more informative
and assertive ictus will depend entirely on the compositional texture and the need to
focus on keeping the ensemble together.

Andante sostenuto Brahms,

##
& # # 43 œ œ œ. Œ Symphony no. 1,
œ œ œ
p second movement,
bars 1–2
C C C C C

ST

Debussy,
## œ œ œ œ œ
& # # 46 œ Nocturnes, first
π movement, bar 1

C C C C C C

ST
 30 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

Brahms, Allegro non troppo

Symphony no. 2, ? # # 43 œ œ œ .. ˙
first movement, .
bars 1–2 p
C C C C

ST

Beethoven, Larghetto
##
& # 38 œ œ œ.
Symphony no. 2, œ
second movement,
p
bars 1–2
C C C C

ST

4. Nonrebound Beat

In the nonrebound beat, the beat, deprived of its rebound, stops at the end of
the downward motion. The conductor waits until the arrival of the next pulse and
then moves quickly to the next beat. This beat has limited flexibility and control. The
traditional pattern need not be strictly followed, provided that the first beat in each
bar reflects a downbeat motion. If the rebound stops for more than a split second, the
musicians cannot accurately predict the arrival of the next beat; therefore, this beat
should only be used when the tempo is relatively fast (M.M. = 100+) and the rhythm is
steady. All nonrebound beats must be small, and the use of the wrist is recommended.

Tchaikovsky, # c œJ ‰ œ . œ
≈ œ J ‰ œ ‰
Symphony no. 6, & J
third movement, ƒ
bar 212 C SP C SP
ST

SP C SP C

Tchaikovsky, Tempo I
b r
Symphony no. 4, & b b b b 24 œR ≈ ‰ œ ≈ ‰
R
œ ≈ ‰ œ ≈ ‰
R
third movement, π
bars 170–171 C SP C SP
ST

SP C SP C

Salieri, Sinfonia,
third movement,
bar 1
 The Beat 31

5. Neutral Beat

Although smaller in size, the neutral beat moves in the normal beat patterns of the
regular meters. It has no ictus, and the conductor moves through the beat pattern as
smoothly as possible. The neutral beat is best suited for passages containing sustained
notes, measured silences, and the grand pause. The ictus returns when affirmative
leading is required.

b
Allegro con brio
œ. Beethoven,
& bb C w œœ Œ Ó ∑ Coriolan Overture,
w bars 1–4
ƒ
C C
C C
ST
C C
SP C SP C

Allegro non troppo Tchaikovsky,

# U
œ. œ.
& # 44 j ‰ Œ Ó Œ œ œ
J ‰
Symphony no. 6,
˙ œ first movement,
π p
bars 18–20
C C C C C

 C

Moderato con anima Tchaikovsky,

b
& b b b 43 Œ œ œ UŒ 98 Œ . Œ. ‰ œ. œ Symphony no. 4,
π p espr. first movement,
C C C C bars 26–27

 C

Andante Liszt, Les

pizz.

&c Ó œ
Œ Ó
œ
Œ Préludes,
bars 1–3
p
C C

C C C C

SP C SP C
ST

arco
& Œ j œ
œ. œ
C C C C
 32 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

6. Circular Beat

The circular beat moves to the following beat without an ictus. This beat surges
ahead through each pulse and gives an impression of music in perpetual motion. Most
effective in fast tempos where time does not allow for execution of a full-fledged ictus,
the circular beat is also useful for accelerandos and string staccato sections. If it is not
possible to show a semblance of a pattern, the downbeat for count 1 in each bar should
be enlarged.

Tchaikovsky, Allegro molto vivace

Symphony no. 6, # . .
third movement, & c (12
8 ) œ. œ. œ. œ. # œ. œ. œ œ. œ œ. # œ. œ.
p
bar 1
ST C C C C

##
& # 42 œ ≈ œ œ
Beethoven, œ
≈ œ ≈ œ œ ≈ œ
Symphony no. 7,
fourth movement, p dolce
bars 302–303

Beethoven, Scherzo Allegro vivace

b
Symphony no. 3, & b b 43 œ. œ. œ.
third movement, œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ.
bars 1–4 π sempre pianissimo e stacc.

Bartók, Concerto poco a poco accelerando

for Orchestra, ? 43 b œ œ œ b œ n œ # œ bœ œ œ bœ nœ #œ bœ œ œ bœ nœ #œ
first movement,
F , cresc.
bars 64–66

œ. j œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ.
& b 43
Beethoven,
œ œ
Symphony no. 9, π
second movement,
bars 9–12

Beethoven, sempre più Allegro

œ œ œ œ
Symphony no. 5, &C œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ œ Œ œ Œ œ Œ
fourth movement,
bars 353–356
C C C C C C
 The Beat 33

d. other preparatory beats

1. Multiple Preparatory Beats

Many conductors add a secondary preparatory beat to any upbeat, even if its
duration is half or less than half of the basic pulse. The secondary preparatory beat
precedes the regular one and uses the space of the previous count in the pattern. The
added preparatory beat gives additional security to the musicians and gives wind
players more time to prepare for an entrance. Giving two full preparatory beats, how-
ever, may result in some premature entrances if the first preparatory beat contains
an ictus.

Con moto moderato Mendelssohn,

## œ #œ œ œ œ
& # 43
Symphony no. 4,
p third movement,
bar 1
ST C C

Allegro non troppo e molto maestoso Tchaikovsky,

b
& b b b b 43 Œ ‰ œ
œ œ
Piano Concerto
œ no. 1, first
ƒ
ST C C movement,
bars 1–2

Moderato assai, molto ritmico e pesante Falla, The Three-

&C Œ œœ œ œ œ ‰ œ ‰ Cornered Hat,
ƒ Suite no. 2, second
ST C movement, bar 15
ST

Leaders of jazz ensembles often set the tempo for their fellow musicians by con-
ducting, tapping, or snapping multiple preparatory beats. The orchestra conductor
may find times when as many as three individual preparatory beats are helpful in es-
tablishing a secure tempo. Multiple preparatory beats do provide more specific infor-
3 3
mation about the upcoming inner rhythm, particularly in works written in 4 or 8 that
6 9 12
are to be conducted in one, or in works in 8 , 8 , or 8 that are conducted in two, three,
or four, respectively. Fast multiple preparatory beats are small and lead without delay
into the first entrance. The final preparatory beat must be slightly larger in size so that
the musicians know exactly when to enter. Under no circumstance should this last
preparatory beat show the slightest change of tempo, since that would defeat the pur-
pose of the multiple preparatory beats.
 34 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

Berlioz, Overture Allegro scherzando

# œ œ œ
& 38 œ œ œ œ
to Beatrice and
Benedict, bar 1
J
F 3
3

C
C C
C

Beethoven, Allegro vivace e con brio

Symphony no. 8, œ œ œ œ. œ.
first movement, & b 43
bar 1 f
C
C C
C

Ravel, Daphnis Lent 12

and Chloé, # œ
Suite no. 2, bar 1 & # 44 n œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
π
C
C C
C

Beethoven, Allegro con brio

b œ œœ
Symphony no. 3, & b b 43 œœœ Œ Œ œœ Œ Œ
first movement, . .
f
bars 1–2
C
C C
C

   4
( ) In alla breve ( ) or 4 bars conducted in two, the conductor may decide
ST C C C
to give two quarter-note preparatory beats instead of one or two half-note
beats. These multiple upbeats provide increased rhythmic security.
98    
If the music does not begin on a main count, a mixture of inner- or full-
C
beat units may be employed. As a rule, the unit that contains the upbeat is
ST C C C conducted with the inner-beat unit, preceded by a full-sized beat. The re-
1
verse can be equally effective depending on the musical circumstances.
ST C C C C

2 In some situations, the conductor may maintain the inner-beat unit until
the count that follows the upbeat.

128
    
ST C C C C C C C
 The Beat 35

2. The Added Nondurational Preparatory Beat

As pointed out previously, one preparatory beat is sufficient for any upbeat no
longer than half of a single pulse in the bar, yet many conductors prefer to give two
preparatory beats. Another solution is to add a nondurational preparatory upbeat pre-
ceding the final preparatory beat. This additional move does not contain any rhyth-
mic information. Its duration can vary but should contain, at a minimum, the length
of two beats of the ongoing tempo. There should be no break between the preparatory
beats; rather, the nondurational beat should lead gently into the ictus of the final pre-
paratory beat and convey a feeling of anticipation. The inhalation should be delayed
until the ictus of the final preparatory beat is about to begin. Any breathing during the
nondurational upbeat may confuse it with the final preparatory beat and lead some
musicians to make a faulty entrance.
As the conductor prepares to start conducting, the arms separate in opposite di-
rections rather than moving toward each other.

The conductor then begins a slow, nondurational move toward the center. A sense
of anticipation prevails until the actual preparatory beat emerges unexpectedly and
brings in the orchestra.

ST ST ST ST

Presto Beethoven,
j
& b 43 œ œ
j œ j
œ ‰ œ œ
j œ œ ‰ œ Symphony no. 7,
f C third movement,
ST
C bars 1–2

Lebhaft Schumann,
b ˙ ˙
& bb C œ Symphony no. 3,
fifth movement,
f dolce
C bar 1
C
ST
 36 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

Brahms, Allegro non troppo

Symphony no. 4, # œ ˙
first movement, & C œ ˙
bar 1 p
C C
ST

3. No Preparatory Beat for Solo Entrances

When a single player enters in a moderate tempo with an upbeat that has the du-
ration of a full count, a preparatory beat is unnecessary. The preparatory beat for
the orchestra is given at the moment the soloist begins to play, one count before the
entrance of the orchestra.

Rossini, Overture intake of air

to La scala di Andantino 1st Oboe
Seta, bars 4–6 U ˙
&c œœœ
w ˙ Œ œ
p dolce
C
SP

The next examples assume that the musicians and the conductor make a break
between the fermata and the beginning of the solo line.

Brahms, lunga
Uœ
Symphony no. 3, œ. nœ 1st Horn
b nbbb
third movement, & b b b 38 ‰ œ. œ œ.
bars 97–99 p p espressivo
C C

C
 C SP

Beethoven, 1st Oboe

U
Symphony no. 3, Poco Andante

b . œ œ œ ..
fourth movement, & b b 24 œœœ .. J œ
bars 348–349 œ. p con espressione
S

C
SP

U.
# # # 6 œR œ
Beethoven,
œ œ œ.
1st Oboe
Symphony no. 7, & 8 œ œ œ œ œ
first movement, p 3
dolce
bars 300–301
C
SP
 The Beat 37

If the solo upbeat is longer than a major count, the preparatory beat starts one
count before the orchestra enters.

1st Oboe Tchaikovsky,

œ.
Andantino in modo di canzone
b œ Symphony no. 4,
& b b b b 42 ‰ œ œ œ nœ œ second movement,
p sempre, ma grazioso bars 1–2
b j
& b b b b 42 ∑
œœœ
‰ Œ
pizz.
C
p

C
ST SP

1st Horn Beethoven,

& b 43 œ j ..
dolce
Symphony no. 8,
œ œ. œ. œ. third movement,
ST C bar 44
C
SP

e. irregular meters

1. Description of the Patterns

The standard beat patterns are used for irregular meters, except that the duration
of one or more individual counts is expanded or reduced by a fraction of its basic
pulse. (The term “irregular meter” does not apply when the time signature’s denomi-
5
nator is the conducted beat unit, as, for example, when a 8 bar is conducted in eighth
notes.) The rebounds of the irregular beats must be altered to accommodate the
changed duration, by changing either the speed of the rebound or the length of the re-
bound’s travel path.
38 the score, the orchestra, and the conductor

3 2
Basic Meter 4    4  
C C C C C
ST ST

Beat Beat
Expansion Reduction

7 7
Irregular Meter 8    16  
C C C C C
Alteration of ST ST
Rebound Speed

C C C C C
Alteration of ST ST
Rebound Length

The following is a list of the most common irregular meters.