 Code:- EEC 503

 Departmental Core Subject

 Academic Session:- 2024-25
 Semester:- B.Tech 5th , EE
 Faculty Name:- Aniruddha Bhattacharya
The study materials/presentations are solely meant for academic purposes and they can be
reused, reproduced, modified, and distributed by others for academic purposes only with proper
acknowledgements.

3
Ram, Badri; Vishwakarma, D N. Power System Protection and Switchgear. McGraw-Hill Professional
Publishing.

4
 Protective relay: A protective relay is an automatic device which detects an abnormal condition in an
electrical circuit and causes a circuit breaker to isolate the faulty element of the system. In some cases
it may give an alarm or visible indication to alert operator.
 Operating force or torque: A force or torque which tends to close the contacts of the relay.
 Restraining force or torque: A force or torque which opposes the operating force/ torque.
 Actuating quantity: An electrical quantity (current, voltage, etc) to which relay responds.
 Pick-up (level): The threshold value of the actuating quantity (current, voltage, etc.) above which the
relay operates.
 Reset or drop-out (level): The threshold value of the actuating quantity (current, voltage, etc.) below
which the relay is de-energised and returns to its normal position or state. Consider a situation where
a relay has closed its contacts and the actuating current is still flowing. Now, due to some reason, the
abnormal condition is over and the current starts decreasing. At some maximum value of the current
the contacts will start opening. This condition is called reset or drop-out. The maximum value of the
actuating quantity below which contacts are opened is called the reset or drop-out value.
 Operating time: It is the time which elapses from the instant at which the actuating quantity exceeds
the relays pick-up value to the instant at which the relay closes its contacts.
 Reset time: It is the time which elapses from the moment the actuating quantity falls below its reset
value to the instant when the relay comes back to its normal (initial) position.
5
[8] https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/neutral-displacement-relays-alstom-ge- [9] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protective_relay#/media/File:Protective_relay.jpg
4162493597.html
6
 [3]

[1]

[1] https://techbaniya.com/acb/1631-lt-800a-c-power-acb.html
[2] https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/siemens-make-11-kv-vcb-panel-22212779391.html 7
[3] https://www.deepakkumaryadav.in/2020/02/electrical-circuit-breaker-arc.html [2] [4]
[4] https://peguru.com/2012/03/power-circuit-breaker-operation-and-control-scheme/
8
9
10
11
[6] https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/substation-switching-configurations- [7] https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/download-center/books-and-
control-protection-functions guides/relays

12
 13
[4] https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/7-design-diagrams-hv-substation-engineer
[5] https://peguru.com/2012/03/power-circuit-breaker-operation-and-control-scheme/ 14
SYLLABUS WISE NOTE STARTS HERE

15
 Protection system adopted for securing power system and the protection
scheme i.e. the coordinated arrangement of relays and accessories.
 Primary function of the protective system is to detect and isolate all failed
or faulted components as quickly as possible.
 Thereby minimizing the disruption to the remainder of the electric system.

 (i) Selectivity or discrimination

 (ii) Reliability
 (iii) Sensitivity
 (iv) Stability
 (v) Fast operation 16
 (i) Selectivity or discrimination: Selectivity, is the quality of protective relay by which it is able
to discriminate between a fault in the protected section and the normal condition.
 (ii) Reliability: A protective system must operate reliably when a fault occurs in its zone of
protection. The failure of a protective system may be due to the failure of any one or more
elements of the protective system.
 (iii) Sensitivity: A protective relay should operate when the magnitude of the current exceeds
the preset value. This value is called the pick-up current. The relay should not operate when the
current is below its pick-up value. A relay should be sufficiently sensitive to operate when the
operating current just exceeds its pick-up value.
 (iv) Stability: A protective system should remain stable even when a large current is flowing
through its protective zone due to an external fault, which does not lie in its zone. The concerned
circuit breaker is supposed to clear the fault.
 (v) Fast operation: A protective system should be fast enough to isolate the faulty element of the
system as quickly as possible to minimise damage to the equipment and to maintain the system
stability.

17
 Protection should be provided in overlapping
zones so that no part of the power system
remains unprotected and faulty zone is
disconnected and isolated.
 The point of connection of the protection with
the power system normally defines the zone
boundary and generally corresponds to the
position of the current transformers.
 Current transformers is provided on both sides
of circuit breaker overlap Figure 1 (a).
 If they are provided on one side blind spots as
shown in Fig. 1(b), Fault between CT and the
circuit breaker will not trip the feeder CB and Fig. 1 (a) [10] Fig. 1 (b) [10]
fault current will continue to flow until cleared
by back up protection.
[10] Ram, Badri; Vishwakarma, D N. Power System Protection and Switchgear (p. 230). McGraw-Hill
Professional Publishing. 18
 Primary Protection: There is a suitable protective scheme for each zone. If a fault occurs in a
particular zone, it is the duty of the primary relays of that zone to isolate the faulty element. The
primary relay is the first line of defence. If due to any reason, the primary relay fails to operate,
there is a back-up protective scheme to clear the fault as a second line of defence.
 The causes of failures of protective scheme may be due to the failure of various elements, such as
relays, circuit breakers, AC wiring etc.
 The reliability of protective scheme should at least be 95%. With proper design, installation and
maintenance of the relays, circuit breakers, trip mechanisms, ac and dc wiring, etc. a very high
degree of reliability can be achieved.
 Back Up Protection: The back-up relays are made independent of those factors which might
cause primary relays to fail. A back-up relay operates after a time delay to give the primary
relay sufficient time to operate. When a back-up relay operates, a larger part of the power system
is disconnected from the power source, but this is unavoidable. As far as possible, a back-up relay
should be placed at a different station. Sometimes, a local back-up is also used. It should be
located in such a way that it does not employ components (VT, CT, measuring unit, etc.) common
with the primary relays which are to be backed up. There are three types of back-up relays:
 (i) Remote back-up (ii) Relay back-up (iii) Breaker back-up
19
(i) Remote back-up: When back-up relays are located at a neighbouring station, they back-up the entire
primary protective scheme which includes the relay, circuit breaker, PT, CT and other elements, in case of a
failure of the primary protective scheme.
It is the cheapest and the simplest form of back-up protection and is a widely used back-up protection for
transmission lines. It is most desirable because of the fact that it will not fail due to the factors causing the
failure of the primary protection.
(ii) Relay back-up: This is a kind of a local back-up in which an additional relay is provided for back-up
protection. It trips the same circuit breaker if the primary relay fails and this operation takes place without
delay.
Though such a back-up is costly, it can be recommended where a remote back-up is not possible. For
back-up relays, principles of operation that are different from those of the primary protection as desirable.
They should be supplied from separate current and potential transformers.
(iii) Breaker back-up: This is also a kind of a local back-up. This type of a back-up is necessary for a bus bar
system where a number of circuit breakers are connected to it. When a protective relay operates in response
to a fault but the circuit breaker fails to trip, the fault is treated as a bus bar fault.
In such a situation, it becomes necessary that all other circuit breakers on that bus bar should trip. After a
time-delay, the main relay closes the contact of a back-up relay which trips all other circuit breakers on the
bus if the proper breaker does not trip within a specified time after its trip coil is energised.

20
 Fault current magnitude, and the associated change in voltage, varies
with the type of fault and with the location of the fault with respect to
the sensing devices. Several methods used, can be divided into two
groups:
1. Non-unit types -
 Time graded over current protection,
 Current graded over current protection &
 Distance Protection.

 2. Unit types -
 Pilot wire differential protection
 Carrier current protection based on phase comparison technique.

21
 Don’t use pilot wires.
 Discrimination is obtained by coordinating the relay settings.
 Time and current graded protections are used where time lag is
permitted – instantaneous operation is not needed, i.e. time lag does
not cause instability in system operation/ damage of lines/
equipment.
 Used as back-up protection to main unit type of protection.

22
 Used for very fast selective fault clearing.
 Circulating current pilot wire (Merz-Price) protection is used for short
lines – cost of pilot wires is not high.
 Carrier current protection is used for long & inter-connected lines.
 Auto re-closure schemes are incorporated in protection of
transmission & distribution lines.
Transmission lines – improves system stability.
Distribution lines – improves service continuity.

23
 Time settings of O.C. relays at
different locations are graded.
 There are three substations, -A,
B & C.
 All relays are non-directional,
time setting shown over arrow
head.
 Fault beyond ‘C’ CB at ‘C’
operates with relay time 0.3
Sec to clear the fault.
Fig. 2

24
 Meanwhile, relays at A & B are activated, but after 0.3 Sec CB at substation
C operates then fault current stops and they get reset.
 Likewise, for fault between B & C / A & B – relay (and CB) at substation B /
A operate to clear the fault.
 If the relay or circuit breaker at C fails, the fault remains uncleared. In this
situation, after 0.8 s, the relay at B will operate and the circuit breaker at B
will trip. If the circuit breaker at B also fails to operate, after 1.3 s, circuit
breaker at A will trip.
 This scheme is suitable for radial feeder, i.e. power flowing in one
direction.
 Time interval of 0.5 Sec is found to be suitable.
 For transformer in substation, the time setting should be less than that of
the main line.
25
 For faults near the power source, the operating time is more. If a fault
occurs near the power source, it involves a large current and hence it
should be cleared quickly.
 But this scheme takes the longest time in clearing the heaviest fault,
which is undesirable because the heaviest fault is the most
destructive.
 Not suitable for ring mains & interconnected lines.
 Difficult to coordinate with new connections.

26
 Applied when impedance between substations is considerable.
 Employs high speed O.C. relays operate at predetermined setting without
any time lag.
 Consider the diagram (ideally):
The relay at B should trip for faults any
where between B and C.
But it should not operate for faults
beyond C.
Similarly, the relay at A should trip for
faults between A and B.
The relay at C should trip for faults
beyond C.
 Current setting diminishes
progressively from the source to
remote end of the line.
Fig. 3 27
 Practical Scenario:
1. The relay at A is not able to differentiate between faults
very close to B which may be on either side of B. If a fault
in the section BC is very close to the station B, the relay at
A ‘understands’ that it is in section AB.
This happens due to the fact that there is very little
difference in fault currents if a fault occurs at the end of
the section AB or in the beginning of the section BC.
Fig. 4
2. The magnitude of the fault current cannot be accurately determined as all the circuit
parameters may not be known.
3. During a fault, there is a transient conditions and the performance of the relays is not
accurate.

 Overreach: Sometimes a relay may operate even when a fault point is beyond its present reach (i.e. its protected
length).
 Underreach: Sometimes a relay may fail to operate even when the fault point is within its reach, but it is at the far end
28
of the protected line. This phenomenon is called under reach.
 To obtain proper discrimination, relays are set to protect only a part
of the feeder, usually about 80%. Since this scheme cannot protect
the entire feeder, this system is not used alone. It may be used in
conjunction with I.D.M.T. relays, as shown in Fig. 5.
 The current-graded scheme is used where the impedance between
substations is sufficient to create a margin of difference in fault
currents. For such a system Zs is smaller compared to Z1. The
advantage of this system as compared to the time graded scheme is
that the operating time is less near the power source.

Fig. 5

29
 If a fault occurs near the substation, the fault current is I = E/Zs.
 If a fault occurs at the far end of the protected section, the fault current I = E/(Zs + Z1). If
Z1 is high compared to Zs, there is an appreciable difference in the fault current for a
fault at the near end and for a fault at the far end of the protected section of the feeder.
For such a situation, a relay with inverse-time characteristic would trip faster for a fault
near the substation, which is a very desirable feature.
 Inverse time relays on solidly grounded systems have an advantage. Definite-time
characteristic is desirable where Zs is large compared to Z1. An I.D.M.T. characteristic is
a compromise.
 In IDMT Relay, at lower values of fault current, its characteristic is an inverse-time
characteristic.
 At higher values of fault current, it gives a definite-time characteristic.

30
 This scheme is widely used for the protection of distribution lines.
 I.D.M.T. relays are employed in this scheme.
 They have the combined features of current and time-grading. I.D.M.T. relays
have current as well as time setting arrangements.
 The current setting of the relay is made according to the fault current level of the
particular section to be protected.
 The relays are set to pickup progressively at higher current levels, towards the
source.
 Time setting is also done in a progressively increasing order towards the source.
 The difference in operating times of two adjacent relays is kept 0.5 s.

31
32
33
 Distance relaying is used when time lag in fault clearance is not
permitted.
 Distance relays may be of three types:
1. Impedance type:- used for medium length lines.
2. Reactance type:- used for very short lines.
3. Mho type:- used for phase to phase (L-L) fault protection of long
lines.

34
 These are double actuating type relays –
one coil actuated by voltage & other by
current.
 Torque produced is such that when V/I ratio
reduces below a set value – relay operates.
 For a fault in the line –
 voltage sensed at relaying point – voltage
drop in the line = I Z.
where,
Z = impedance between relay & fault point.
I = fault current.

35
 V IZ
 Then, voltage to current ratio: = =Z
I I
 Z = impedance between relay & fault point – proportional to distance
between relay & fault point.
 Hence, this type of relay is known as “Distance Relay.”
 There are two actuating quantity mechanism, which is followed by the
Impedance Relay.
 i) The operating torque produced by the current.
 ii) The restraining torque produced by the voltage.
These two torque needs to be equal. i.e.,
𝜏 = 𝐾1 . 𝐼 2 − 𝐾2 . 𝑉 2 − 𝐾3 ,
Where, 𝐾1 & K 2 are constants and K 3 is the effect of spring constant
36
 At t=0, if the relay is at verge of the operation, then neglecting the spring
constant,
K 2 . V 2 = K1 . I 2
or, V/I=√K1/K2 =Ƙ=set value
Since, the producing force is created by I,
The relay will operate: V/I< Ƙ.
Relay will not operate if V/I>Ƙ.
SIGNIFICANCE:
 In interconnected power system, it is tough to clear the fault using conventional
overcurrent relay, because of its complicacy regarding coordination between
them.
 Even if it is possible to coordinate for a particular fault, then if in different
location the fault will occur, then the coordination of conventional OC relay
needs to be changed.
 Hence, impedance relay is coming into picture, which are following the before
mentioned principles to clear the fault, by tripping the fault zone.
 Moreover, since impedance is proportional to the length of the transmission
line, it could measure, at how far the fault has occurred.
 If, 𝑍𝐹 < Ƙ, THE FAULT OCCURRED INSIDE THE LINE
 If, 𝑍𝐹 > Ƙ, THE FAULT OCCURRED OUTSIDE THE LINE
37
Plotting of impedance relay characteristic is essential.

 Three variables |𝑉1 |, |𝐼1 | & φ1 are converted into

two variables 𝑅1 and 𝑋1 through this diagram.
V1 |𝑉1|
= ∠φ1 =|𝑍1 |∠φ1 =|𝑍1 |Cosφ1 +j|𝑍1 |Sinφ1 = 𝑅1 +
I1 |𝐼1|
j𝑋1
Represents a circle with origin at
centre & |𝑍1 |as radius, in R-X diagram.
where, 𝑅1 =|𝑍1 |Cosφ1 & 𝑋1 =|𝑍1 |Sinφ1
[(R1 +jX1 )=|Z1 |∠φ1 ; (R1 -jX1 )=|Z1 |∠−φ1 ;
(R1 +j X1 )(R1 -j X1 )=|Z1 |2
 R1 2 +X1 2 =|Z1 |2

38
 So, characteristic of plain impedance relay on R-X
diagram is a circle.

Prof. S. S. Thakur 39
 Since it is non-directional, it could responds to the both side of
current transformer and potential transformer.

 Consequently, it is difficult to detect, whether it is a internal fault or

the external.

40
Under-reach of Plain Impedance Relay

Consider the diagram.

 When ‘Arc’ resistance is added with the line

impedance, then although the line

impedance is well within the circle (i.e.
protected) – resultant impedance is outside
the circle – relay does not operate.

 This is known as Under-reach of plain

impedance relay.
41
 Main advantage – not affected by ‘Arc’ resistance.
 Characteristic is such that all impedance vectors whose outer ends
lie on a horizontal straight line – having constant reactance
component - are protected.
 Theory:
 Relay consists of reactance measuring
unit consisting of:
 An O.C. element that develops +ve
torque (T_Current= K1 . I 2 )
 A directional element that develops –ve
torque.
42
So, the torque eqn. is,
T = K1 . I2 - K 2 .V.I. Cos(θ − ૌ) - K 3 ; K 3 =effect of spring.
= K1 . I2 - K 2 .V.I. Cos(900 − θ) - K 3 (ૌ is adjusted to 900 )
= K1 . I2 - K 2 .V.I. Sinθ- K 3
When the relay is on the verge of operation, T=0, then neglecting K 3 , the effect of
spring,
K1 . I2 - K 2 .V.I. Sinθ= 0
Or, K 2 .V.I. Sinθ= K1 . I2
V K1
Or, Sinθ=
I K2

K1
Or, Z Sinθ= X= = Constant = Set value
K2

K1
As I produces +Ve torque, relay operates for reactance X < =k
K2

When, X < k, the relay will operate.

Non directional current actuating, and voltage-current restraining
relay. 43
 Reactance Relay unaffected by ‘Arc’ Resistance.
 Here, even after addition of ‘Arc’ resistance to
fault impedance – resultant reactance remain
unchanged – so, relay is invariant to ‘Arc’
resistance.
 The arc resistance is given by the
Warrington formula:
29×103 .𝑙
𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑐 = 
𝐼 1.4
 The arc resistance, taking into
account the wind velocity and time
is given by:
16300(1.75 𝑆+𝑣𝑡)
𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑐 = 1.4 
𝐼
44
 A MHO relay measures a component of admittance |Y|∠𝜃
 Impedance diagram (R-X diagram) is a circle, passing through
the origin.
 The torque equation is given by:
T = K1 . V.I. Cos(θ − ૌ) - 𝐾2 𝑉 2 − 𝐾3
K1 . V.I. Cos(θ − ૌ) >𝐾2 𝑉 2
𝐼
Cos(θ − ૌ)>𝐾2 /𝐾1
𝑉
𝑌𝐶𝑜𝑠 θ − ૌ > 𝐾2 /𝐾1
1
<K
𝑌.𝐶𝑜𝑠(θ−ૌ)
Z
<𝐾
𝐶𝑜𝑠(θ − ૌ)
M<K

• It is called a MHO relay because its characteristic is a straight line

when plotted on an admittance diagram. It is also called an
admittance or angle admittance relay.
• This is directional voltage-current actuating, voltage restraining
relay. 45
 Transmission lines having successive line sections are protected by
this scheme.
 Quick protection, as well as back-up for adjoining sections & bus-
bars are achieved.
 Figs. 1 & 2 show time vs. distance characteristic of impedance relay.

46
 In this scheme overall system is divided into three successive zones
of protections –
1. First zone covers 80% of the section AB.
2. Second zone covers remaining 20% of AB & 20-30% of BC &
3. Third zone corresponds to the remaining length of line.

47
 Relay at station ‘A’ has 3 separate impedance measuring units with
set values Z1 , Z2 & Z3 (Z1 < Z2 < Z3 ) for these 3 successive zones of
protection.
 On R-X diagram,
 Operating times of 3 units (t1 < t 2 < t 3 )
are such that for any fault in zone 1,
1st unit (set value Z1 ) operates in time t1 .
 Similarly, for any fault in zone 2, 2nd
unit (set value Z2 ) operates in time t 2 .
 Likewise, for any fault in zone 3, 3rd unit
(set value Z3 ) operates in time t 3 .
48
 Usually, a discrimination time of 0.5 sec is used.
 One directional unit is also incorporated to provide directional
feature.
 The overall characteristic on R-X diagram is,

49
 Even if –X, then also the relay will operate. This
signifies, if the fault is behind the reactance
relay, then also the relay may operate.
 So, A directional unit, having a circular
characteristic is used in conjunction with
reactance relays. The directional unit also acts
as the III unit of the distance scheme.
 The I and II units are reactance units . The I unit
is a high speed unit to protect 80% to 90% of
the protected line. The II unit protects up to
50% of the adjacent line.
 The III unit is a back-up unit to protect the
whole of the adjacent line.
 The loads having high PF may have lesser
reactance than its setting points (P1 and P2),
which may results false tripping and therefore,
a circular region are needed which limits its
area in R-X Plane and thus circular fault
detector is needed and reactance relay of st.
line characteristics will not work.
50
50
 Overall scheme can further be understood from the schematic
contact circuit connection diagram.

51
 Important: If tripping is blocked somehow for any circle – the relay makes
as many attempts to trip as there are characteristic circle around the
blocked one.
 Seal-in Coil/holding coil: Contacts of this coil bypass the protective relay
contacts and seal the circuit closed while tripping current flows – to protect
the delicate relay contacts against damage –resulting from a possible
inadvertent attempt to interrupt the C.B. trip coil current.
 Target: Generally, a protective relay is provided with an operation
indicator/target– to show that it has operated. It is a coloured element –
may be actuated mechanically/electrically by the flow of contact current. It
is arranged to be reset manually after the indication has been noted.
52
 For any fault in first zone (set value Z1 ) all three impedance units operate.
 But operation of Z1 & directional unit –trip the CB in time t1 .
 On operation of Z3 & directional unit- timer unit is energized– it first closes
T2 contacts (in time t 2 ) – later T3 contacts (in time t 3 )- both t 2 & t 3 are
adjustable independently.
1. So, for fault impedance outside Z1 circle but within Z2 circle- relay
operates in time t 2 .
2. for fault impedance outside Z2 circle but within Z3 ,- relay operates in
time t 3 .

53
54
 Power Swing Analysis:

Figure shows a section of a transmission line with generating

stations beyond either end of the line section. The generated
voltages are EA and EB, respectively. The voltage at the relay
location is V. Impedances are as shown in the figure. The
current flowing through the line is given by ,

𝐸𝐴 − 𝐸𝐵
𝐼=
𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝐵
=(𝐸𝐴 −𝐸𝐵 )/𝑍𝑇 (Where, 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝐵 )
𝑉 = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝑍𝐴
The impedance by the relay is given by,
𝑉 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝑍𝐴 EA
𝑍= = = − ZA
𝐼 𝐼 I
𝐸 𝑍
= 𝐸 𝐴−𝐸𝑇 − ZA
𝐴 𝐵

55
 If 𝐸𝐴 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝐸𝐵 by an angle 𝛿 and 𝐸𝐴 / 𝐸𝐵 =𝑛, the expression
is written as,
𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝛿
𝑍= Z − ZA
neiδ −1 T

 This equation represents a family of circles with 𝑛 as

parameter and 𝛿 as variable, as shown in Fig. 6.42.
 With n = 1, the power swing locus is a straight line
perpendicular to AB (AB = ZT). With n > 1 and n < 1, the
power swing loci are circles, as shown in the figure.
 The centres of the circles lie on the extension of the line ZT,
as shown in Fig. 6.43.
 For n >1, the distance from B to the centre of circle = ZT
/(n2 – 1)

56
57
 The characteristics of an offset mho relay in the R – X plane is a circle that is shifted and includes the
origin, thus providing better protection for close-in faults. This unit, when used to trip, must be supervised
by a directional unit or be time-delayed. Offset mho relay has four principal applications:
i) Bus-bar zone back-up protection,
ii) Carrier starting in carrier-distance blocking schemes,
iii) Out-of-step (or power swing) blocking, and
iv) Starters on very long lines

58
 Though a MHO relay is quite suitable for the protection of long lines, for the protection of extra
long lines (ELL), its area on the R-X diagram may be too large to trip under power swing
conditions.
 Hence, further reduction in the area of a MHO characteristic is necessary to make the relay
suitable for ELL lines.
 In the case of electromagnetic relays, two blinders are used to reduce the characteristic area of
a MHO relay, as shown in Fig. 6.49.
 These blinders are angle impedance relays which are connected in series with the MHO relay.

59
 Wire pilot schemes are usually economical for
distances up to 30 km.
 A wire pilot may be buried cable or a pair of
overhead auxiliary wires other than the power
line conductors.
 The scheme is a unit protection and operates on
the principle of differential protection.
 The comparison is made between the CT
secondary currents at the two ends of the line.
 As the pilot channels are very expensive, a
single phase current is derived from three-phase
currents at each end of the line, thereby using
only a pair of pilot wires to carry information
signal.
60
61
 Two CTs used- one at each end of
the line.
 CT secondaries are connected in
series by pilot wires.
 In normal condition/through faults
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 .
 Relay connected at middle of the
line does not operate.
 For internal fault 𝐼1 ≠ 𝐼2 , relay
operates.

62
 Relay connected at middle.
 Long separate wires needed to connect
relay contacts to trip circuits of CBs.
 Additional cost involvement & continuous
supervision of these wires are required.
 Difficult & costly.
 This difficulty is overcome by using two
relays at two ends of line.
 In normal condition/through faults 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 .
 Relays do not operate.
 For internal fault 𝐼1 ≠ 𝐼2 , - both relays
operate.

63
Limitations:
 Accurate matching of current transformers is very essential.

 If there is a break in the pilot-wire circuit, the system will not operate.

 This system is very expensive owing to the greater length of pilot wires required.

 In case of long lines, charging current due to pilot-wire capacitance effects may be sufficient to cause relay
operation even under normal conditions.
 This system cannot be used for line voltages beyond 33 kV because of constructional difficulties in matching
the current transformers.

64
 In this method CT secondary current is converted to equivalent voltage - using
suitable transformer.
 Transformer secondary connected in voltage opposition.
 In normal condition/through faults 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 - secondary voltages are equal &
opposite – no current flows through the pilot wires- relays don’t operate.
 For internal fault 𝐼1 ≠ 𝐼2 , - two secondary voltages unequal - current flows through
the pilot wires- both relays operate.

65
 This scheme is a balanced voltage scheme with the addition of a
directional feature.
 Figure shows the schematic arrangement of the scheme. An
induction disc type relay is used at each end of the protected line
section.
 The secondary windings of the relays are interconnected in
opposition as a balanced voltage system by pilot wires. The upper
magnet of the relay carries a summation winding to receive the
output of current transformers.
 Under normal conditions and in case of external faults, no current
circulates through the pilot wires and hence through the lower
magnets of the relays. In these conditions, no operating torque is
produced. In case of internal faults, current flows through the pilot
wires and the lower electromagnets of the relay. In this condition,
the relay torque is produced from the interaction of the two fluxes,
one of which is produced directly from the local CT secondary
current flowing through the upper magnet of the relay. The second
flux is produced by the current flowing through the lower magnet.
 The current flowing through the lower magnet may be relatively
small. Therefore, this scheme is suitable for fairly long pilots having
loop resistance up to 1000 ohm.
 This permits to use current transformers of normal design and
eliminates one of the most serious limitations of original voltage
balance system, namely ; its limitation to the system operating at
voltages not exceeding 33 kV.

66
 Figure shows a practical scheme based on the balanced voltage principle.
 It is called the Solkar system (Reyrolle).
 The capacitor shown in the figure is used to tune the operating circuit to the fundamental
frequency component.
 The scheme is suitable for 7/0.029 pilot loops up to 400 ohm.

67
68
 69
External or No fault condition
 70
Internal fault condition
1. Additional expenditure for pilot wires.
2. Continuous supervision of pilot wires- difficult & costly. Hence, used for short
lines (15-16km, maximum 30 km), although in some particular cases it has been
used for lines of 50km.
3. Pilot wires are exposed to atmosphere- should be protected against lightning.
4. Induced voltage to pilot wires due to fields of power line should be limited to 5-
15V.
5. Beyond 15-16km length, carrier current protection is more economical.

71
 This is the most widely used scheme for the protection of EHV and UHV power lines.

 In this scheme, power line itself is used as channel to carry information between the two ends of the line.

 Carrier current schemes are cheaper and more reliable for long lines compared to wire pilot schemes,
even though the terminal equipment is more expensive and more complicated.
 High frequency signal (50kHz-700kHz)- known as carrier are transmitted over the protected line.

 To inject carrier signal & to restrict it within protected section– suitable coupling apparatus & line traps
needed.
 This makes it quite expensive  used for longer lines of 132kV & above.

 Each end of line fitted with identical carrier current equipment- consisting of transmitter, receiver, coupling
equipment & line trap.
 In this scheme, the conductor of the power line to be protected are used for the transmission of carrier
signals. So the pilot is termed as a power line carrier.

72
 Distance protective schemes are non-unit type schemes. They are fast, simple and economical and provide
both primary and back-up protection.
 The main disadvantage of conventional time-stepped distance protection is that the circuit breakers at both
ends of the line do not trip simultaneously when a fault occurs at one of the end zones of the protected line
section.
 This may cause instability in the system. Where high voltage auto-reclosing is employed, non-simultaneous
opening of the circuit breakers at both ends of the faulted section does not provide sufficient time for the de-
ionisation of gases.
 The carrier current protection or any other unit protection does not suffer from these disadvantages. In unit
protection, circuit breakers trip simultaneously at both ends. It is capable of providing high speed protection
for the whole length of the protected line section.

73
 In a carrier current scheme, the carrier signal can be used either to prevent or initiate the tripping of a protective
relay.
 When the carrier signal is used to prevent the operation of the relay, the scheme is known as carrier-blocking
scheme.
 When the carrier signal is employed to initiate tripping, the scheme is called a carrier inter-tripping or transfer
tripping or permissive tripping scheme.
 The coupling capacitors required for carrier signal can be used also as potential dividers to supply reduced
voltage to instruments, relays etc. This eliminates the use of separate potential transformers.
 There are two important operating techniques employed for carrier current protection namely the phase
comparison technique and directional comparison technique.
 In the phase comparison technique, the phase angle of the current entering one end is compared with the phase
angle of the current leaving the other end of the protected line section. If the currents at both the ends of the line
are in 180 degree phase opposition, there is no fault on the protected line section. This will be true during normal
conditions or in case of external faults.
 In case of faults on the protected line section, the two currents will be 0° out of phase.
 In the directional comparison technique, the direction of power flow at the two ends of the protected line section is
compared. During normal conditions and in the case of external faults, the power must flow into the protected line
section at one end and out of it at the other end. In case of an internal fault, the power flows inwards from both
ends.

74
75
 Consist of Oscillator & Amplifier.
 Oscillator generates a frequency signal within 50-700kHz.
 Amplifier provides sufficient radio frequency power (5-40W) at operating frequency- to
overcome losses in transmission line & to operate the receiver at other end.
 Transmitter control is effected in various ways- shown by dotted arrows.
 Transmitter is required to modulate the carrier with the protective signals.
 Modulation process involves taking one half cycle of the 50Hz signal & using this to create blocks
of carrier.
 When a voltage of positive polarity is impressed on
the control circuit of transmitter, it generates a high
frequency output voltage. This output voltage is
impressed between one phase conductor of the
transmission line and the earth 76
 The carrier current receiver receives the carrier signal from the transmitter at the distant end of
the line. The receiver converts the received carrier current into a DC voltage that can be used in a
relay or other circuit that performs any desired function. The voltage is zero when the carrier
current, is not being received.
 Consists of Attenuator, Matching transformer, Band-pass filter, Amplifier detector and Carrier
receive relay.
 Attenuation of input signal- done by attenuator- to avoid overloading.
 Matching transformer- matches low characteristic impedance of line and high input impedance
of amplifier detector.
 Band-pass filter- allows only a particular band of frequency to amplifier detector.
 Amplifier detector-converts a small input signal to a signal capable of operating a relatively
insensitive carrier receive relay.
 Transmitters & Receivers of the two ends are tuned to same frequency – so that each receiver
responds to local & far end transmitters.

77
 The coupling capacitor connects the high-frequency equipment to one of the line conductors and
simultaneously separate the power equipment from the high power line voltage. The normal
current will be able to flow only through the line conductor, while the high frequency carrier
current will circulate over the line conductor fitted with the high-frequency traps, through the trap
capacitor and the ground.
 Coupling of high frequency transmitter-receiver units to power frequency line is done by a
coupling capacitor (0.001μF) & drainage coil (100mH).
 Coupling capacitor is earthed through the drainage coil.
 It makes isolation of terminal equipment – by providing high impedance to power frequency
current & low impedance to carrier frequency current.
 Line tuner is used for impedance matching of transmitter-receiver units to coupling capacitor &
power line.

78
 Line trap is inserted between the bus-bar and connection of coupling capacitor to the line. It is a
parallel LC network tuned to resonate at the high frequency. The traps restrict the carrier current
to go towards the unprotected section, so as to avoid interference of it with adjacent carrier
current channels. It also avoids the loss of the carrier current signal to the adjoining power
circuit.
 It is rejection filter- parallel resonant circuit- L&C in parallel – tuned to carrier frequency.
 Connected in series at both ends of the protected line.
 Provides high impedance to carrier frequency current & low impedance to power frequency
current.
 Restricts the carrier frequency current within the protected line.

79
 In this scheme, the phase angle of the current entering one end of the protected line section is compared with the current
leaving the other end.
 Figure shows the schematic diagram of the phase comparison scheme.

 It operates on principle of comparing phase position of currents at two ends of the protected section.

 Comparison is made over carrier channel.

𝑜
 During normal condition/through faults – currents entering the line at two ends differ in phase by 180 . So,
relaying quantities are also 180𝑜 apart.
𝑜
 However, for internal fault - relaying quantities at two ends have a phase difference of 0 .

 The length of transmission line which can be protected by phase comparison scheme is limited by phase
shifts produced by the following factors.
 The ideal phase difference between carrier blocks is 180° for internal faults and zero degree for external
faults. In practice, it is kept 180° ± 30° for internal faults because of
 (i) The propagation time, i.e. the time taken by the carrier signal to travel from one end to other end of the
protected line section (up to 0.06° per km).
 (ii) The time of response of the band pass filter (about 5°).

 (iii) The phase shift caused by the transmission line capacitance (up to 10°).

80
 (iv) the phase displacement
between emfs at the ends of the
protected line section.
 (v) through current being added
to the fault current at one end and
subtracted at the other.
 (vi) errors produced by CTs.

 In the figure it is seen that - carrier

signal is transmitted only during
positive half cycle of current wave.

81
 Currents flowing into line sections at CBs A & B- shown in positions 1 & 2.
 Carrier transmissions at A & B – shown in positions 3 & 4.
 At A, carrier transmissions from A & B are added & rectified to give an output
signal – shown in position 5.
 At B, carrier transmissions from B & A are added & rectified to give an output
signal – shown in position 6.
 When signal value is zero for a specified time, as T - in positions 5 & 6 – CBs are
tripped by the scheme.
 For non-zero value of signal through out the entire cycle – shown in positions 5 &
6 - CB are prevented from tripping.

82
DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON

83
 The main disadvantage of unit protection scheme is that they do not provide
back-up protection to the adjacent line section.
 A distance scheme is capable of providing back-up protection but it does not
provide high-speed protection for the whole length of the line. The circuit
breakers do not trip simultaneously at both ends for end-zone faults.
 The most desirable scheme will be one which includes the best features of both,
unit protection and distance protection.
 This can be achieved by interconnecting the distance relays at both ends of the
protected section by carrier signals.
 Such schemes provide instantaneous tripping for the whole length of the line as
well as back-up protection.
 The following are the three types of such schemes. (i) Carrier transfer or inter-
tripping scheme (ii) Carrier acceleration scheme (iii) Carrier blocking scheme

84
 The following are important types of transfer tripping schemes. (a) Direct transfer
tripping (Under-reaching scheme) (b) Permissive under-reach transfer tripping scheme
(c) Permissive over-reach transfer tripping scheme
(a) Direct transfer tripping (under-reaching scheme):- In this scheme, three stepped
distance relays are placed at each of the protected line.
Consider the protective scheme for line AB. The time-distance characteristics of the relays
placed at A and B are shown in Figure.
When a fault occurs at F3, the zone-I high-speed relay operates at B and trips the circuit
breaker. But the circuit breaker at A does not trip instantaneously. Therefore, for
instantaneous tripping of the circuit breaker at A, a carrier signal is transmitted from B to
A. A receive relay RR is included in the trip circuit as shown in Figure. Thus, the circuit
breaker at A also trips instantaneously for any fault at F3, i.e. an end-zone fault.
The disadvantage of this scheme is that there may be undesirable tripping due to mal-
operation or accidental operation of the signaling channel.
The operation of the zone I relay at end B initiates tripping at that end as well as a carrier
transmission. The scheme in which the zone I relay is used to send carrier signal to the
remote end of the protected line section is called “transfer trip under-reaching scheme”.

85
 If the fault occurs at F1, the zone 1 relay
operates and trips the circuit breaker at end A.
 It also sends a carrier signal to B. The receipt of
the carrier signal at end B initiates tripping of
the circuit breaker immediately. When a fault
occurs at F2, circuit breakers at both ends trip
simultaneously.
 Distance relays provide back-up protection for
adjacent lines which is obvious from Figure as
the contacts T2 and T3 operate after a certain
time delay.
 Figure shows a signal sending arrangement. It
shows a solid state logic for the trip circuit.
 In this scheme, the carrier signal is transmitted
over the faulty line. Therefore, there is an
additional attenuation of the carrier signal. 86
CARRIER TRANSFER OR INTER-TRIPPING SCHEME (NOT IN SYLLABUS)
(b) Permissive under-reach transfer tripping scheme:-
To overcome the possibility of undesired tripping by
accidental operation or mal-operation of the signaling
channel, the receive relay is supervised by the zone 2 relay.
The zone 2 relay contact is placed in series with the
receive relay RR as shown in Fig. (a). For an internal end-
zone fault, contact Z2 is closed. RR is also closed after
receipt of the carrier signal from the other end and it trips
the circuit.
When there is no fault in the end zone, Z2 will not operate.
As the contact Z2, placed in series with RR is open, the
circuit breaker will not trip even if there is a mal-operation
of the carrier signal.
Thus, it prevents false tripping. Figure (b) shows the
schematic diagram of the signal sending arrangement.
Zone 1 unit is arranged to send a carrier signal.
Figure (c) shows the solid state logic for the trip circuit.
In this scheme also the carrier signal is transmitted over
the faulty line section which causes an additional
attenuation of the carrier signal.
87
 (NOT IN SYLLABUS)
(c) Permissive over-reach transfer tripping scheme:- In this scheme, the
zone 2 unit is arranged to send a carrier signal to the remote end of the
protected section of the line.
In this case, it is essential that the receive relay contact is supervised by a
directional relay.
Figure (a) shows its trip circuit. Zone 2 relay is used to monitor the receive
relay contact RR.
The unit at zone 2 must be a directional unit (it may be a MHO unit) to ensure
that tripping does not take place unless the fault is within the protected
section. This scheme is also know as a directional comparison scheme.
In this scheme, direct transfer tripping cannot be employed because a carrier
signal is transmitted even for an external fault which lies within the protective
zone of the zone 2 relay.
Figure (b) shows a signal sending arrangement. Figure (c) shows its solid state
logic. The scheme in which the second zone relay is used to transmit carrier
signal to the remote end of the protected line section is called “Overreach
Transfer Scheme”.
The second zone relay is set to reach beyond the far end of the line. Its use as a
signal transmitter does not make any undesired tripping when fault occurs in
the overlapped section of the adjacent line.
It is due to the fact that the second zone relay used in this scheme is a
directional unit and it also monitors the recieve relay.
In this scheme also, the carrier signal is transmitted over the faulty line section
which causes additional attenuation of the carrier signal.
88
In this scheme, the carrier signal is used to extend the reach of the zone 1 unit
to zone 2, thereby enabling the measuring unit to see the end-zone faults.
When an end-zone fault occurs, the relay trips at that end and sends a carrier
signal to the remote end. This scheme employs a single measuring unit for
zone 1 and zone 2 unit (MHO unit).
The zone 1 unit is arranged to send the carrier signal to the other end. The
receive relay contact is arranged to operate a range change relay as shown in
Fig. (a).
On receipt of the carrier signal from the other end, the range change relay
extends the reach of the mho unit from zone 1 to zone 2 immediately. Thus, the
clearance of fault at the remote end is accelerated.
If the carrier fails, the fault will be cleared in zone 2 operating time. This
scheme is not as fast as permissive transfer tripping schemes as some time is
required for the operation of the mho unit after its range has been changed
from zone 1 to zone 2. But it is more reliable because the zone 2 relay
operates only when it sees a fault in its operating zone.
It does not operate due to accidental or mal-operation of the carrier channel.
In this scheme, the carrier signal is transmitted over the faulty line. So its
effectiveness depends upon the transmission of the carrier signal during such
conditions.
In carrier acceleration and inter-tripping schemes, if the carrier fails, end- 89
zone faults will take a longer time to be cleared.
In this scheme, the carrier signal is used to block the operation of the relay in
case of external faults. When a fault occurs on the protected line section, there is
no transmission of the carrier signal.
The blocking schemes are particularly suited to the protection of multi-ended
lines. In this scheme the zone 3 unit looks in the reverse direction and it sends a
blocking signal to prevent the operation of zone 2 unit at the other end for an
external fault.
When a fault occurs at F1 (see Figure), it is seen by zone 1 relays at both ends A
and B. Consequently, the fault is cleared instantaneously at both ends of the
protected line.
The carrier signal is not transmitted by the reverse looking zone 3 unit because it
does not see the fault at F1.
When a fault occurs on F2, which is an end-zone fault, it is seen by zone 2 units at
both ends A and B and also by zone 1 unit at B. The fault is cleared by zone 1 unit
at B and instantaneously by the zone 2 unit at A. The zone 2 unit has two operating
times, one instantaneous and other delayed. The instantaneous operation is
through Z2 and RR, see Fig. (a). The delayed operation is through T2. As the fault
is an internal one, there is no transmission of the carrier signal. When a fault
occurs at F3, it is seen by the forward looking zone 2 unit A and the reverse
looking zone 3 unit at B. It is an external fault. Normally, it has to be cleared by
the zone 1 unit associated with line BC. So to prevent the operation of zone 2 unit
at A, a carrier signal is transmitted by the reverse looking zone 3 unit at B. If this
fault is not cleared instantaneously by the relays of line BC, the zone 2 relay at A 90
will trip after the zone 2 time lapse, as back-up protection.