RAMP MAINTENANCE

The CAA will expect you to be able to "see" an aircraft in and "see" it out of the
passenger area and be aware of all the maintenance that has to be carried out.
The fundamental checks to be carried out on all aircraft are similar in terms of
refuelling, rectification, before flight inspection, after flight inspections, etc.

There are, of course, variations and that is where the aircraft maintenance
manual (AMM) comes in - always refer to it to check for the correct procedures
to be carried out.

The following paragraphs indicate some general points to be considered for a

passenger aircraft.

Aircraft Arrival (Figures 2 & 3)

1. Ensure the area is clear of all equipment and debris.

2. Ensure that the required maintenance equipment is standing by,

eg, equipment for: baggage handling; refuelling; toilet servicing;
system maintenance - electrical - hydraulic.

3. Ensure servicing personnel available.

4. Ensure any spares are available - that have been radioed forward
via a datalink from the aircraft (automatic on some aircraft).

5. When aircraft arrives marshal it in, chock wheels, shut down

engines, put brakes off. Fit ground locks and fit
airframe/engine/systems covers.

6. Load/unload aircraft.

7. Carry out after flight/between flight inspection, and replenish

consumables. Clean cabin and toilets. Rectify defects.

8. Secure aircraft if it is not leaving.

9. Complete details in the Tech Log.

Aircraft Departure (Figures 2 & 3)

1. Carry out before flight inspection.

2. Check Weight and Balance Schedule.
3. Check loading (passengers/cargo) and fuel state - make up load
sheet (see later chapters in this book).
4. Remove all covers and locks.
5. Ensure aircraft is free of ice and snow (see later chapters in this
book).
6. Clear Tech Log. Check deferred defects.
7. Check all doors are closed.
8. Ensure ground crew in place and check with pilot.
9. Ensure equipment available for "push back" (see figure 1).
10. Isolate nose wheel steering.
11. Clear area - start engines, if allowed before push-back - remove
chocks.
12. After push-back reinstate nose wheel steering.

The Ramp

This is the area where cargo and passengers are transferred to and from the
aircraft. It is also the area where a great deal of maintenance is carried out.
Some people call this first-line servicing, others call it ramp maintenance.

Besides rectification of minor defects that have occurred during the previous
flight and before flight/ after flight inspections the aircraft has to be replenished
and cleaned.

A few minutes studying figure 2 will give you some idea as to the complexity of
this operation for a large commercial aircraft.

Figure 3 shows the various connections/maintenance panels used on the A320

during ramp servicing.
 AIRCRAFT MOVEMENT

An aircraft may be moved:

(a) Under it's own power using flight crew or ground crew (in some
countries ground crew can be certified to taxi aircraft).

(b) Manually. Quite easy for small aircraft but much more difficult for
the larger ones - though it can be done if needs must and you have
enough manpower.

(c) Using a tug/tractor and towing gear.

(d) Using a special hand operated towing trolley that is self-powered

and connected to the nose/tail wheel.

TOWING

In general when towing on firm ground a towing arm may be used attached to
the nose wheel or tail wheel. When towing on soft ground a bridle is used
attached to the main landing gear with a steering arm attached to the tail
wheel or nose wheel.
Towing Bridle and Steering Arm

On soft or uneven ground, tail wheeled aircraft are towed forward by a towing
bridle or frame. The cable of the bridle is threaded through a towing
attachment containing a pulley on which the cable rides. The free ends of the
cable are attached to towing lugs on the main landing gear. A steering arm is
attached to the tail wheel.

With aircraft fitted with nose wheels, the towing bridle may be used for forward
or backward movement, and is fitted to the front or back of the main landing
gear.

To tow the aircraft forward a towing bridle is used fitted with a special towing
arm attached to the nose wheel. The tug end of the towing arm contains a
pulley through which the towing bridle cable passes. This allows the aircraft to
be steered by the towing arm while even tension on the towing bridle cable is
maintained.

Towing Arm

When towing an aircraft in the hangar or on hard standing a towing arm may
be used. It is fitted to the nose or tail wheel and may incorporate a spring
shock absorber, and is fitted with a shear pin to prevent excessive loads being
placed through the nose or tail unit.

Towing Frame

A towing frame may be used on light aircraft. It provides positive control of the
aircraft by the tug and a steering arm is not required. May look antiquated but
does provide complete control of the aircraft by the tug/ tractor driver.
Question: Can you think of any checks and precautions required when
towing an aircraft? (10 mins).

Answer: 1. Always ensure the aircraft is serviceable to tow eg:

(a) Landing gear ground locks fitted.
(b) "Three Greens" showing on the flight deck.
(c) The brake system is serviceable.
(d) The aircraft is structurally intact.
(e) The tyres are correctly inflated.
2. Ensure that the correct number of personnel are used and
the person on the aircraft brakes is competent to use them.
3. Ensure power steering is off or disconnected.
4. The tug driver should be qualified and take his/her orders
from the person in charge.
5. The person in charge should be able to communicate with
all the others involved in the towing operation.
6. Look-outs should be positioned at the extremities of the
aircraft.
7. Turn corners with as large a radius as possible and do not
exceed the minimum turning radius as laid down in the
AMM.
8. Ensure navigation (anti collision) lights are on.
9. Get permission from Air Traffic Control (ATC) before towing
in the ATC zone.
10. When finishing the tow ensure that the wheels have revolved
at least one revolution in a straight line to relieve tyre and
landing gear stresses.
 PARKING

When parking an aircraft the following precautions must be observed:

1. The aircraft should be parked in such a way so as not to obstruct

the movement of other aircraft or equipment.
2. Park nose into wind where possible.
3. Intake and pitot static blanks should be fitted, also undercarriage
and control locks.
4. Chock wheels fore and aft.
5. Secure aircraft doors and hatches.

MOORING/PICKETING (Figures 8, 9, 10 & 11)

It is advisable to picket an aircraft if it is to stand outside for long periods.

This applies particularly to small aircraft which would otherwise be damaged in
a high wind. The following precautions should be observed:

1. Proceed as for parking.

2. Consult the AMM.
3. Fit "weather" covers to wheels, cockpits, etc.
4. Isolate fuel tanks and battery.
 5. Secure the aircraft to the ground using the main and secondary
picketing points.
6. Drain drinking water (potable water), remove perishable goods and
valuable and attractive items.
7. Move aircraft regularly to avoid tyre flat-spots.
8. Carry out regular check of aircraft in accordance with the manual.
9. For helicopters remove or secure blades.

Figure 9 shows the mooring of a B747. Figures 10 to 14 show details of

picketing a small turbo-prop aircraft. Note the use of the following:

* Warning flags on covers and blanks.

* Blanks or bungs for all major aircraft orifices.
* Mooring harness for the propellers.
* Picketing rings in the ground.
Figures 10 to 14 show details of mooring the Shorts 360. It is typical of a small
to medium size aircraft. You need not remember these details but, you would
be required to be able to explain, either in writing or on an oral board how you
would go about mooring an aircraft.
 JACKING AND TRESTLING/ SHORING

Aircraft are supported clear of the ground for manufacture and for
maintenance purposes. The equipment to do this includes jacks, trestles, and
slings.

The equipment to carry out a particular task is listed in the AMM as is the
procedure to be carried out. Some aircraft are serviced in servicing docks and,
while the aircraft is supported, the area under the landing gear is lowered to
leave the aircraft supported clear of the ground. Most aircraft, however, are
jacked up using hydraulic jacks.

Trestles (Figure 15)

Usually used to support the aircraft after it has been jacked, but in some cases
may be used as a jack. They may be specially made or made up from various
lengths of "angle iron" joined together with nuts and bolts. They incorporate
one or two jacking heads which are adjustable by screw threads.

A metal or wooden beam is secured to the jacking head/s which is curved to fit
the underside of the aircraft, it is also padded to prevent local damage.
Universal trestles can be supplied, so that using various lengths of angle iron,
trestles of different sizes, height, and breadth can be constructed. The jacking
heads will be common to them all.
Precautions

1. Check that the trestle and beam is of the correct type.

2. Check security of nuts and bolts.
3. Check screw jack threads for serviceability and lubricate.
4. Check padding and security of beam.

Lifting Jacks (Figure 16)

These are usually hydraulically operated to raise and lower the aircraft but for
long periods of support trestles are used in conjunction with the jacks once the
aircraft has been raised to the correct height.

Types

(a) Pillar
(b) Tripod
(c) Bipod
(d) Quadrupod

Hydraulic jacks can range in height from about 3 feet (1m) to about 15 feet
(5m). Some of the larger jacks may have an operating platform part way up the
main body reached by a fixed step ladder.

Hydraulic jacks comprise a basic central hydraulic unit around which are the
support legs. The moving pillar has either a screw thread and locking collar or
a collar and locking pin which enables the jack to be mechanically locked when
the aircraft is at the correct height. This prevents the collapse of the jack due
to fluid leakage. To release the locking device the jack must be raised slightly
to off-load the collar.

Raising the jack is by means of a pump after the fluid control valve has been
closed. Some jacks may be powered pneumatically and controlled from a
central control panel. The air release valve must be opened whenever the jack
is raised or lowered.

To lower the jack, release the locking collar and slowly open the oil control
valve to control the speed of fall. The air release valve must be closed when the
jack is stationary and the oil control valve must remain closed when the
locking device is engaged.

An adapter is fitted into the top of the pillar and this locates into a jack plate or
pad which is fitted, usually by pip pins, onto the underside of the airframe
(check location in the AMM and painted on the airframe).
The adapter and plate form a ball joint which gives a degree of flexibility when
raising and lowering the aircraft. The bottom of the legs of the jack fit into
plates with a ball socket joint to allow for uneven ground. It is essential that
the plates sit firmly on the ground and that the legs are aligned with a small
recess in the plate socket to prevent binding.

When jacking ensure all legs are adjusted so that they carry equal weight, pins
are fully in, and that the jack is vertical (some have a spirit level fitted).

The types of jacks differ in their lifting capacity, size, number and composition
of legs.

• (a) Tripod - Three legs, equally disposed. Used for vertical lifts.
(b) Quadruped - Four legs, equally disposed. Two fixed and two
adjustable to allow for uneven ground.
(c) Bipod - One of the legs of a quadruped jack is removed to leave two
load bearing legs and one adjustable support leg. This is used for
arc lifts. This is a difficult operation and is not often carried out.
(d) Bottle jack - Used for wheel changes.
Larger jacks have transportation wheels fitted either permanently or temporary
for movement to and from the aircraft. The correct jack must be used (the
maximum load is marked on the side of the jack) and the aircraft should be
raised and lowered slowing.

Servicing usually involves the following:

(a) Cleaning, lubrication and inspection for damage and corrosion.

(b) Checking oil level.

(c) All pins are in position and leg adjusting mechanisms work.

(d) Correct function of air and oil control valves.

(e) Correct operation of the jack, and correct operation of locking

devices.

Jacking and Trestling a Nose Wheel Aircraft (Figure 18)

1. Consult the AMM for details of procedure, equipment used,

position of equipment, weight and C of G limits, fuel state, etc.
2. Check aircraft's C of G and fuel state.
3. Check aircraft is structurally sound to jack.
4. Isolate appropriate electrical circuits (pull C/B's):
5. Bond aircraft to ground.
6. Jack on firm level ground in the hangar or outside in a position so
as not to obstruct other aircraft movements. If jacking outside
check wind speed and direction with air traffic control and cross
refer to AMM.
7. Position ground equipment.
8. A person who knows what to do should be positioned at each of
the following:
(a) each jack and trestle.
(b) look-out for overhead obstructions.
(c) levelling station.
(d) a person in charge to be in contact with all the others.
9. Chock the wheels (unless the manual states otherwise) and put
brakes off.
10. Raise the aircraft slowly and keep in a level position, follow up with
a tail trestle.
11. At the required height lock all jacks and position steady trestles.
Jacking and Trestling a Tail Wheel Aircraft

Many of the points mentioned for a nose wheeled aircraft apply here but the
general procedure is different and is usually as follows:

1. Chock the main wheels and ensure the brakes are off.
2. Weight the tail either by attaching weights to the tail wheel or
placing weights inside the rear of the aircraft (large aircraft).
3. Raise the tail of the aircraft manually (small aircraft), or by use of a
crane and special adapter in the main spare of the tailplane.
" 4. Place a trestle under the tail, lower the aircraft onto it, and tie it
down.
5. Place main jacks in position and raise the main wheels clear of the
ground.

Lowering the Aircraft

This will vary with each type of aircraft but in general it is the reverse of raising
with the following additional checks:

1. Consult the manual.

2. Ensure the landing gear is complete, serviceable, and locked down
with three greens showing.
3. Check wheels and tyres for serviceability and ensure tyres and
shock absorbers are correctly inflated.
4. Hydraulic system pressurised with landing gear locked down.
5. Wheel brakes are off and all unnecessary equipment and items
clear from under the aircraft.
6. All systems that require the aircraft to be jacked for testing have
been tested and cleared.
7. Stress panels are fitted.
8. Aircraft electrically/electronically configured for lowering (we don't
want the spoilers deploying automatically for example).
9. Check aircraft loading and C of G.
10. Remove trestles, slowly lower the aircraft keeping it level.

Jacking and Trestling a Helicopter

This is similar in many ways to jacking and trestling a nose wheel aircraft.
Pillar or Bottle Jacks (Figure 17)

Used to raise just one side of the aircraft only to facilitate a wheel change, and
brake servicing.
 COLD WEATHER PRECAUTIONS

General

1. Clear the working areas of snow and ice.

2. Keep sand and salt away from working areas and aircraft as much
as possible.
3. Ideally keep aircraft in heated hangers as much as possible.

After Flight (Check the AMM)

1. Fit all airframe and engine covers, Pitot/static plugs, and landing
gear locks.
2. If aircraft is wet apply anti-freeze liquid to the underside of covers
before fitting.
3. Allow any ice in intakes, water drains, etc, to melt, drain water
then fit covers and plugs.
4. Drain oil whilst hot (from piston engines in extreme cold), and
drain water traps in Pitot/static systems.
5. Drain drinking (potable) water systems.
6. Drain and clean all toilet systems.
7. Clean, drain and remove any foodstuffs from galleys.
8. Drain oil and water traps on pneumatic systems.
9. Park or picket aircraft - leave brakes off.

Before Flight (refer to AMM)

1. Remove covers, blanks and locks.

2. Remove ice and snow from airframe and engines using blower
heaters or fluid spray systems (see later chapters in this book).
3. Pre-heat engines using blower heaters.
4. Fill systems and check for leaks. Piston engines are usually filled
with pre-heated oil.
5. Check all heaters - windscreen - Pitot - TAT - drain masts - ice
detectors - EPR - heater mats etc.
6. Carry out normal before flight inspection.
7. If aircraft does not fly within a certain time (depending on ambient
temperature) re-do items 2 and 3 above.
 ICE AND SNOW FORMATION ON AIRCRAFT

Icing on aircraft is caused by a combination of freezing conditions and

moisture in the atmosphere. It may also be caused by freezing rain or drizzle.
The actual amount depends on surface temperature, surface condition,
duration of icing conditions, and the amount of moisture present in the
atmosphere.

Hoar Frost

Hoar frost occurs on a surface which is at a temperature below the freezing

point of the adjacent air and, of course, below freezing point itself. It is formed
in clear air when water vapour is converted directly to ice and builds up into a
white semi-crystalline coating. Hoar frost is feathery.

When hoar frost occurs on aircraft on the ground, the weight of the deposit is
unlikely to be serious, but the deposit, if not removed from the airframe, may
interfere with the airflow and attainment of flying speed during take-off, the
windscreen may be obscured, and the free working of moving parts such as
flying control surfaces may be affected.

Rime Ice

This ice formation, which is less dense than glaze ice, is an opaque, rough
deposit. At ground level it forms in freezing fog conditions and consists of a
deposit of ice on the windward side of exposed objects. Rime ice is light and
porous and results from the small water drops freezing as individual particles,
with little or no spreading. A large amount of air is trapped between the
particles.

Aircraft in flight may experience rime icing when flying through clouds with the
air temperature and the temperature of the airframe below freezing point; the
icing builds up on the leading edge, but does not extend back along the chord.
Ice of this type usually has no great weight, but the danger of rime is that it
will interfere with the airflow over wings, etc, and may choke the orifices of the
carburettor, air intake and flying instruments.

Glaze Ice

Glaze ice is the glassy deposit that forms over the village pond after a frosty
night. On aircraft, glaze ice forms when the aircraft encounters freezing rain
with the air temperature and the temperature of the airframe below freezing
point.
It consists of a transparent or opaque coating of ice with a glassy
surface and results from the liquid water flowing over the airframe before
freezing; glaze ice may be mixed with sleet or snow.

Ice formed in this way is dense, tough and sticks closely to the surface. It
cannot easily be shaken off and, if it breaks off at all, it comes away in lumps
of an appreciable and sometimes dangerous size. The main danger of glaze ice
is still aerodynamic, but to this must be added, that due to the weight of ice,
unequal wing loading and propeller blade vibration may occur. Also there is the
possibility of ice debris damage in flight. Glaze ice is the most severe and the
most dangerous form of ice formation on aircraft.

Debris Icing

This is caused by slush/snow/moisture being throne/blown onto the aircraft

by the wind, or passing vehicular traffic or blown by propeller/jet efflux from
other aircraft.

Pack Snow

Normally, snow falling on an aircraft does not adhere, but will settle on the top
surfaces only. If the temperature of the airframe is below freezing point
however, glaze ice may form from the moisture in the snow. The icing of the
aircraft in such conditions, however, is primarily due to water drops, though
snow may subsequently be embedded in the ice so formed.

Conclusions

It is evident that if ice is deposited on the aircraft, one or more of the following
effects may occur:

(a) Decrease in Lift. This may occur due to change in wing section,
resulting in loss of streamlined flow.

(b) Increase in Drag. Drag will increase due to the rough surface,
especially if the formation is rime ice. This condition results in a
greatly increased skin friction.

(c) Decrease in propeller efficiency. With turbo-prop and piston

engines, the efficiency of the propeller will decrease due to
alterations of the blade profile and increased blade thickness.
 (d) Propeller vibration due to uneven weight of ice.

(e) Loss of Control. Loss of control may occur due to ice preventing
movement of control surfaces.

(f) Increased risk of control surface flutter due to control surface

C of G change because of the ice.

(g) Increased Load and Wing Loading. The weight of the ice may
prevent the aircraft from taking-off.

(h) Reduced stalling speed.

(i) Loss of Inherent Stability. Loss of the inherent stability may occur
due to displacement of the centre of gravity caused by the weight of
the ice.

(j) Loss of Vision. This will happen if the windscreen becomes iced
over.

(k) Ice debris damage.

(1) Malfunction of Flight/Engine Instruments. This would occur if

Pitot/static and EPR probes/vents became blocked.

GROUND DE-ICING OF AIRCRAFT

The aircraft de-icing systems are designed to remove or prevent the formation
of ice on parts of the wings, tail and engine nacelles and would not normally be
effective in removing deposits which have accumulated while the aircraft is
stationary. Their use may also aggravate the situation by melting some of the
deposit which would then freeze elsewhere. The use of cabin heating to remove
deposits from the fuselage is also not recommended for the same reason.

When aircraft are kept under cover during inclement weather any melted snow
or ice may freeze again if the aircraft is subsequently moved into sub-zero
temperatures. Complete protection could be provided by placing aircraft in
heated hangars, but for large aircraft this is not always possible except for
servicing.

Removal of frost, ice and snow from aircraft is therefore often necessary and
maintenance crews must be familiar with the methods of ground de-icing an
aircraft.
FROST AND ICE REMOVAL

Frost and ice is best removed by the use of a frost remover (eg DTD 406 or
similar) or, in severe conditions, a de-icing fluid (eg Kilfrost "Arctic" or
equivalent). These fluids normally contain ethylene glycol and isopropyl
alcohol and may be applied either by spray or hand. It should be applied as
close to the departure time as possible and repeated if aircraft departure is
delayed.

De-icing fluids may adversely affect glazed panels, composite structures or the
exterior finish of aircraft, particularly when the paint is new. Only the type of
fluid, and it's method of application, as stated in the AMM should be used.

Some fluids, particularly those with an alcohol base, may cause dilution of oils
and greases. Spray nozzles should not therefore, be directed at lubrication
points or bearings and an inspection of areas where fluid may be trapped is
usually necessary. The maintenance schedule may specify re-lubrication in
these areas whenever de-icing fluids are used.

Frost and ice may also be removed from aircraft surfaces using a mobile hot air
supply. The air is blown on to the wings, fuselage and tail surfaces and blows
away/melts the ice. Operators using this equipment should ensure that any
meltwater is dried up and not allowed to accumulate in hinges, micro switches,
structure etc, where re-freezing could occur.

When using hot air blowers, remember that the air can heat some polymers
(plastics) to near melting point, can melt greases out of bearings and may even
over-heat some aluminium alloys (if prolonged closed exposure is allowed).
Exercise care when directing the hot air stream not to give prolonged exposure
to these areas as well as to any inflammable liquids.

SNOW REMOVAL

This should be removed with a brush or squeegee, care being taken not to
damage aerials, vents, stall warning vanes, vortex generators, etc, which may
be concealed by the snow.

Snow should be brushed off the aircraft structure and should not be allowed to
go into cowlings, intakes, vents, shrouds etc. Light snow can be removed by
blowing with cold air. It is important to remove the snow from around the
aircraft and keep the working area clear. Should snow and ice be allowed to
accumulate on the ground it will make working in the area difficult, cause
obstruction and may be sucked into intakes.
FLUID SPRAYS

Fluids may be used hot or cold and are of two main types:

Type 1 (unthickened). Have a high glycol content and a low viscosity.

Good de-icing but has short "hold-over times".

Type 2 (thickened). Have a minimum glycol content of 50%. Good de-

icing with longer "hold-over times".

Ice and snow deposits can be removed by fluid spraying. It is important to

ensure that all surfaces are de-iced including all airframe external surfaces
(including wings, tailplane and fin); control surfaces; high lift devices; spoilers;
propellers; rotorblades (on helicopters); windscreens; engine intakes; ram air
and other intakes; landing gear up and down locks.

In general do not direct the fluid:

(a) Into the brakes.

(b) Into control surface shrouds and structure openings.
(c) Into Pitot/static vents, TAT probes, EPR probes etc.
(d) Onto windscreens and transparent panels - in some cases
delamination may occur (if fluid incompatible use approved
windscreen de-icing fluid).
(e) Into air intakes and exhausts - engines and air - conditioning
systems.
(f) Into vents such as fuselage and dry air sandwich transparent
windows.
(g) Into bearings and greased mechanisms.
(h) Close to the structure or other equipment, particularly if the fluid
spray is high pressure - it could cause damage and erosion.

In general always:

(a) Consult the AMM.

(b) Remove heavy deposits of snow symmetrically about the aircraft
longitudinal and lateral axes so as to prevent possible overbalance.
(c) Blank off Pitot/static vents, intakes and exhausts and vents and
drains where possible.
(d) Ensure the aircraft is completely snow and ice-free.
(e) Carry out a visual inspection after removal to check for (d) above,
check structure for impingement damage and ensure that fluid had
not entered into areas where it should not be, eg:
* Probes - pressure and temperature sensing
* Structure drains
* Brakes
* Structure
* Drain masts
* Normal and emergency exits
* Cargo doors
* Windows and windscreens
* Inspection panels
* Control surface shrouds
* Control surfaces
* Air conditioning intakes/exhausts
* Engine intakes/exhausts
(f) Record and sign for the work done. Record the fluid used, the
dilution ratio, the date and time of application, the fluid
temperature and the ambient temperature.
After de-icing the fluid will have a period during which time it will remain
effective - depending on ambient conditions. It is important to read the fluid
manufacturers instructions regarding this "hold-over time" and to re-treat the
aircraft if the aircraft does not take-off within the time period.

If in doubt about the "hold-over time" re-treat the aircraft prior to departure
anyway. In general fluid sprays may be applied cold or hot and may be low
pressure or high pressure (about 100 psi).

Do not exceed the pressure and temperature stated in the aircraft manual, and
do not put the fluid nozzle too near the structure to reduce the possibility of
impingement damage.

The table gives some idea of hold-over times, but it is important to remember
that it is only a guide. You should at all times consult the de-icing fluid
manufacturer's literature.

Fluid spray equipment may be:

(a) A bucket and hand operated pump.

(b) A trolley with tank and air pressure supply.
(c) A motorised vehicle with heated pressurised tank and boom
operated spray nozzle (minimum crew 2).
(d) A fixed gantry spray system that the aircraft is towed through (or
taxis through) for those airfields that suffer prolonged icing
conditions during winter.

Cold Fluid Spray

This is not as effective as hot fluid spray and may require several applications.

Hot Fluid Spray

Heated to about 70°C, the heat also has a part to play in removing the ice.
Because the fluid is not diluted by the ice quite so much as the cold fluid
spray, it also is better than the cold fluid spray in preventing further ice
formation.

Note. Some operators use mobile spraying equipment with manually directed
spray jets at the end of hydraulically powered arms. These are operated by
specially trained personnel but it is your aircraft and you must sign for the
work done.
On some airfields a "car wash" system is used where fluid is sprayed from a
large gantry onto the aircraft as it is taxied through prior to take-off. It is
important to note that the fluids used must be non-toxic and diluted enough to
ensure that they are not a fire hazard (hot exhausts etc). When taxiing through,
all cabin conditioning air vents/engine tappings should be off- to minimise de-
icing fluid fumes in the aircraft.

Anti-icing

Both the above spray systems will prevent ice formation building up for a time.
This depends on ambient conditions, of course. The hot fluid spray being
better at this than the cold fluid spray. However, there is a special dual
purpose spray that is much better at anti-icing than either the cold or hot fluid
systems.

This anti-icing barrier compound is mixed with water (check manufacturers

instructions) and sprayed at a temperature of about 80°C when used as a de-
icing fluid.

When used for anti-icing the fluid is sprayed onto the aircraft cold and
undiluted either before the onset of icing conditions or immediately after the
aircraft has been de-iced. A film of anti-icing compound is left on the sprayed
surfaces which prevents the formation of further ice deposits (depending on
ambient conditions).

When used as a de-icing fluid it may give protection from freezing for up to 2
hours. When used as an anti-icing fluid it will give protection for longer
periods - but check ambient conditions.

On some aircraft not equipped with an aerofoil de-icing system the use of a de-
icing paste may be specified. This paste will prevent the accumulation of ice
deposits. When spread smoothly by hand over the leading edges of the wings
and tail unit the paste presents a chemically active surface on which ice may
form but cannot bond. Any ice which does form will be blown off in the airflow.

The paste should be reactivated before each flight in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions and replaced after approximately four flying hours.

De-icing pastes do not constitute an approved method of de-icing when

approval for intentional flight into icing conditions is required.
 REFUELLING/DEFUELLING

Refuelling - check that it is the correct fuel for the aircraft (AMM and fuel
specification on the refuelling vehicle). Carry out water contents check if
required.

Refuelling may be carried out by gravity refuelling or pressure refuelling. With

pressure or underwing refuelling provision is usually made so that a pre-
selected amount of fuel can be put in each tank. A control panel allows for tank
selection, quantity selection etc.

Flow rates are in the region of 1000 1/min at pressures about SOpsi. Tank
filling sequences are usually automatic.

Figure 19 shows the refuelling panel and refuelling hose coupling connection of
the A320. Notice the provision on the panel to preselect the required amount of
fuel uplift.
When refuelling/ defuelling always refer to the AMM but the following points
should be noted:

1. Carried out in a fuelling zone (minimum 20ft or 6m radius).

2. No smoking, naked lights or unauthorised electrical equipment operation

allowed.

3. NO SMOKING signs displayed 50ft (15m) from outermost tank vent.

4. If APUs have to run they should be started before fuelling commences.

5. GPUs should be located as far away as possible and not started or stopped
during fuelling. Each unit should be cleared to run in fuelling zones.

6. Correct fire extinguishers should be available.

7. Check under aircraft for adequate clearance between it and equipment as

the aircraft will settle during fuelling.

8. Aircraft engines should not be running.

9. All vehicles should have clear entrance and exit paths.

10. Only "safety" portable electrical equipment to be used - torches etc.

11. All combustion heaters are OFF.

12. Only authorised personnel allowed in the fuelling zone.

13. No fuelling within 100ft of ground radar equipment.

14. No fuelling during electrical storms.

15. If any part of the aircraft is over-hot (brakes, engines etc) do not carry out
fuelling operations.

16. No flash photography within 20ft of filling or venting points. Do not use
mobile phones or other personal electronic/electrical equipment.

18. Refer to AMM for specific safety precautions and procedures.

19. Carry out electrical bonding: Hose to aircraft.
Aircraft to ground (check nose wheel).
Tanker or Pumping Unit to ground.
Tanker or Pumping Unit to aircraft.

20. Check pressure relief valves (pressure refuelling).

21. Avoid over filling and spillage.

22. Check flight deck contents gauges and dip tanks if necessary.

23. Record fuel uplift or drain-down and sign for the work done. Double check
fuel uplift/ drain-down with vehicle gauging.

Fuel Spillage

Clear-up all fuel on the aircraft and on the ground. If a major spillage occurs
evacuate all personnel, try and stop the fuel flow, and call the fire services. Do
not start aircraft engines or vehicles until all fuel has been cleared.

Do not allow fuel into drains, waterways etc. If this does occur inform the local
water authority and follow their advice.

Fuel can be mopped up using fuel absorbent agents or emulsion compounds.

These should be disposed of in accordance with the local authority regulations.

All tools and equipment used to be flame proof and/or spark proof.

GROUND SERVICE CONNECTIONS

Ground service connections include all those connections that are made to the
aircraft to provide power or some other form of supply/return service. These
connections could include:

* Refuelling/defuelling.
* Potable water.
* Toilet drains.
* Pilot/ statics
* Pneumatics.
* Hydraulics - fill systems and pressure supply and return.
* Electrical.
Most of these supplies are dealt with in the appropriate LBP book on the
subject. Here we will deal with just three - electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic
ground supplies.

Pneumatic Ground Supplies

On some aircraft this would be taken as the supply of compressed gas for the
charging of gas bottles, oleos etc. On other aircraft the term "pneumatics"
would mean the supply air for cabin air conditioning/pressurisation - usually
for the jet engine to the air conditioning packs.

When dealing with compressed gas from pressurised transportation gas bottles
always check the following:

1. Check transportation bottles are within test date.

2. Ensure that the correct gas is used - air - nitrogen etc (check
AMM).
3. Ensure system is serviceable to charge.
4. Charge slowly.
5. When using an adapter gauge always ensure that the pressure
readings from the various gauges - charging bottles, adapter,
aircraft - all read the correct reading. Stop the charging if readings
do no correlate, and investigate the reasons why.
6. Ensure that adapter gauge is within test date.
7. Allow pressure to stabilise after charging.
8. Check any pressure/temperature graphs.
9. Fit all blanks.

Supplies for cabin pressurisation air usually come from an engine driven
ground supply trolley/cart. The duct connection must be clean and the system
must be checked that it is not pressurised before connection is made. The
system must also be checked that it is serviceable before air supply
commences.

The air supply cart should have a certificate of serviceability both in relation to
it's motive power, exhaust emission, and quality and rate of air supply.

When operating the unit ensure:

* A fire extinguisher is available.

* It is placed as far away from the aircraft as possible consistent
with the ability to connect the supply hose.
* Its air supply rate is within the parameters laid down in the AMM
(pressure and supply rate).
 * When disconnecting ensure that the pressure is released.
* The aircraft is configured to accept the supply and the pneumatic
system is serviceable.

Electrical Ground Supplies

For dc supplies a set of batteries mounted on a trolley or an engine driven dc

generator may be used. The master switch on the trolley is off before
connection is made. The aircraft services switches are either off or their
position corresponds with the service selection - ie flaps up, selector switch up.

The AMM is consulted before power is applied.

The power supply plug (and the aircraft socket) may vary in design. A typical
plug is shown in figure 20. The plug consists of three pins, handed so it cannot
be fitted to the aircraft the wrong way round. The centre large pin is the main
supply pin, the other large pin is an earth/ground pin.

The small pin is a relay control pin. When plugged in and the master switch
on, it supplies a small current to operate a relay on the aircraft which switches
out the aircraft battery supply and switches in the external supply (centre pin)
to the dc bus bars. It also causes a cockpit indicator to show that external
power is on.

When the external master switch is switched off the relay resets, external
power is switched off and internal power (batteries) are switched onto the bus
bars.

For ac supplies an engine driven ground cart is used. The power supply socket
usually contains 6 pins, handed, so fitment to the aircraft can only be made in
the correct orientation.
Three large pins are for the supply of the 3 phases, with the forth large pin
being a ground/earth connection. The two small pins are dc control pins which
operate relays on the aircraft to switch in/out the external power supply.

Figure 21 shows the external power panel of the B777. There are two power
supply connections - the primary and the secondary. The primary is to be used
first with the secondary being connected if more power is required. On many
aircraft there is only one external power connection.

The panel shows the connection status of the supplies together with support
strapping for the (heavy) power supply cable.

In general, power supply panels may have the following equipment/indications:

* 3 external ac power circuit breakers.

* dc control circuit breakers.
* Power connected/power ON lights.
* Panel illumination lights.
* Interphone socket.
* Pilot's call button.
Figure 22 shows the indications on the flightdeck as to the power supply
status. It is the B777 electrical panel but may be taken as a good example of a
large aircraft electrical supply indicator. Note the status indications of the
primary, secondary and APU supplies.

To connect power:

* Check the AMM.

* Ensure all switches are off or set to the position of the service to
which they relate.
* Check that supply cart engine is running correctly and voltage and
frequencies are correct. The same precautions apply here as for
any internal combustion engine powered equipment running in the
vicinity of aircraft.
* Insert ground power plug and support using restraining straps.
* Turn power on at the supply.
* Check "power available" lights come on, on the aircraft panel. If
they do not then supply voltage or frequency may be a problem.
* If "power available" lights are on, press ground service power
switch on panel to apply power to the aircraft ground service bus
bar. Note indications.
* Press the primary power switch to apply power to the aircraft
power supply bus bars. Note indications.
Hydraulic Ground Supplies

This could include refill connections, system selector valves etc, but these
paragraphs will concentrate on the supply of external hydraulic power.

The hydraulic system may require the use of more that one external power test
rig/cart - check the AMM.

The test rig/cart is usually powered by an internal combustion engine and

should meet the safety requirements applicable to all these type of engines
when operating in the vicinity of aircraft.

The test rig must be fitted with the same type of pump that is fitted to the
aircraft - or as specified in the AMM. The rig must be run at the rpm as
specified on the rig instruction panel to meet the pressure and volume flow rate
requirements as required by the aircraft.

The test rig should be checked to see if it contains the correct hydraulic fluid -
normally marked on a plate fixed to the rig - if it doesn't, get a rig that does. It
is connected to the aircraft using hoses with self-seal quick release
connections. They are sized so that the hoses cannot be cross-connected:

* For 2 hose connections. Large = suction line. Small = pressure line.

* For 3 hose connections. Large = suction line. Medium = pressure line

Small = idling line.
Check the following when connecting/ disconnecting hydraulic power:

1. Check the AMM.

2. Carry out the normal safety precautions in relation to the running
of an internal combustion engine in the vicinity of aircraft.
3. Check that the hydraulic system and all associated systems are
serviceable and ready to be tested (fluid levels, accumulator gas
pressures, completeness etc).
4. If the landing gear is to be tested the aircraft should be on jacks
and suitably trestled/ shored.
5. Check flight deck selectors correspond with actual position of
systems.
6. Have electrical power on.
7. Connect hydraulic hoses.
8. Start hydraulic test rig - adjust to correct rpm - allow to warm-up.
9. Operate clutch to engage pump - note that no services move. If
they do, either dis-engage the pump or note they are supposed to
move and are prepared for it (AMM).
10. Check pressure gauges, low pressure warning lamps etc in the
flight deck.
11. After all testing is completed and the landing gear is locked down
with "3 greens" the clutch can be dis-engaged and the rig shut
down.
12. Using a "C" spanner or special tool undo the self-seal couplings.
13. No fluid should leak, but if it does then ensure the self seal
coupling seals correctly and the leak stops, fit the blank and check
the level of the reservoir.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE OF AIRCRAFT

The definitions given below are those relating to aircraft operating under
BCARs. Other definitions are defined for aircraft operating under JARs and are
laid down in JAR OPS (see later chapters in this book Weighing of Aircraft
using JAR OPS).

Definitions

(a) Basic Equipment - Unconsummable fluids (eg coolant and

hydraulic fluid) and equipment common to all roles intended for
use.

(b) Basic Weight - Weight of aircraft plus all basic equipment as

listed in the Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule.
 (c) Variable Load - Weight of crew, crew baggage, removable units,
etc.

(d) Disposable Load - Weight of all persons (passengers) and items of

load including fuel and other consumable fluids.

(e) Maximum Total Weight Authorised (MTWA) - Weight at which

aircraft may take-off anywhere in the world, in the most favourable
circumstances.

(f) Reaction - The load at each separate weighing point.

Weighing Requirements

Aircraft exceeding MTWA 5700 kg reweighed within 2 years of manufacture

and thereafter every 5 years. Aircraft below 5700 kg as required by the CAA.

Alternative to periodical check is to establish Fleet Mean Weight, ie basic

weight and fleet mean C of G position.

All records of weighing and cancellations are to be available to the CAA.

Operators are to maintain records of all known weight and C of G changes
which occur after aircraft has been weighed.

Weight and Balance Report

Before a C of A is issued for a prototype aircraft where MTWA exceeds 5700 kg

a Weight and Balance Report must be prepared by a CAA approved
organisation.

The report is intended to record essential loading data to enable aircraft to be

loaded correctly. The report must include:

* Reference number and date.

* Designation, constructors number, nationality and registration
marks of aircraft.
* A copy of Weighing Record.
* A copy of Weight and C of G Schedule and basic equipment list.
* Diagram and description of datum points.
* Lever arms appropriate to items of disposable load, includes lever
arms of fuel, oil and other consumable fluids.
* Details of any significant effect on the aircraft's C of G of any
change in configuration, such as retraction of landing gear.
Weight and C of G Schedule

Details basic weight and C of G position of the aircraft, and the weight and
lever arms of various items of load, including fuel, oil and other fluids.

Schedule divided into:

Part A - Basic Weight

Part B - Variable Load
Part C - Loading Information (Disposable Load)

A weight and C of G schedule must be provided for all aircraft exceeding MTWA
of 2730 kg.

The Weight and C of G Schedule must provide the following:

(a) Aircraft designation.

(b) Nationality and registration marks or constructors serial
number.
(c) Date of issue of schedule and signature of CAA approved
organisation.
(d) Reference date or number of Weight and Balance Report.

Operators must issue revised weight and C of G Schedule when any change
occurs.

A record of calculations involved must be retained.

Principles of Aircraft Weight and Balance

Conventional signs are as follows:

(a) Horizontal (-) forward and (+) aft of Datum

(b) Vertical (-) below and (+) above Datum
(c) Transverse (-) right and (+) left of Datum

AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND C of G

Before each flight it is essential that total weight and moment arms of variable
and disposable loads are calculated and that C of G stays within limits.

eg C of G too far forward - A/C nose heavy, causing landing and take-off
problems, poor fuel consumption.
Rotorcraft. Strain on main rotor shaft and general lack of control.
 C of G too far aft - Tail heavy condition, tendency to stall, reduction in
performance and increase in fuel consumption.
Rotorcraft. Reduction in forward speed and range of effective control.

Operational Limitations

The C of G position is defined in the Aircraft Flight Manual or documentation

associated with C of A such as the Owners Manual.

The C of G range is specified by the manufacturer for each aircraft type.

WEIGHING EQUIPMENT

Four Main Types:

(a) Weighbridge Scales

(b) Hydrostatic Weighing Units
(c) Electrical Weighing Equipment
(d) Electronic Weighing Equipment

both (c) and (d) are based on the strain-gauge principle.

Checking Equipment

(a) Checked and adjusted by competent authority at periods not

exceeding 1 year.
(b) Zero indication check before use.

Weighbridge Scales

A separate weighing platform is provided for each wheel or bogey. The reaction
weight is recorded directly on the balance arm indicator. Weighing scales may
be fixed in the floor or portable. The aircraft is rolled directly onto the weighing
platforms.

Some scales incorporate a spring to give the required reaction, others are
provided with a mass carrier and a set of accurate masses to balance an arm to
get the correct reading.
Hydrostatic Weighing Units

Fluid pressure in a cylinder in which a piston is working depends on area of

the piston and load applied. The weighing units are interposed between
aircraft lifting jacks and aircraft jacking points. The readings are either direct
or "scaled" and converted using tables.

Electrical Weighing Equipment

Incorporates 3 or more weighing scales, and each contains a metallic element

of known electrical resistance.

The aircraft reaction is measured as a variation in resistance with elastic strain

by means of a galvanometer calibrated in units of weight - more correctly -
units of mass.

Each weighing unit is placed between the jack head and aircraft jacking point.

Electronic Weighing Platforms

Uses elastic strain load cells fitted into (usually) portable type platforms. Each
platform is connected to an instrumentation unit, which digitally displays
platform load and C of G position.

The number of platforms used depends on aircraft size, eg large transport

aircraft may require up to 18, small aircraft normally need 3, two main wheel
units and one nose wheel unit.

Platforms are positioned by:

(a) Towing aircraft onto electronic weighing platforms.

(b) Lowering jacked aircraft onto platforms.
(c) Towing aircraft up purpose made ramps onto platforms.

Function of Instrumentation Unit:

(a) Compute and display imposed load on platform (reaction).

(b) Fine calibration to zero datum.
(c) Record and print-out data.
(d) Compute the total weight and C of G position of aircraft.
DETERMINATION OF WEIGHT AND C OF G.

(a) Refer to the AMM (Aircraft Maintenance Manual) for jacking etc,
and to the Flight Manual for fuselage datum position.
(b) Preparation:
(i) Aircraft to be configured as per Weight and C of G Schedule,
eg engine oil, fuel partially or completely drained, potable
water drained, only equipment fitted as listed as part of the
basic weight in the Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule
etc.
(ii) Aircraft clean and dry.
(iii) Weight aircraft in hangar. To ensure temperature and
moisture content of aircraft satisfactory place in hangar
several hours before operation. No drafts.
(iv) Aircraft in rigging position. If aircraft being weighed on it's
wheels (ie not being jacked) then adjust oleo gas pressures.
(c) On tailwheel aircraft watch out for negative tail load and adjust
readings accordingly.
(d) Aircraft may be jacked with weighing units fitted between the tops
of the jacks and the aircraft jacking point. Aircraft may be placed
onto weighing platforms.
 (e) Some aircraft (such as helicopters) may be weighed using a crane
fitted with a weighing unit between the crane hook and the aircraft
lifting sling (attached to the main rotorhead). The longitudinal
horizontal level is obtained by the use of a calibrated spring-
balance to bring the high end of the aircraft down, or placing
accurately calculated masses on the high end of the aircraft. In
both cases an accurate measurement is required from the
application of this reaction to the aircraft datum so that the
longitudinal C of G may be calculated.
(f) If any item of equipment is likely to move. Lock into position eg
rotorblades locked into position on rotorcraft.

WEIGHING ON WEIGHBRIDGE SCALES OR PLATFORMS

Usually aircraft weighed resting on wheels but often necessary to jack nose/tail
to level longitudinally. If on wheels level aircraft by adjusting oleo strut length.

Weight of equipment included in any reaction readings must be deducted from

any calculations made (jacks, slings etc).

ELECTRONIC PLATFORM WEIGHING

Careful planning for accuracy includes:

(a) Levelling platforms.

(b) Switching on prior to weighing for temperature stabilisation of
electronic units.
(c) Setting platform to zero datum.
(d) Correcting for longitudinal level.
(e) Hangar free from destabilising draughts.
(f) After weighing re-check platform zero datum checks.

REFERENCE DATUM

Whenever a C of G distance is referenced to it should always be corrected to

relate to the reference datum, and it's associated moment calculated. This is
necessary as it establishes the mathematical datum point with regard to the
operation and maintenance of the aircraft.

Total Moment Arm = Basic Weight x C of G Moment Arm

Most common reference datum point used is at or forward of the nose of the
aircraft, eg fuselage station zero. Therefore the following applies:

(a) All items of equipment preceded by a "+" on their measurements

as they are all aft of datum.
(b) Moment calculated as weight x distance relative to fuselage station.
(c) Easy access for measurement.

If the reference datum is part way along the fuselage (between the first and last
frames) then:

(a) Items of equipment aft of the datum are preceded by a "+" on their
measurements.
(b) Items of equipment forward of the datum are precede by a "-" on
their measurements.

It is more common to have the datum at frame station zero (on the nose) so
calculations do not involve a minus sign.
Modifications

With any change of basic equipment conies the need to determine the new
basic weight and C of G position.

(a) Modifications - Modification leaflet should quote total weight and

moment for additional equipment.

(b) New Basic Weight and Moment Determination:

(i) Add or subtract weight to/from Basic Weight.

(ii) If (+) weight moment arm for new equipment (ie, aft of
datum) add to original moment about datum if (-) subtract.

(iii) If equipment removed, weight deducted and if weight arm (+)

deduct from original moment.

(iv) New C of G position calculated:

LOADING OF AIRCRAFT

Variable and disposable loads must be added to basic weight and C of G

calculated. If aircraft exceeds 5700 kg MTWA or seat capacity 12 or more
passengers, loading is based on assumed weights for persons and baggage.

Small Aircraft Calculations

Usually simple, since only fuel load alters appreciably.

Calculations should include:

(i) Variable and Disposable items (ie, passengers, and their luggage,
are weighed and their individual moment arms calculated).

(ii) Both maximum and minimum fuel states.

This will ensure C of G remains within limits.

Large Passenger and Cargo Aircraft

Main item involved is flight fuel load.

C of G limitation further curtailed by allowances for:

(i) Seating Allowance - empty seats for passenger variation.

(ii) Flight Allowance - normal movement of passenger and crew during

flight.

(iii) Moment Changes - due to landing gear movement, flap operation,

etc.

GENERAL

When loading an aircraft the following points should be noted:

(a) Always secure all loads.

(b) The maximum load on the floor depends on it's maximum
permitted floor loading (refer to the manual).
(c) In general, always place heavy loads as near as possible to the C of
G with lighter loads being placed further away.
(d) Try to balance the aircraft by placing a load in front of the C of G
and then one behind - if possible.
(e) Carefully load to prevent structural damage.
(f) Carefully weigh all loads and calculate their moment arms.
(g) Calculate aircraft all up weight and C of G position. Check that all
up weight does not exceed the maximum and that C of G is within
the limits specified.

DOCUMENTATION

The following pages show:

1. A typical load sheet for a large aircraft using 'average' values.

2. A loading sheet for a small aircraft - in this case the Briton-
Norman Islander operated by the Isle of Scilly Skybus Company.
3. A typical Weight and Centre of Gravity Schedule showing:
* Aircraft identification.
* Part A Basic weight.
* Part B Variable load.
* Part C Disposable load.
With reference to item 3 above (figure 28 The Load & Trim Sheet for the
Britton-Norman Islander) - note the following:

!. The weights (masses) of crew, passengers, and baggage.

2. The Empty Equipped Weight (EEW), and it's calculated moment.
3. The start position "A" on the drawing of the "arrowed" line drawn
in by the loader.
4. The drawing of the "arrowed" line to the left or right as dictated by
the horizontal arrows by the amount of the weight of each row of
passengers, fuel, baggage etc.
5. The final drawing of the line vertically down into the envelope to
decide if the aircraft is within it's C of G limits. Coinciding line with
the Take Off Weight (TOW) of 6362 kg.
6. Signed, copy to the pilot, copy kept with the records.

The pilot, passengers, and baggage take about 20 minutes to weigh. The form
takes about 5 minutes to complete - if all goes according to plan.
 AIRCRAFT WEIGHING USING JAR OPS

Requirements

An operator shall ensure that the loading, mass and centre of gravity (C of G) of
the aircraft complies with the limitations specified in the approved Flight
Manual, or the Operations Manual if more restrictive.

An operator must establish the mass and C of G of the aircraft by actual

weighing prior to initial entry into service and thereafter at intervals of 4 years,
if individual aircraft masses are used and 9 years if fleet masses are used. The
accumulated effects of modifications and repairs on the mass and balance
must be accounted for and properly documented. Furthermore, aircraft must
be re-weighed if the effect of modifications on the mass and balance is not
accurately known.

An operator must determine the mass of all operating items and crew members
included in the aeroplane Dry Operating Mass by weighing or by the use of
standard masses. The influence of their position on the aircraft C of G must be
determined.

An operator must establish the mass of the Traffic Load, including any ballast,
by actual weighing or determine the mass of the Traffic Load in accordance
with standard passenger and baggage masses as specified in JAR-OPS.

An operator must determine the mass of the fuel load by using the actual
density or, if not known, the density calculated in accordance with a method
specified in the Operations Manual.

Terminology

Dry Operating Mass. The total mass of the aircraft ready for a specific type of
operation excluding all usable fuel and Traffic Load. This mass includes items
such as:

(1) Crew and crew baggage.

(2) Catering and removable passenger service equipment.
(3) Potable (drinking) water and lavatory chemicals.

Maximum Zero Fuel Mass. The maximum permissible mass of an aircraft with
no usable fuel. The mass of fuel contained in particular tanks must be
included in the zero fuel mass when it is explicitly mentioned in the Flight
Manual Limitations.
Maximum Structural Landing Mass. The maximum permissible total aircraft
mass for landing under normal conditions.

Traffic Load. The total mass of passengers, baggage and cargo, including any
non-revenue load.

Passenger Classification

(1) Adults - male or female, 12 years or older.

(2) Children - two years and above, but less than 12 years old.
(3) Infants - less than 2 years of age.

Operations Manual

An operator shall specify, in the Operations Manual, the principles and

methods involved in the loading and in the mass and balance system that
meets the requirements of JAR-OPS. This system must cover all types of
intended operations.

Mass Values for Crew

An operator shall use the following mass values for the calculation of crew
mass to determine the dry operating mass:

(1) Actual crew masses including any crew baggage; or

(2) Standard masses, including hand baggage, of 85 kg for flight crew
members and 75 kg for cabin crew members; or
(3) Other standard masses acceptable to the Authority.

An operator must correct the Dry Operating Mass for any additional baggage.
The position of this additional baggage must be accounted for when
establishing the C of G of the aircraft.

Mass Values for Passengers and Baggage

An operator shall compute the mass of passengers and checked-in baggage

using either the actual weighed mass of each person and the actual weighed
mass of baggage or the standard mass specified in Tables 2 to 4 below except
where the number of passenger seats available is less than 10. In such cases
passenger mass may be established by use of a verbal statement by (or on
behalf of) each passenger and adding to it a pre-determined constant to
account for hand baggage and clothing.
The procedure specifying when to select actual or standard masses and the
procedure to be followed when using verbal statements must be included in the
Operations Manual.

If determining the actual mass by weighing, an operator must ensure that

passengers' personal belongings and hand baggage are included. Weighing
must be conducted immediately prior to boarding.

If determining the mass of passengers using standard mass values, the

standard values in Tables 2 and 3 below must be used. The standard masses
include hand baggage and the mass of any infant below 2 years of age carried
by an adult on one passenger seat. Infants occupying separate passenger
seats must be considered as children.

Mass Values for Passengers (20 passenger seats or more)

Where the total number of passenger seats available on an aircraft is 20 or

more, the standard masses of male or female passengers in Table 2 are
applicable. As an alternative, in cases where the total number of passenger
seats available is 30 or more, the "All Adult" mass values in Table 2 are
applicable.

For the purpose of Table 2, holiday charter means flight solely intended as an
element of a holiday travel package.
Mass Values for Passengers (19 passenger seats or less)

Where the total number of passenger seats on an aircraft is 19 or less, the

standard masses in Table 3 are applicable.

On flights where no hand baggage is carried in the cabin or where hand

baggage is accounted for separately, 6 kg may be deducted from the male and
female masses. Articles such as an overcoat, an umbrella, a small handbag or
purse, reading material or a small camera are not considered as hand baggage
for the purpose of this paragraph.
Mass Values for Baggage

Where the total number of passenger seats available on the aircraft is 20 or

more the standard mass values given in Table 4 are applicable for each piece of
checked-in baggage. For aircraft with 19 passenger seats or less, the actual
mass of checked-in baggage, determined by weighing, must be used.

If an operator wishes to use standard mass values other than those contained
in Tables 2 to 4 above, he/she must advise the authority of his/her reasons
and gain its approval in advance. He/she must also submit for approval a
detailed weighing survey plan and apply the statistical analysis method given
in JAR-OPS. After verification and approval by the Authority of the results of
the weighing survey, the revised standard mass values are only applicable to
that operator. Where revised standard masses exceed those in Tables 1-3 then
such higher values must be used.

On any flight identified as carrying a significant number of passengers whose

masses, including hand baggage, are expected to exceed the standard
passenger mass, an operator must determine the actual mass of such
passengers by weighing or by adding an adequate mass increment.

An operator shall ensure that the pilot is advised when a non-standard method
has been used for determining the mass of the load and that this method is
stated in the mass and balance documentation.

An operator shall establish mass and balance documentation prior to each

flight specifying the load and its distribution. The mass and balance
documentation must enable the pilot to determine that the load and its
distribution is such that the mass and balance limits of the aircraft are not
exceeded.

The person preparing the mass and balance documentation must be named on
the document. The person supervising the loading of the aircraft must confirm
by signature that the load and its distribution are in accordance with the mass
and balance documentation. This document must be acceptable by the pilot,
his acceptance being indicated by a counter signature.

An operator must specify procedures for last minute changes to the load.

Subject to the approval by the Authority, an operator may use an alternative to

these procedures.

New aircraft are normally weighed at the factory and are eligible to be placed
into operation without re-weighing, if the mass and balance records have been
adjusted for alterations or modifications to the aircraft.
Aircraft transferred from one JAA operator with an approved mass and balance
control programme to another JAA operator also with an approved programme,
the aircraft need not be weighed prior to use by the receiving operator unless
more than 4 years have elapsed since the last weighing.

The individual mass and C of G position of each aircraft shall be re-established

periodically. The maximum interval between two weightings must be defined
by the operator and must meet the requirements of JAR-OPS.

In addition, the mass and C of G of each aircraft shall be re-established either

by:

(A) Weighing or
(B) Calculation, if the operator is able to provide the necessary
justification to prove the validity of the method of calculation.

whenever the cumulative changes to the dry operating mass exceed ± 0.5% of
the maximum landing mass, or the cumulative change in the C of G position
exceeds 0.5% of the aerodynamic chord.

Fleet Mass and C of G Position

For a fleet or a group of aircraft of the same model and configuration, an

average dry operating mass and C of G position may be used as the fleet mass
and C of G position, provided that the Dry Operating Masses and C of G
positions of the individual aircraft meet the tolerances specified below.

If the Dry Operating Mass of any aircraft weighed, or the calculated Dry
Operating Mass of any aircraft in the fleet, varies by more than ± 0.5% of the
maximum structural landing mass from the established dry operating fleet
mass or the C of G position varies by more than 0.5% of the mean aerodynamic
chord from the fleet C of G that aircraft shall be omitted from that fleet.

Separate fleets may be established, each with differing fleet mean masses.

In cases where the aircraft mass is within the dry operating fleet mass
tolerance but it's C of G position falls outside the permitted fleet tolerance, the
aircraft may still be operated under the applicable dry operating fleet mass but
with an individual C of G position.

If an individual aircraft has, when compared with other aircraft of the fleet, a
physical accurately accountable difference (eg gallery or seat configuration).
This causes exceedance of the fleet tolerances. This aircraft may be maintained
in the fleet provided that appropriate corrections are applied to the mass
and/or C of G position for that aircraft.
Aircraft for which no mean aerodynamic chord has been published must be
operated with their individual mass and C of G position values or must be
subject to a special study and approval.

Use of Fleet Values

After the weighing of an aircraft or if any change occurs in the aircraft

equipment or configuration the operator must verify that this aircraft falls
within the tolerances specified above.

Aircraft, which have not been weighed since the last fleet mass evaluation can
still be kept in a fleet, operated with fleet values, provided that the individual
values are revised by computation and stay within the tolerances defined
above. If these individual values no longer fall within the tolerances the
operator must either determine new fleet values, or operate those aircraft not
falling within the limits with their own individual values.

To add aircraft to a fleet operated with fleet values, the operator must verify by
weighing or computation that it's actual values fall within the tolerances
specified. Fleet values must be updated at least at the end of each fleet mass
evaluation.

Number of Aircraft to be Weighed to Obtain Fleet Values

The operator must at least weigh, in the period between two fleet mass
evaluations, a certain number of aircraft as stated in Table 5 below:
The "number to be weighed" column in the above table gives approximate
values with JAR OPS giving a specific formula to calculate the actual number
required.

In choosing the aircraft to be weighed, aircraft in the fleet which have not been
weighed for the longest time should be selected.

The interval between 2 fleet mass evaluations must not exceed 48 months.

Weighing Procedure

In general this is similar to "BCAR" weighing with a different time limit on the
calibration of the weighing equipment. JAR OPS states:

Any equipment used for weighing must be properly calibrated, zeroed and used
in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. Each scale must be
calibrated either by the manufacturer, by a civil department of weights and
measures or by an appropriately authorised organisation within 2 years, or
within a time limit defined by the equipment manufacturer, whichever is less.

Special Standard Masses for the Traffic Load

An operator must ensure that the loading of it's aircraft is performed under the
supervision of qualified personnel.

An operator must ensure that the loading of the freight is consistent with the
data used for the calculation of the aircraft mass and balance.

The operator must also comply with any additional structural limits such as
the floor strength limits; the maximum load per running meter; the maximum
mass per cargo compartment and/or the maximum seating limits.

C of G limits

Operational C of G envelope. Unless seat allocation is applied and the effects of

the number of passengers per seat row; of cargo in the individual cargo
compartments and of fuel in individual tanks is accounted for accurately in the
balance calculation, operational margins must be used in calculating the
C of G envelope. In determining the C of G margins, possible deviations from
the assumed load distribution must be considered. If free seating is applied
the operator must introduce procedures to ensure corrective action by flight or
cabin crew if extreme longitudinal seat selection occurs.
The C of G margins and associated operational procedures, including
assumptions with regard to passenger seating, must be acceptable to the
Authority.

In flight C of G envelope. Further to the above, the operator must show that
the procedures fully account for any variation of C of G travel during flight
caused by passenger/crew movement and fuel consumption/transfer.

Passengers

Weight sampling method. The average mass of passengers and their hand
baggage must be determined by weighing, taking random samples. The
selection of random samples must by nature and extent be representative of
the passenger volume. Considering the type of operation the frequency of
flights on various routes, in/outbound flights, applicable season and seat
capacity of the aircraft.

The survey must cover the weighing of a number of passengers calculated from
a pilot sample, using normal statistical procedures. The actual numbers
weighed in the survey depend on aircraft seating capacity.

Passengers Masses

Passenger masses must include the mass of the passenger's belongings which
are carried when entering the aircraft. When taking random samples of
passenger masses, infants shall be weighed together with the accompanying
adult.

Weighing Location

The location for the weighing of passengers shall be selected as close as

possible to the aircraft at a point where a change in the passenger mass by
disposing of, or acquiring more, personal belongings is unlikely to occur before
the passengers board the aircraft.

Weighing Equipment

Passenger weighing equipment has it's range, calibration, and accuracy laid
down in JAR OPS.
f
Recording

For each flight included in the survey, the mass of the passengers; the
corresponding passenger category (ie, male, female, or children) and the flight
number must be recorded.

Checked-in Baggage

The statistical procedure for determining revised standard baggage mass

values based on average baggage masses of the minimum required sample size
is basically the same as for the passengers and as specified in JAR OPS.
A minimum of 2000 pieces of checked-in baggage must be weighed.

Determination of Revised Standard Mass Values for Passengers and Checked-

in Baggage.

To ensure standard mass values for passengers and checked-in baggage does
not adversely affect safety a statistical analysis must be carried out. Such an
analysis will generate average mass values for passengers and baggage.

On aircraft with 20 or more passenger seats these averages apply as revised

standard male and female mass values.

On smaller aircraft, the following increments must be added to the average

passenger mass to obtain the revised standard mass values.
Alternatively, all adult revised standard (average) mass values may be applied
on aircraft with 30 or more passenger seats. Revised standard (average)
checked-in baggage mass values are applicable to aircraft with 20 or more
passenger seats.

Operators have the option to submit a detailed survey plan to the Authority for
approval and subsequently a deviation from the revised standard mass value
provided this deviating value is determined by use of JAR OPS procedures.
These deviations must be renewed at intervals not exceeding 5 years.

All adult revised standard mass values must be based on a male/female ratio
of 80/20 in respect of all flights except holiday charters which are 50/50. If an
operator wishes to obtain approval for use of a different ratio on specific routes
or flights then data must be submitted to the Authority for approval.

The average mass values found are rounded to the nearest whole number in
kg. Checked-in baggage mass values are rounded to the nearest 0.5 kg.

Documentation

The mass and balance documentation must contain the following information:

* The aircraft registration and type.

* The flight identification number and date.

* The identity of the pilot.

* The identity of the person who prepared the document.

* The Dry Operating Mass and the corresponding C of G position.

* The mass of the fuel at take-off and the mass of the trip fuel.

* The mass of consumables other than fuel.

* The components of the load including baggage, freight, and ballast.

* The Take-off Mass, landing mass and zero fuel mass.

* The load distribution.

* The aircraft C of G position.

* The limiting mass and C of G values.

Last Minute Change

If any last minute change that occurs after the completion of the mass and
balance documentation, must be brought to the attention of the pilot and the
last minute change must be entered on the mass and balance documentation.

The maximum allowed change in the number of passengers or hold load

acceptable as a last minute change must be specified in the Operations
Manual. If this number is exceeded, new mass and balance documentation
must be prepared.

Computerised systems

Where mass and balance documentation is generated by a computerised mass

and balance system, the operator must verify the integrity of the output data.

He/she must establish a system to check that amendments of any input data
are incorporated properly in the system and that the system is operating
correctly on a continuous basis by verifying the output data at intervals not
exceeding 6 months.

Onboard mass and balance systems

An operator must obtain the approval of the Authority if it wishes to use an

on-board mass and balance computer system as a primary source for
despatch.

Datalink

When mass and balance documentation is sent to aircraft via any datalink, a
copy of the final mass and balance documentation as accepted by the pilot
must be available on the ground.
 AIRCRAFT STORAGE

Chapter 10 of the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) will give precise details
of how to put an aircraft into storage. The following gives a general outline of
the procedures involved.

Storage may be:

Short term - for example up to 2 months.

Long term - for example up to 2 years.

The process involves 3 phases:

1. Preparation for storage.

2. Inspection during storage.
3. Recovery for service.

Storage Conditions
Ideally the aircraft should be stored in a clean, dry atmosphere in moderate
temperatures. The Mojave desert in America, where many aircraft are stored,
provides very dry conditions, though a little dusty, which helps prevent
corrosion. A hangar in less dryer climes, heated ideally (but expensive), is the
next best thing. For most aircraft, storage will have to be outside - good
weather or bad.

Outside storage, in less tropical climates, will involve the protection of the
aircraft from:

* Frost.
* Rain penetration.
* Damp.
* Dust penetration.
* Corrosion.
* Deterioration/ageing - of non metallic parts.
* High winds - mooring/picketing.

In hot climatic regions the aircraft should be protected from the sun by
shades/awnings. The interior of the aircraft should, ideally, not get above
60°F(16°C).

In general, large and/or expensive components are removed. And many

components such as engines have their own storage procedures anyway.
r
 PREPARATION FOR STORAGE

In general this can be divided into the following areas:

* The airframe.
* Components
* Systems.
NOTE. In this text two or more types of systems may be mentioned where any
one aircraft will only have one eg, Air Cycle Cooling and Vapour Cycle Cooling.
It is to be remembered that we are dealing with aircraft in general and the
author has tried to include all systems to be found on any civil aircraft.

The Airframe

If possible place the aircraft in a hangar. If it has to be put outside it will be

required to be picketed/moored. This will require tying the aircraft down and
placing chocks for and aft of the wheels, and making various systems safe.
(For more details on this subject refer to previous paragraphs in this book).
If possible fit old/unserviceable wheels/tyres. Remember to record in the log
book that the wheels/tyres are "dummies" - it is a good idea to paint a label
on them to that effect. If "good" wheels/tyres are fitted they will have to be
kept covered to prevent the sun getting to them.

Fit landing gear down locks and fit internal and external flying control locks -
all with warning flags attached.

Fit blanks/covers/mask and seal the following:

* Engine intakes/exhausts.
* APU (Auxiliary Power Unit) intakes/exhaust.
* Pitot/static vents.
* Heat exchanger intakes/outlets. .
* Battery vents.
* Cabin air conditioning in takes/exhausts.
* Pressurisation outflow valves, dump valves etc.
* Ram air intakes/outlets.
* Oil cooler intakes/exhausts.
* TAT (Total Air Temperature) probes etc.
* Hot air anti-icing systems.

Close all possible landing gear doors - fit covers to landing gear units, bays,
wheels and tyres.

With electrical and hydraulic power ON ensure all trailing edge/leading edge
flaps, slats, spoilers are in/closed. Remove electrical and hydraulic power.

Open all aircraft doors - to allow a complete airing, and clean interior and
exterior of aircraft. Treat door seals with special preservative as per the
manual and close all external doors. When all work completed close and lock
the last exit door.

Clear all structure drain holes.

Lubricate all lubrication points of all systems - landing gear; flap systems; slat
systems; flying control systems; doors; hinges; sliding dv window (pilot's direct
vision window); flap tracks/rollers; jacks; undercarriage sliding portion etc.
Lubricate all chain assemblies.
Apply common grease to all metal parts that are not previously protected with
an anti-corrosive treatment - structure - pipelines - unions - nuts & bolts -
linkages - etc. Grease dv window tracks.
Apply special protective compound to electrical plugs/sockets etc.

Protect all rubber seals with special compound as per the maintenance
manual.
Apply special protective compound to windscreens/windows.

Seats, berths - apply preservation material.

Record all work carried out on the aircraft in the log book/aircraft storage
record.

Components

For some components it is better that they are removed from the aircraft. This
will allow:

* Expensive and attractive equipment to be stored more securely.

* Some items to be used as spares for other aircraft.
* Storage of equipment which requires more specialist storage
conditions.
The following list gives some idea of the equipment that is removed - but do
check the AMM of your aircraft.

* FDR (Flight Data Recorder).

* CVR (Cockpit Voice Recorder).
* O2 cylinders (fixed 85 portable). Shut-offline valves. Use
blanking caps.
* O2 generators.
* Emergency lights/power units.
* Emergency locator beacons.
* Life vests (life jackets).
* Escape chutes.
* Life rafts.
* First aid kits.
* Fire extinguisher bottles - engine, APU, portable, cargo, toilet
etc. Use blanking caps.
* Windscreen wipers.
* Batteries - main, APU, etc.
* Tyres complete with wheels - if aircraft to be stored jacked or
unserviceable replacement sets fitted.
* Engines (not always).
* Propellers (not always).
* APUs (not always).
* IDGs (Integrated Drive Generators).

If any of these components are to be put in storage they will have their own
special procedures to be followed - as per the AMM. For further details refer to
the appropriate book (on the equipment/subject) in this series.
Remember to record all the details of each component removed - life (if
applicable) - part number - serial number - item name - aircraft from which
removed - date of removal - reason for removal - airframe flying hours on
removal. Ensure each item suitably labelled.

Systems
Hydraulic. Depressurise. Check for leaks - rectify as necessary.

Pneumatic. Depressurise. Drain oil and water traps, drain air cylinders.
Remove desiccant. Drain antifreeze. Flush system, drain, dry with warm air
and flush with inhibiting oil.
Potable water (drinking water). Drain and dry thoroughly with a warm air
blow.
Toilet. Drain, flush, clean all the system and deodorise. Dry thoroughly.

Galleys. Clean. Drain any units that contain fluid. Defrost any ice making
machines and clean. Drain drain system, flush and dry. Clean and dry all
"domestic" items of equipment. Latch all doors/cupboards open.

Pilot/static. Drain water traps. Dry using a low pressure dry air back blow. Fit
plugs and blanks.
Windscreen. Drain windscreen repellent system /water- wash system. Renew
desiccant if dry air sandwich windscreen.

Fluid de-icing systems. Drain, flush and dry.

Pneumatic de-icing systems. Drain any traps and dry system.

Fuel. Fill tanks. Ensure fuel contains correct ratio of microbiological

protection mixture. Drain water from drain traps. Check for leaks. Rectify as
necessary.
Cabin Conditioning. Change water extractor coalescer. Check Air Cycle Unit
(Cold Air Unit) oil level - check for leaks - rectify and top up as necessary.

Tyres. Painted "Special storage tyres", or similar if used as storage tyres only.
Tyre pressures should be adjusted as per the AMM. Typically pressures
should be:
 Where A = Normal maximum ramp weight tyre pressure.
B = Weight of stored aircraft.
C = Maximum ramp weight of aircraft.

In other words the tyre pressure will be proportional to the stored weight of
the aircraft compared to its max ramp weight, eg if storage weight is half the
ramp weight the tyre pressures will be half.

Engines. Jet. Piston. APU. These will have special storage procedures which
will be dealt with in the appropriate books in this series.

WARNING FLAGS. Place these on every system/item of equipment that has

been prepared/modified for storage.

Record all equipment removed/modified in the aircraft/equipment log

books/storage records.

INSPECTION DURING STORAGE

The inspections required during storage will be laid down in the AMM. It will
state the intervals between the inspections and actual procedures to be
followed. For example:

Weekly
1. Check all covers, seals, awnings, protective layers etc are secure.
2. Ensure that there are no leaks - fuel & oil. Engines - APUs - gear
boxes - ACM (Air Cycle Machine) - flap transmission systems -
oleos - hydraulic systems - pneumatic engine starters. Rectify if
found.
3. Untie aircraft (if moored) and move % of a turn of the wheels to
prevent flat spotting and wheel bearing brinelling. Moor aircraft.
Mark the previous contact area on the tyre with a special crayon.
This allows the next person to see where the tyre sat the last time.
4. Check tyre pressures and adjust if necessary.
5. Remove any birds/insect/vermin nests. Remove any excrement
and thoroughly clean area. Reseal orifice.
6. Check shock absorber extensions. Charge if necessary.
7. Open aircraft doors to allow aircraft to "air" - better during a
warm, dry, windy day with a low relative humidity. Re-close all
external doors (leave all internal doors open) and seal.
8. Carry out tests on systems such as: run ventilation system to
"air" avionics compartments; open cabin conditioning valves for
the same reason. Shut down systems - re-close/re-seal all
external valves.
9. Record all work done in the log book/special storage documents.
Monthly. The weekly check plus:
1. Carry out a corrosion check of all the structure, systems and
equipment. Rectify as necessary.
2. Re-apply any protective treatments that have deteriorated.
3. Drain water from fuel tanks. More common for jet fuels that
piston engine fuels. Refuel if necessary.
4. Hydraulic system. Check for leaks. Rectify as necessary. Top-up
reservoir as necessary.
5. Jack aircraft. Turn wheels by hand to check condition of bearings.
Rectify as necessary. Configure aircraft and functionally test
hydraulic system. Re-configure aircraft to "storage" condition and
remove off jacks.
6. Carry out any special checks as laid down in the AMM.
7. Record all the work done.

RECOVERY FROM STORAGE

The Airframe

* Remove all covers blanks, bungs, seals and sealing tape - engines
- Pi tot/statics - intakes/outlets - landing gear etc.
* Remove chocks, landing gear ground locks and flying control
locks.
* Move aircraft to hangar.
* Open all doors and windows - clean away any preservatives -
check for correct operation.
* Clean aircraft - inside and out.
* Remove all previously applied greases, compounds and
preservation treatments - including protection applied to seats
and windows. Clean and inspect all items thoroughly.
* Remove any birds/insect/vermin nests and clean area
thoroughly.
* Inspect all airframe for any signs of deterioration/corrosion.
Change item or rectify as necessary.
* Clear all drain holes.
* Fit serviceable wheels/tyres if "dummies" fitted for storage. Check
tyre pressures and condition.
* Check all external fitments - drain masts - aerials/antennae -
TAT probes - static wicks - ice detectors - Pitot heads - angle of
attack sensors etc.

Components

Fit all those components previously removed (see list on previous pages).
Record name; part number; serial number; stores release document number;
date; previous hours run/life (if applicable).
Remember to verify component details with IPC (Illustrated Parts Catalogue)
and cross-refer to JAR form I/stores release documents.

Systems

All systems are to be functionally tested in accordance with the AMM. Any
faults found must be rectified. Remember that many components/systems will
have BIT (Built In Test) equipment fitted - use it. Also use the onboard fault
monitoring computer - as per the AMM - to carry out any tests/fault finding
procedures.

Grease/oil all systems lubrication points.

Electrics. Switch on and ensure all electrically operated systems work - lights
- anti-ice - engines - airframe - electronic. During the operation of all the
systems check that the flight deck instruments work correctly.

Hydraulic. Charge accumulators. Change filters. Check for leaks. Check fluid
for contamination. If contaminated flush system and change fluid. Some
components may be required to be changed if fluid analysis indicates possible
deterioration. Carry out a functional test of all systems/circuits.

Pneumatic. Flush system to remove inhibitor. Dry. Change filters. Fill

dehydrator with new/serviceable desiccant. Fill antifreeze bottle. Functionally
test all pneumatically operated systems. Check for leaks.

Hot air. Engine bleed/combustion heaters. Check operation.

Potable water. Flush, drain and fill system from drinking water source. Check
drinking water quality (taste, clarity, smell - if unsure repeat process and/or
obtain sample and get it analysed). Check hot water taps (immersion heaters)
- cold water taps - drinking fountains (coolers) - coffee making machines etc -
toilet flush systems. Check for leaks.

Toilets. Clean. Fill with appropriate liquid if required. Test system. Check for
leaks. Test operation of smoke detectors; entrance door; lights; cupboard
doors etc.

Galleys. Clean. Test: water supplies; water heaters; refrigerators; drain

systems; drain mast heaters; coffee makers; trolleys; storage systems;
communication systems etc. Check for leaks.

Pitot static. If necessary flush and dry thoroughly. Carry out a leak and sense
check. Electrical power on - check instruments are working correctly - also
DADC (Digital Air Data Computer) etc.
Windscreen. Clean. Fit wipers. Flush and fill ant-icing system. Flush and fill
rain repellent system. Test wipers. Test all systems - check windscreen
electric heaters (gold film).
Fluid de-icing. Fill system and functionally test. For propeller fluid de-icing -
run engines during test. Check for leaks.

Pneumatic de-icing. Functionally test. Check for leaks.

Fuel. Drain water. Check for microbiological contamination - remove if found.
Check for leaks. Run fuel pumps check operation of LP and HP cocks. Refuel
if necessary.
Cabin air conditioning. Open all valves. Check oil level of cold air unit (air
cycle machine {ACM}). Check refrigerant level of vapour cycle cooling system
(VCCS). Check operate of all valves. Functional test - check operation of
temperature controls; ACM; VCCS; humidifier; distribution system; recycling
fans; extractor fans; heat exchangers.
Pressurisation. Carry out pressurisation test as per the AMM.

Oxygen. Purge system and fit new bottles or fit new O2 generators.

Flying controls. Check oil levels of any self contained PFCUs (powered flying
control units). Carry out flying control rigging and functional checks.

Flaps/slats. Check oil levels of gear-boxes. Check operation of system.

Engines. Remove desiccant and covers. Inspect. Change engine oil, dry run,
and carry out full engine run. (More details in the books in this series entitled
Engines).

APU. Similar to above.

Domestic. Check all cabin lights - normal and emergency. Check services
to/from each seat.
Record all tests/rectification carried out and sign relevant documents.

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