Computer Studies

Form 1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Eliot Kalenga

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Definition of key terms

1. A computer is an electronic device that process data to information. It is said an electronic

because it utilizes electrical signals to process data and uses instructions called programs
to complete data.

Input Process Output

(Data) (Data) (Infomation)

Computers are designed in different sizes and designs but the most common is a computer referred
to as Personal Computers (PC) which are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises and
homes.

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❖ A typical computer shown above is basically made up of a system unit and peripheral
devices such as monitor, keyboard and a mouse.
❖ The system unit is the part that houses Unit namely Tower and Desktop.

2. Data and Information:

❖ Data is fact figures that do not have much meaning to the user and may include numbers,
letter and symbols. Information is the product of data that is meaningful to the user.
3. Information Technology (IT):
❖ It refers to the use of hardware, software and their technologies to collect, organize,
process, secure, store exchange information. Such hardware includes Computer, PDAs,
Smart Phones and Printers... information may be informs of text and graphics, sound or
video.
4. Communication Technology:
❖ It refers to the use of devices and communication channels to transmit information
correctly, effectively and cost effectively.
❖ Such devices include radio, transmitters and receivers, telephones, satellites, fax machines
and communication channels include telephone lines and radio waves.
5. Information and Communication Technology (ICT):
❖ It refers to the integration of communication technologies and information for the purpose
of acquiring, processing, storing, standardizing and disseminating information for public
consumption.
6. Information System:
❖ Refers to the set of components namely persons, procedures or hardware and software
resources that collect, process and deliver information in a given organization.
7. Garbage in Garbage out (GIGO):
❖ This is a phrase which implies that if erroneous data is entered in a computer and command
to process it is given, the computer will output erroneous results.
❖ It means a computer does not do things on its own users must enter data correctly.

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 8. Program
❖ Computer program is defined as set of instructions that tell computer to perform a certain
task.
❖ It is also referred to computer software

History of computer development

Computers have undergone some evolution processes from non- electronic computing
devices to electronic computing devices

Non-electronic computing devices.

Non- Electrical computing devices are tools that were used to perform arithmetic computations
manually or Non-Electronic. These include sticks, stones, abacus, bones etc.

a) Abacus:
❖ It was invented by the Chines and it was meant for counting instrument dates back to 300
BC.
❖ The Abacus has bead – like parts that move along rods. Each bead above the middle bar
stands foe five units while a bead below stands for one unit.

b) Napier’s bones: Napier `Bones was developed by John Napier, a Scottish mathematics in
the 17th Century. It was used for performing multiplication and division.

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c) La Pascale Machine: is a counting machine that was made by Blaise Pascal in the 17th
Century. It was used for addition and Subtraction.

d) The Analytic Engine: The Analytic engine was designed by Charles Babbage in 1932
used for English and Mathematics. Die technological limitation, Babbage never
implemented it. The engine is recognized as the first real computer and Babbage as the
father of computing.

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Generations of electronic computers
The age of modern Electronic Computers can be tracked back to 1940s. And they are classified
into five generations.

a) First Generation Computers (1940`s to 1958):

❖ Characterised by the use of vacuum tubes
❖ it was very large physically, and
❖ generated a lot of heat hence constantly broke down.

b) Second Generation Computers (1958 – 1964)

❖ Characterised by the use of tiny solid state electronic devices called transistors
❖ Transistors were much smaller than the vacuum tubes.
❖ These computers produced less heat, were much faster, smaller in sizes and more reliable
than made of vacuum tubes.
❖ Examples of second generation computers include IBM 1402 and 7070, UNIVAC 1107,
ATLAS LEO Mark iii and Honeywell 200.

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c) Third generation computers (1964 – 1970):
❖ It used devices called integrated circuits (IC`s)
❖ IC`s has thousands of small transistors circuits packed on semiconductor called a silicon
chip.
❖ It emit less heat, were small in sizes, easier to program, use and program, and maintain
compared to their predecessors.
❖ Examples of third generation include smaller and less expensive minicomputers such as
IBM 360 and ICL 19000 series.

d) Fourth Generation Computers (1970 to Present)

❖ Characterised by the use of Microprocessors (Silicon chip)
❖ The silicon chip designed into very smaller size.

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❖ are characterized by very low emission of heat, are small in size and easier to use and
maintain.
❖ Example of fourth generation include IBM 370 and 4300, Honeywell DPS-88 and
Burroughs 7700.

e) Fifth Generation Computers:

❖ 5th Generation computers are characterized by Artificial Intelligence, connectivity to
internet, superior hardware and software.
❖ It will be able to work without human intervention and help managers to make decisions.
❖ Are computers coming up today, with very high processing power and speed than their
predecessor.
❖ Very small in size but powerful.
❖ They work with special programs Artificial Intelligence.

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Uses of first computers

Generation Characterised by Purpose

1ST Generation Computers Built 1st World War (WW1) The initial purpose of 1st
using vacuum tubes generation computers was
computation of very large
mathematical and scientific
figures. ENIAC was
developed during the 1st ww1
to make certain calculation of
a hydrogen bomb.
2nd Generation Built using transistors. Had The 2nd Generation
Computation tape storage, printer and computers such as PDP 1 and
operating system and storage IBM 1400 series were
programs programmable computers that
were mainly used for
scientific, business
application and compute
games.
3rd Generation Computers Built in integrated circuits They used to process more
and semiconductors. than one task. They have more
application programs such as
word processors, calculators
and business applications.
4th Generation Computers Built in very large integrated They were affordable and
circuits characterized by used most application.
microcomputers Financial applications such as
VisiCalc and networks

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 particularly the internet
became common
5th Generation Computers Today`s Computers Most modern computers are
characterized by massive used for large numbers of
processing power and use of applications in particular
Artificial Intelligence expect system used in decision
making.

Uses of computers
Computers are used in each and every day just because they are more efficient and accurate.
Computers are used in some of these areas:

❖ Supermarket – are used for stock control.

❖ Offices – promote efficiency in offices by reducing the time and effort needed to access
and receive information.
❖ Hospitals – are used in life support machines and keeping patient`s records.
❖ Transport – computers are used to monitor vehicle traffic in busy town and aircraft
navigation and making reservation.
❖ Communication – computers has made easy sending of information very fast and efficient.
❖ Law Enforcement – Law enforces are able to carry out their criminal investigations through
the use of machine which can trace finger prints, images and other identifications features.
❖ Bank – for processing cheques and withdrawing money through ATM`s
❖ Home – for internment and family budget
❖ School – analyzing academic data
❖ Industry – for manufacturing process control
❖ Police station - matching fingerprints
❖ Communication – instant messaging, e-mail services, video conferences.
❖ Education – e-learning, research, communication and records management.
❖ Domestic and entertainment – computers are used for recreational such as watching
movies, playing music and computer games and storing personal information.

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 ❖ Library Services – it enable library personnel to easily access and keep updated records of
books and catalog processing.

Types of computers
Computers are categorized based on the following criteria

❖ Based on data processed or functionality

❖ Based on size
❖ Based on purpose

Classification based on data processed or Functionality

Computers can be categorized as Digital, analog or hybrid
a) Digital Computers: are computers that process data which discrete in nature also known
as binary digits. Mots home appliances such as TV`s, Microwaves, Wall Clocks are digital
in nature.
b) Analog Computers: are computers that process data which is continuous in nature also
known as waves.
Analog computers are used to manufacture process control like monitoring and regulating
furnace temperature and pressure.

c) Hybrid Computers: are designed to process both analog and digital data.

Comparison of digital and analog computers.

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 ❖ Digital computers works on discrete signal which is in form of on and off while analog
computers works on continuous signal
❖ Digital computers are simpler to develop than analog computers.
❖ Digital computers are more reliable since they are fast than analog computers
❖ Digital computers consume less power compared to analog computers.
❖ Digital computers are easy to use than anlog computers
❖ Digital computers are easy to store data since uses 0s and 1s which data storing in an analog
computer is quit difficult

Classification based on size

❖ Computers are classified into four main elements according to its sizes and capacity and
data storage
❖ These are Micro-computers, mini computers, main frame computers and super computers

a. Micro – computers
❖ It is a type of computer which uses microchips as its CPU
❖ Micro - computers are generally known as Persona Computers (PC)
❖ Micro – Computers are known as PC because they are designed to be used by one
person at time.
❖ Micro – Computers are generally used for general purpose in places like:
o Schools
o Home
o Business

Examples of micro – computers

❖ Desktop Computers: are computers designed for use on a desktop in an office

environment and home Personal Computers (PC) are desktop computer.

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 ❖ Laptop Computers: Are PCs sufficiently small and light for user comfort use his or
her lap. Laptop operates on mains electricity or by rechargeable batteries and are also
known as pocket PCs.

❖ Personal Digital Assistant (PDA): are PCs which uses touch sensitive screens of
which image choices re made by pressing the image button using a special pen known
as STYLUS.

b. Mini computers
❖ Mini – computers are large multi – user computers
❖ They are smaller and less powerful than mainframes.
❖ Mini Computers are used to link other computers on a local area networks.

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c. Main frame computers
❖ These are large and powerful computers that has the capacity of handling data
processing many users at the same time.
❖ Users submit their tasks for processing to the mainframe by using dumb terminals.
❖ It is also used as central information storage.
❖ Most mainframe computers act as server in computers connected on the internet, of
which it controls hundreds of computers on the network.

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 d. Super computers
❖ These are most powerful computers on the classes of computers.
❖ It is basically a mainframe computer that has its power increased.
❖ Super computers work on respective tasks such as weather of the global and nuclear
bomb detonations.

Classification based on according to purpose.

a) General purpose:
❖ are designed to perform a variety of task when loaded with appropriate programs.
b) Special Purpose:
❖ designed to perform or serve a specific purpose or to accomplish one particular task. They
perform the task quickly and very efficiently because they are dedicate to a single task.

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Units of data representation
Computer hardware perceives data items using binary system. The following terminologies
are used to quantify the data in a computer

Bit: smallest unit of data which can either be 0 or 1

Byte: A group of bits (often 8) used to represent a single character in the computer memory.
A Byte is the basic unit for measuring memory.

Nibble: A Nibble is half a byte, which is usually a grouping of 4 bits.

Word: Two or more bytes make a word. The term word length is used as a measure of the
number of bits in each word. Data is usually read or written to memory in words. A word
can have 16 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits etc.

Kilobyte: A Kilobyte is exactly 210 bytes = 1024 bytes. Roughly speaking a kilobyte is
approximately equal to 1000 bytes (one thousand bytes).

Megabyte: A megabyte is exactly 220 bytes = 1024 x 1024 bytes = 1,048,576 Bytes

❖ Roughly speaking, a megabyte is approximately 1,000, 000 bytes (one million bytes) or
(one thousand kilobytes).

Gigabyte: A gigabyte is exactly 230 bytes = 1024 x 1024 x1024 x 1024 bytes =
1,099,511,627,776 bytes.

❖ Roughly speaking, a gigabyte is approximately 1,000,000,000,000 byte (one trillion bytes)

or (one thousand gigabytes).

Converting between data units

When making conversion between various data units, we use the following
approximations.

1. 1 byte = 8 bits = 1 byte

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 2. 1 kilobyte = 1000 bytes = 1 thousand bytes.
3. 1 megabyte = 1000 megabytes = 1 billion bytes
4. 1 Gigabyte = 1000 megabytes = 1 billion bytes
5. 1 Terabyte = 1000 Gigabytes = 1 Trillion bytes

Character sets
Data is entered in the computer in form of characters. Each character, be a number, alphabet
or symbol is recognized by the computer because of its unique sequence of O1s and 1`s. a
word can be made of one or more characters. Therefore, when you Press character A on a
keyboard, the character set converts a binary number / code to its equivalent human
readable form and vise – versa. It is the character set for example that marks a binary code
to the letter A on the keyboard.

The two widely used character sets are:

1. American standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).

❖ It uses seven bits to encode characters in computes, communication equipment and other
devises. It is used to mainly encode text characters.

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 Table of an extract for ASCII character set encoding

2. Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC).

❖ It uses eight bits to encode characters
❖ mainly in IBM computers.

NB: ASCII and EBCDIC tables are widely available on the internet.

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 Computer Studies
Form 1

Chapter 2
COMPUTER HARDWARE

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Eliot Kalenga

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Chapter 2: Computer Hardware

Introduction

They are two major components of a computer system and these are:

✓ Hardware System
✓ Software System

Hardware system
❖ Hardware systems are physical components of the computer that apple to the sense of
touch.

Hardware has five major components, namely

❖ Input devices
❖ Output devices
❖ Central processing Unit
❖ Storage devise
❖ Memory

Input devices
Are devices that get data into the computer system? Example of input devices are:

❖ Keyboard
❖ Microphone
❖ Digital camera
❖ Digital video camera
❖ Pointing devices such as mouse, joystick

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Key board

• Keyboard is a board with a set of keys used to send command into the computer system.

Functions of a Keyboard.

❖ Keying text and numbers for processing

❖ Sending commands into computer for execution.
❖ Navigating through a document
❖ For playing computer games.

Disadvantages of Using a Keyboard

❖ It is easy to type data wrongly from source document.

❖ It is time consuming compared to other data capturing methods.
❖ Data entry operations are prone to repetitive strain injuries (RSI), such as – aches and
pains swelling and difficult movement of fingers, wrist, arms and neck.

Pointing Derives:

- Pointing devices whose major function are choosing commands from on screen menu and
drawing of graphics. Examples of pointing devices are

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 ❖ Mouse : a Mouse is an input device commonly used in mot computers
❖ A mouse has a movement sensitive ball and sensitive rollers inside.
❖ The movement of rollers inside transmits the signals through the computer via a cord.

Types of a mouse

1. Traditional Mouse: it has a ball and rollers inside.

2. Optical Mouse: it uses radio waves when communication with the computer.
3. Touch Pad: it is a pointing device commonly found in laptop computers. The on screen
pointer is moved by sliding a finger a long for game controlling.
4. Track ball: a track ball is one of type of mouse with a movement located ball on top.
The ball is rolled using fingers. The left and right buttons are usually located in the sides
of the devise.
5. Touch Screen / Slide Rule: Touch sensitive screens are the kind of screens the user can
make choices and press button images using STYLUS. Computers like Personal Digital
Assistant (PDA) are having touch screens.
6. Graphic Tables: a graphic tablet consist of an electronic writing area and a special “PEN”
that work with it. It is used to create graphic images. The pen included to a graphical tablet
is pressure sensitive.
7. Track Point: it is a small rubber projection embedded between the keys of the keyboards
scanners.

Functions of pointing devices.

Pointing and clicking on icons to send commands or opening window dialog boxes

❖ Cutting icons or text

❖ Pasting icons or text
❖ Drawing Graphics
❖ Dragging Icons

SCANNERS

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 Scanners are used for a wide range of data input. Most popular scanners are used to
enter picture on a computer.

Types of Scanners

❖ Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

❖ It is used to read special shape of line on cards.
❖ OMR is commonly used for making multiple choices system
❖ Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
❖ It is used to read handwriting or printed text into the computer system.
❖ Electrical Point of Sale (EPOS)
❖ It is used to read bar cords on goods and use the data collected to produce
customer`s bills and updates stock records for the shop.
❖ Electronic Fund Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS)
• Are used to read information inform of magnetic strips of card.
• The card is swiped through a scanner, then the scanner transfer account information
into the Auto – Teller Machines (ATM) to read information from the card.

Out Put Devices

❖ Are devices used to give out results of the processed data.
❖ The following diagram illustrates thre common examples of out pur devices

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Forms of output devices

• Soft copy
• Hard Copy

Soft Copy

• A soft copy is a kind of input which is not tangible but can be seen or heard.
• Soft copy can be audio through speakers or visual through monitors

Visual Display Unit (VDU)

Visual display Unit is also known as a Monitor or Screen which is used to display data
inform of text, picture and Video.

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 • It is known as a monitor because it enables a user to see what is going on in the
compute.

Types of VDU or Monitors

• Cathode Ray Tube (CRTs) Monitors

• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitors
• Gas Plasma Displays

Screen Resolution

Screen resolution is the number of pixels a monitor is able to display image on the
screen are made up of a collection of small dots called pixels. Pixels are short form for
picture “pix” elements “el” therefore pix + el form pixels e.g. 400 x 800 pixels. A
screen is divided into rectangular.

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Data Projectors

• Data projectors are used to display output from computer into a plain white screen like
a wall or whiteboard.
• Output form a data projector is a creative way of presenting computer output to the
audience.

Hardcopy Output Devices

A hardcopy is a tangible output that can be felt such as printed paper. Example of output
devices are:
• Printers
• Plotters

Printers

• Are used to produce information on a piece of paper

• The quality of a hard cop depends on the printer`s printing mechanisms.

Categories of Printers

• Impact Printers
• Non – Impact Printers

Impact Printers

• Impact printer, they form a character by hammering the shape of a character into a
carbon or ink ribbon placed against the paper. Examples are:
• Dot matrix printers
a. Dot Matrix printers has got a head with needles which prick on the ribbon to
produce a partten on a paper.
• Daisy wheel Printers

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Disadvantage of Impact Printers

• They are generally slow

• Print quality is not good
• They cannot print color text graphics.

Ink Jet Printers

• It forms the image of the page by spraying tiny droplets of ink on the paper.
• They are common for home and office use

Advantages of Ink Jet printers

• out quality is good

• they are cheap
• they can print colour graphics

Disadvantages of Ink – Jet printers

• they are slow

• They use expensive toner.

Laser Jet Printers

• they operate on the same technology as a photocopier

• It uses a drum coated with photosensitive materials which are charged to write an
image using LEDs
• The drum rolls through the tonner and make it charged
• The tonner is then deposited into the paper and then fused into the paper with heat.
• Most printers are monochrome (prints one color), but there are some expensive laser
printers which can print in colour.

Thermal Printers

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 • Thermal Printers burn dark spots heat sensitive paper.
• They are cheap but they use expensive thermal paper.

Factors to consider when purchasing a Printer.

• The choice of purchasing a printer depends on a number of factors of which include:

1. Print Quality : Dot Matrix are good for bulky printing of draft of draft document while
Laser is good for printing official document and thermal are good for checkout counter
receipts.
2. Initial Coast. Though the prices of printers have come down, laser and thermal printer are
still expensive compared to inkjet printers.
3. Running Cost. The cost of maintaining an inkjet printer is higher than of maintaining a
laser printer.
4. Speed. The speed of a printer is measured in terms of number of pages it can print per
minute.
5. Colour Printing. Most printers support black and colour printing but colour printers
especially laser are relatively more expensive.

Plotters

• They are commonly used to print geographical architectural and engineering drawings
such as maps, advertisement posters to be placed on bill boards.

The Central Processing unit (CPU)

• The central processing Unit (CPU) also known as processor is the most important
component of the computer.
• CPU is actually regarded as the as the brain of the computer, because processing
activities are carried out inside the processor.
• The CPU is mounted on a circuit board known as the motherboard or system board

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Components of the CPU
• The control unit (CU)
• The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• Register or memory
• Basic input / output (I/O)

Control unit (CU)

• It controls various components of the computer
• CU is also known as control system or central controller/
• CU is responsible for reading and interpreting the instructions in the program one by
one.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

• It is capable for performing mathematical and logical operations

OVERALL FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CPU

Register or memory
• It read information stored in digital computer inform of numbers such as 0s and 1s

Types of memory

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 • Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Read Only Memory (ROM)
• RAM - is the temporary storage within the computer and it is volatile memory
• ROM – is the permanent storage within and outside the computer.
• RAM – is also known as primary storage and ROM known as secondary storage.
• Memory is one of the components that determines the capability of a computer in terms
of speeds and handling complex task.

TYPES OF RAM

There are two types of RAM and these are:

1. Static RAM (SRAM) is a fast type of memory mostly located inside a microprocessor and
it is used for special purpose memories such as cache memory which is used to enhance
the processing speed by holding data and instructions that are instantly required by the
processor.
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is a relatively slower type of RAM compared to SRAM. DRAM
is needed periodically for storage purpose to maintain data storage in the computer system.

SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES

These are memories included inside the microprocessor or input and output devices in order to
enhance the performance of the computer system. These type of special memories are:

1) Cache Memory which is a fast type of RAM. They are three types of cache memory
namely :
a) Level 1 also known as primary cache is located inside the microprocessor
b) Level 2 also known as external cache it may be inside the microprocessor or mounted
on the motherboard.
c) Level 3 is the latest type of cache that works with Level 2 cache to optimize the
performance.

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 2) Register it holds one piece of data at a time and is inside the CPU. Examples of registers
are:
A) Accumulator, it temporally holds the results of the last processing step of the ALU.
B) Instructor Register it temporally holds an instruction just before it is interpreted into
a form that the main memory
C) Address Register, it temporally holds the next piece of data waiting to be processed.
D) Storage Register, it temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the
CPU and the main memory.
3) Buffer, are special memory that are found in input and output devices. The input data is
hold in the output buffer and the output is hold in the buffer. For example computer printers
have buffers where they can store massive documents sent by the CPU for printing for the
CPU to continue processing other task while the printer continues to print in the
background.

Memory capacities

Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes. A Byte is equivalent to
single character. Characters can be numbers from 0 to 9 or letters from A to Z and symbols
including spaces between characters. Bytes are formed from bits. For example 8 bits make 1
byte. Memory quantities can be expressed in:

• Kilobytes (KB) are approximately one thousand bytes, but the actual size is 1024
bytes, because the computer uses base 2 system (0 and 1 : 2n)
• Megabytes (MB) are approximately one million bytes, but the actual size is 1048575
bytes
• Gigabytes (GB) are approximately one billion bytes but the actual size is 1073741824
bytes.
• Terabytes are approximately one trillion bytes but the actual size is 1099511627776
bytes

Computer performance

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 • Computer performance can be determined by the following factors
• The speed of the CPU, there are different types of processor e.g. / Pentium and power
PC. The speed is measured in (MHz). The greater the number of MHz, the better the
performance.
• The amount of RAM, most computer are using 32 MB of ram but can be upgraded to
128 MB. The more RAM improvement the higher performance of the computer
system.
• Hard Disk speed and capacity. Hard Disk Speed varies. It is always advised to buy
large hard disk capacity to control the program in the computer.

Storage devices
• Storage devices are devices that help to keep processes data from the computer system
• Storage devices are also known as backing storage, because they help to keep the copy
of original file from the computer system
• The following diagram illustrates various examples of storage devices

Examples of storage devices

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Type of storage devices

• Magnetic media
• Solid state media
• Optical media

Magnetic media
• They store data in magnetic fields, examples of magnetic media are :
a. Floppy diskettes
b. Zip Diskettes
c. Jazz Disk

Floppy Disk

• They consist of a flexible plastic disk coated with metal oxide that can be magnetized.
• The disk is enclosed inside a plastic jacket to protect from dust, sunlight and moister.

Advantages of a Floppy Disk

• It is cheap

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 • Floppy drives are available in most computers which is making it easy to use.

Disadvantages of a Floppy Disk

• It holds very little data

• It can easily get damaged when exposed to sunlight, moister, and dust.

Zip Diskette

• They are working on the same technology with floppy diskettes and the way they store
data.

Parts of a Floppy diskette

• Read/ Write Window, which allows the retrieval of Data and entry of Data in the
computer system
• Metal Shutter, its function is to cover the read / write window to avoid dust and direct
sunlight to the magnetic tapes.
• Write protected notch, its function are to lock and unlock the floppy diskette (for
data protection)
• Index Hole, it facilitates the rotation of the Diskette.
• Hub, it holds the magnetic diskette to remain within its position.
• Disk Label, it holds the name of data stored within its position.
a. Zip Diskette has small read / write head which allow it to store more data than
floppy diskette.

Care of a Floppy Diskette

• Always store disks carefully

• Keep the disks away from any magnetic.
• Keep the disks away from direct heat e.g. radio to or sunlight.
• Do not touch the exposed recording surface.

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Solid State Media
• They store data on flash memory microchips
• Data in solid state media can be erased and re-written for several times.
• Some solid state media has a write – protect switch. examples of solid state media are
b. USB flash disk
c. Key drives
d. Thumb drives
e. Pen drives

Advantages of solid-state drives

• They are fast

• They have large storage capacity.
• They can be re –written to

Optical Media
• “Optical” means something to do with light.
• Optical media use a laser beam light to read or write on a disk.

Types of Optical Media:

• CD - ROM
• CD - R
• CD - RW
• DVD
• VCD
• CD

Compact Disk - Recordable (CD - R)

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 • They allow users to record or changed
• Once data is recorded cannot be deleted.

Advantages of CD - ROM

• They are cheap to produce in large quality

• They have large storage capacity.

Disadvantages of CD-ROM.

• Data cannot be deleted or changed

• Data retrieval is slower than a hard disk.

Compact disk- recordable (cd-r)

• They allow users to record data using CD-R drives.

• Once data is recorded cannot be deleted.

Advantage of CD-R

• They store large amount of data.

• Data cannot be destroyed easily hence it deals with backing up data.

Disadvantage of CD-R

• Some CD-R software has poor writing capacities

• Some CD-R has poor storage capabilities

Compact disk rewritable (CD-R)

• It allows users to write data for several times.

• Data can be changed or deleted.
• It has large storage space.

Disadvantages of CD-RW

• Only the CD-R recorder can record data to disk.

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 • Some CD-RW does not work in other CD- players.

Video Compact Disk (VCD) and Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)

• They can store data up to 17 GB.

• Data once recorded cannot be changed or deleted.

Disadvantage of VCD/DVD

• They have large storage capacity to all the CD’

• DVD player can read CD-ROM

Disadvantage of VCD/VD

• They are expensive

• DVD’s cannot be read in other CD drives

Communication Devices
• Communication devices components used to connect computer on a network.

Types of communication devices

• Modulation Demodulation (MODEM)
• Network bub or switch.

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 • Network bridges

Modem
• Modems are devices used to change signal from analogue to digital and from digital to
analogue
• Modulation is the process of converting digital signal to analogue signals
• Demodulation is the process of converting analogue signals to digital signals

Types of modems

• Internal Modems
• External Modems
• Internal modems are built inside the computer systems
• External modems are connected using telecommunication line.

Advantages of modems

• It is cheap
• It can be used anywhere provided there is a telephone line
• It is easy to use hence is plug and play

Disadvantages of modems

• Data transfer using modems are relatively slow as a result much faster internet
connections where developed such as.
• ISDN (Integrated Service Digital Network)
• ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber line)
Advantages OF ISDN AND ADSL

• Data transfer is much faster than a modem

• It has the capacity of handling large amounts of data.
• It enables video conferencing (user can talk to and see each other).

Network switch/hub
• Are devices used to connect computers on a local Area network (LAN)
• The computer on a network can access each other through a hub or switch.

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 • Network switch or hub they create direct access to information on a network.

Components of the system unit

Computer system unit is made up of several parts that work together to form a complete unit

❖ The power button

❖ The mother board
❖ Intergraded circuits (IC) chips
❖ The processor
❖ Power cables
❖ The LED lights
❖ The hard disk
❖ The ports
❖ Memory slots / Chips
❖ Power box

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 Computer Studies
Form 1

Chapter 3
COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Eliot Kalenga

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Chapter 3: Computer Software

Introduction

They are two major components of a computer system and these are:

✓ Hardware System
✓ Software System

Computer Software
Software refers to set of instruction that help computer to do something

Examples of computer software

❖ Microsoft windows
❖ Linux
❖ Unix
❖ Microsoft office
❖ A dope Photoshop
❖ Adobe illustrator
❖ Quick books
❖ SPSS
❖ Open office
❖ Vlc
❖ Sage line50
❖ STATA

Types of computer software

There are two main types of computer software

1. System software

2. Application software

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System software
- System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer's
hardware and application programs.

Functions of system software

❖ Booting the computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are working
properly
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 ❖ Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing application
❖ Storing and retrieving files
❖ Performing a variety of system utility functions.

Division of system software

❖ Operating systems – control computer resources

❖ Firmware – are permanent instructions stored in electronic chips
❖ Utility software – performs commonly used task in system – level utility and
application level utility
❖ Language processor (translator) – it translate the instructors such assemblers,
interpreter and compilers

Application software
Are programs that are designed to help the user accomplish specific task, application software
are also known as application packages.

SOFTWARE USES EXAMPLES

Word processor Typing documents like Word, lotus, WordPro,
letters open office writer
Spreadsheet Calculating budgets MS excel, lotus 1-2-3
Desktop publishing Designing publications like Adobe page maker, Ms
newspapers and books publisher, adobe InDesign
Computer aided design Technical drawing AutoCAD
Databases Keeping records and files Ms access, MySQL, fox
base paradox
Graphics software Designing and Corel draw, Photoshop
manipulation graphics
Classification of application according to acquisition

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 ❖ In-house developed software – are developed to meet a particular need
❖ Vendor off-the-shelf software – are designed and made available to purchase and
are developed address many tasks.
Advantages of standard software

❖ The can be easily be installed and run.

❖ They are cheaper than in-house developed software
❖ They are readily available for almost any task
❖ They have minor or no errors since they are thoroughly tested
❖ They can easily be modified to meet a user’s needs
Disadvantage of standard software

❖ They may have some features not needed by user, which may take extra storage
space
❖ They may require users to change to change processes and hard ware for compatibility
which may inurn be expensive
❖ They may lack some features required by the user

NB: Software can also be classified according to end-user License (EUL) and general public
license (GPL)

Comparison of system software and application software

Subject System Software Application Software

Usage Runs to operate the Runs to meet a specific
computer hardware user requirement
Installation Installed on the computer Installed according to
when operating system is user’s requirements.
installed.
Dependency can run independently. It can’t run independently.

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 provides platform for They can’t run without the
running application presence of system
softwares. software.
User Interaction Usually runs in the Runs in the foreground
background with indirect with direct user interaction
user interaction
Programming Low level languages are High level languages are
Languages Used used to write the system used to write the
software. application software.

Operating systems (OS)

- Operating systems is a group of computer programs that help to manage computer
resource
- Operating system acts as the interface between the computer and applications

Importance of operating system

Operating system is an important software for computer because in controls and runs all the activities
of computer system it is also known as System software.

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The following are points summarises the importance of operating system.
❖ It manages all the resources of computer and also users and requests of users that’s why it is
also called resource manager.
❖ It manages CPU input/ output devices memory and internet to be used in more efficient and
convenient way.
❖ It also provides a platform for application software to run without operating system we
cannot use computer.
❖ It manages user accounts and users.
- Creating, editing and deleting of user accounts
❖ It manages files
- It manages/ organizes all the files stored in computer.
❖ It manages memory and memory allocation.

Types of operating system

Operating systems are classified based on the following criteria
❖ Number of users
❖ Number of task
❖ User interface

Types of operating systems according to number of users

o Single user operating system
o Multi-user operating system
Single user operating system
❖ It requires the user participation when loading and executing computer programs
❖ Single user operating system is also known as interactive program
❖ Example of single user operating system is disk operating system (DOS)
Multi-user tasking operating system
❖ It allows a number of users to access the same peripheral device at a time, such as
printers on a network.
❖ It also allows a numbers of work stations to access the mainframe without their
own processing ability
❖ Example of multi-user OS includes windows and Novell.

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Types of operating systems according to number of tasks
o Single tasking operating system
o Multi- tasking operating system

Single tasking operating system

❖ Single-task operating systems allow one user to do one thing at a time.
❖ An example of single-task operating system is the operating system used by
personal digital assistants (PDAs), also known as handheld computers.

Multi – tasking operating system

❖ It allows user to perform several tasks running simultaneously and to switch
between them
❖ Example of multi-tasking includes windows UNIX operating system

Types of Operating systems according to user interface

User interface
❖ it is means of communication operating system provide between the computer and
the user

Types of user interface

o command line interface
o menu driven interface
o graphic interface
Command line interface
❖ It uses functions ( commands) with special syntax which the user and computer
can understand
❖ It requires a user to type the exact commands for further instructions

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Menu driven interface
❖ It displays a list of menu for the users to select the program they want to use
❖ It was inverted to address the problem of memorizing commands
❖ It displays a lot of menu and submenus which is making it difficult for the user to
select the programs they want.
Graphic User Interface (GUI)
❖ It is the most user friendly interface
❖ It provide the user with the following services
o Windows
o Icons
o Menus
o Pointers
o Abbreviated as WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointers)

❖ GUI is making it very easy to communicate with the computer

Functions of operating systems

Operating system has a number of tasks to perform and some of these includes;

o For job sequencing; it controls the amount of time allocated to task by the central
processing-unit

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 o For controlling functions; it controls peripheral devices such as keyboards, printers
and scanners and controlling the amount of disk space used
o For activating computers from standby mode
o For error handling ; OS detected any error in the loading and executing of programs
instructions
o Memory management; it controls the amount of memory used for each application.
o Device scheduling; in multi-user environment OS is responsible for allocating the
accessibility of device to each user on a network
o Interrupt handling – break from a normal sequential processing of instructions in a
program

Factrors `to consider when choosing an operating system

❖ The hardware configuration of the computer such as the memory capacity, processor
speed and hard disk capacity.
❖ The type of computer in terms of size and make. For example, some earlier apple
computer would not run on Microsoft operating systems
❖ The application software intended for the computer.
❖ The document available
❖ The cost of operating system
❖ Reliability and security provided the operating system.

Information organization
❖ It is the major function of operating system to organize information
❖ It is important to organize data in the computer environment because of the
following reasons;
o It enables easy access to information
o It is easy to transfer information from one location to another
o Easy sorting of information

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Features of different operating systems

Disk operating system

❖ DOS is a command driven interface
❖ It allows a chain of commands to be entered into a computer to customize the
operating system for a particular task
❖ The user has to type commands in exactly the correct syntax to perform any
operation.

Contents of DOS

❖ DOS has a number of features of which some of them are;

o Command interpreter of processor
o External commands
o Command or DOS prompt

Command interpreter or processor

❖ It is a file which holds instructions for interpreting the commands used in DOS
❖ It interprets the commands which are frequently used
❖ Commands interpreter are also known as internal commands e.g. COPY, DIR and
CLS
External commands
❖ It is a file which holds instructions that are not frequently used and they are kept in
floppy diskettes
❖ The commands are run when required

Command line or DOS prompt

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 ❖ It displays the current drives such as C:\> waiting for instructions after booting the
computer
❖ It allows a chain of complex command to communicate with the computer system

Information organisation in DOS

❖ It is helpful to organise information in good manner for easy retrieval

❖ DOS uses its own DOS file instructions to organise information
❖ Information in DOS are organised in the following area
1. Drives of which each drives is represented by letter such as
A. For first floppy drives
B. For second floppy drives
C. For hard drives
D. For hard drives
E. For flash disk
F. For CD/DVD drives
❖ In DOS the drive letter is followed by a colon, for example A:
2. Files which hold related information, a file is similar to a paper document
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 3. Directions where all files are kept. A directory is like a container for keeping files
DOS file management systems

❖ DOS uses specific commands to work with files

❖ When working in dos it shows a command prompt with a cursor blinking after it.
For example C:\>
Commands used in dos and their meaning

i. CD….. or CD means changing drives from the current drives to another drives
ii. DIR means viewing the contents of the directory page by page
iii. DIR/P means viewing the contents of the directory page by page
iv. CD\ means returning to the root directory
v. MKDIR or MD means making a new directory
vi. RMDIR for removing or deleting the directory
vii. DEL for deleting file in a directory
viii.COPY for copying directory from one location for another
ix. COPY*.* for copying all files in the directory
x. REN for renaming files in the directories
xi. CLS means clear screen
Disk management (formatting a disk)
❖ A disk cannot be used in a computer if it is not formatted
❖ Formatting is a process in which the computer arranges the surface of a disk into a
form it can be recognized and used to store data
❖ When formatting a disk in DOS, FORMAT command is used. Type FORMAT to the
prompt system followed by drive letter
❖ FORMAT command is used to prepare a disk making it ready to be used.
❖ DISKCOPY are external commands used to copy the content of a disk while COPY
is internal command
Wildcard character

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 ❖ A wildcard character is a character that can be used to present more than one letter in
a directory contents
❖ Examples of wild card character are (*) (?) and (.)
❖ A question mark in a file or extension stands for a single character in the position it is
allocated
❖ For example if all files has to be deleted in directory type DEL???????????????? In the
prompt system
❖ Asterisk in a file name means any character or combination of characters in the
position has to be deleted. Asterisks are short hands for series of questions marks.
For example DEL*.*

Windows operating system

❖ It uses graphic user interface to facilitate communication between the computer and
the user
❖ GUI is the most user friendly window because it has a number of sub programs
Contents of windows

❖ Windows consist of GUI which has four major elements, such as

o Windows
o Icons
o Menus
o Pointer
The elements are abbreviated as WIMP

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Windows

❖ Windows organises a group of related tasks

❖ Some windows are known as dialog boxes
❖ Each window provides menus and icons which can be used execute commands
relevant to the task in the window
❖ Almost every window in the windows environment has some basic buttons for closing,
restoring the window, minimizing and maximizing
❖ The dialog box window has only the button for closing
Icons

❖ Icons are buttons with small meaningful pictures or symbols representing the
computer programs easy memorizing their functions
❖ Icons are used as shortcuts for opening the items or sending commands they
represent
Types of icons

o Programs icons
o Folder icons
o Toolbar icons
❖ Program, file and file icons are displayed in a dialog box or the desktop

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 ❖ A program icon consist of symbols foe the program they represent and small caption
under the icon.
❖ Folder icons they consist of yellow boxes with name of the folder
❖ File icons are just like program icons with a symbol for the program that was used to
create the file and the name of the file under it
❖ Icons in toolbars have small meaningful pictures without any caption
Menus

❖ Menus are indicated in two major WAYS;

o By name
o By a small black triangle on the right of a list box or an icon
Pointers

❖ Pointers are tools use

❖ For pointing and clicking on icons

Advantages of windows over dos

o It is more user friendly because of the GUI
o It is faster than DOS
o It is easy to maintain than DOS
o Windows has many utility programs than DOS
o It is task oriented than DOS
o It can handle several task at a time than DOS

Linux operating system

Linux is one of popular version of UNIX operating System. It is open source as its source code
is freely available. It is free to use. Linux was designed considering UNIX compatibility. Its
functionality list is quite similar to that of UNIX.

Examples of linux distibutions

• Ubuntu linux
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 • Centos
• Suse linux
• Fedora
• Kali

Components of Linux System

Linux Operating System has primarily three components

• Kernel − Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of
this operating system. It consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the
underlying hardware. Kernel provides the required abstraction to hide low level
hardware details to system or application programs.
• System Library − System libraries are special functions or programs using which
application programs or system utilities accesses Kernel's features. These libraries
implement most of the functionalities of the operating system and do not requires
kernel module's code access rights.
• System Utility − System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized, individual

level tasks.

Basic Features of Linux operating system

Following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System.

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 • Portable − Portability means software can works on different types of hardware in
same way. Linux kernel and application programs supports their installation on any
kind of hardware platform.
• Open Source − Linux source code is freely available and it is community based
development project. Multiple teams work in collaboration to enhance the capability of
Linux operating system and it is continuously evolving.
• Multi-User − Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access system
resources like memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.
• Multiprogramming − Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple
applications can run at same time.
• Hierarchical File System − Linux provides a standard file structure in which system
files/ user files are arranged.
• Shell − Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to execute
commands of the operating system. It can be used to do various types of operations,
call application programs. etc.
• Security − Linux provides user security using authentication features like password
protection/ controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.

Architecture of Linux operating system

The architecture of a Linux System consists of the following layers :

• Hardware layer − Hardware consists of all peripheral devices (RAM/ HDD/ CPU etc).
• Kernel − It is the core component of Operating System, interacts directly with
hardware, provides low level services to upper layer components.
• Shell − An interface to kernel, hiding complexity of kernel's functions from users. The
shell takes commands from the user and executes kernel's functions.
• Utilities − Utility programs that provide the user most of the functionalities of an
operating systems.

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Linux file system

In Linux everything is a file. Linux organizes its files in a hierarchical directory structure called
a tree. The first directory in the filesystem is called the root directory. The root directory
contains files and subdirectories, which contain more files and subdirectories, and so on.

In windows each storage device has a separate filesystem. Linux has always one filesystem
tree no matter how many drives or storage devices are attached to the computer. In Linux, a
storage device is mounted at various points on the tree.

The tree in Linux is like an upside-down tree with the root at the top and the various
branches descending below.

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This structure could vary from distribution (distro) to distribution and this is a very generic
Linux directory structure. The table below describe what these directories hold.

Directory Description Comments

The root directory. Every single file and directory starts from the
root directory.

/ Root Only root user has write privilege under this directory.

/root and / are different. /root refers to root user’s home

directory
Contains binary executables for all users of the system and
/bin User Binaries commands required in single user mode e.g. cat, ls, cp, ping,
grep etc.
/boot Boot Loader Contains the Linux kernel, initial RAM disk image (for drivers

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 Files needed at boot time) and Boot loader files.

/boot/vmliuz – the Linux kernel

/boot/grub/grub.conf or menu.lst – configure the boot loader

Here is where the kernel maintains a list of all the devices it
/dev Device Files understands. These include terminal devices, usb, or any device
attached to the system.
Contains configuration files required by all programs. They may
be for the system or network.

It also contains startup and shutdown shell scripts used to

start/stop individual programs. e.g. /etc/resolv.conf,
Configuration /etc/logrotate.conf
/etc
Files
/etc/crontab, a file that defines when automated jobs will run
/etc/fstab, a table of storage devices and their associated mount
points

/etc/passwd, a list of the user accounts

Home each user is given a directory in /home. Ordinary users can write
/home
Directories files only in their home directories.
System Contains the library files for all the binaries held in the /sbin &
/lib
Libraries /bin directories
On modern Linux systems the /media directory will contain the
Removable
/media mount points for removable media such as USB drives, CD-
Media Devices
ROMs, etc. that are mounted automatically at insertion.
Removable On older Linux systems, the /mnt directory contains mount
/mnt
Media Devices points for removable devices that have been mounted manually.
Optional add- This is mainly used to hold commercial software products that
/opt
on Applications may be installed on your system.
The /proc directory is not a real filesystem in the sense of files
Process stored on your hard drive. Rather, it is
/proc
Information
a virtual filesystem maintained by the Linux kernel.
/root This is the home directory for the root account.
/sbin System Binaries contains binary executables for use by system administrators, for

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 system maintenance purpose.g. iptables, reboot, fdisk, ifconfig,
swapon
Contains temporary files created by system and users. Files
under this directory are deleted when system is rebooted. There
Temporary
/tmp is also a /var/tmp directory which holds temporary files too. the
Files
only difference between the two is that /var/tmp directory holds
files that are protected at system reboot(not flashed).
Contains binaries, libraries, documentation, and source-code for
second level programs.

/usr/bin - contains binary files for user programs e.g at, awk, cc,
less, scp

/usr/lib - shared libraries for the programs in /usr/bin.

/usr/local – contains programs that are not

included with your distribution but are intended for

/usr User Programs
system-wide use are installed. Programs compiled from

source code are normally installed in /usr/local/bin.

/usr/sbin - Contains more system administration programs.e.g.

atd, cron, sshd, useradd, userdel

/usr/share - /usr/share contains all the shared data used by

programs in /usr/bin.

/usr/share/doc – contains documentation files organized by

package

Contains files hat are expected to grow e.g. databases, spool

/var Variable Files
files, user mail, etc.

/var/log - contains log files, records of various system activity

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 Computer Studies
Form 1

Chapter 4
USING COMPUTERS

Website: www.learnmalawi.com
Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Eliot Kalenga

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

CHAPTER 4: USING COMPUTERS

The keyboard
- A keyboard is board with a set of keys used for entering data in a computers
system
- Command from the keyboard is what tells the what to do
- A key is a button on keyboard which performs specific tasks

Types of keyboard
- There are two main types of keyboards, namely
o Standard keyboard
o Extended keyboard
Standard keyboard has three different types of keys of which includes
o Alphabet keys
o Digit keys
o Control keys
o Function keys
o Cursor keys
- While extended keyboard has only alphabetic keys and control keys with one
set of numerical keys
Alphabet keys
o Are used for entering text data
o They arrangement of the keyboard are based on the standards type writer
known as QWERTY. The QWERTY from is proved by counting keys from Q to Y
which make the term QWERTY
Digit keys
o Digit keys are used to enter numbers

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 o Digit keys are in two sets the first set is aligned on top of alphabet key and the
second set is located to the far right of the keyboard and is known as numerical
keypad
Function keys
o Are used to enter specific commands into the computer
o These are from F1 to F12 on standard keyboard and F1 to F10 on extended key
board
Cursor keys
o Are used to move the cursor. Cursor keys include the four arrow keys between
the numeric keypad and the control keys such as, HOME, END, PAGEDOWN and
PAGE UP
Control keys
o Are keys used for editing and key combination to send shortcuts commands into
the computer
o The control keys surround the QWERTY key board and example of control keys
are ENTER, CTRL, CAPSLOCK, ALT, DELETE, SPACEBAR, TAB, BACKSPACE and
SHIFT
Functions of the control keys
o Back space: are used to delete backwards
o Enter ; are used for starting anew line or creation a paragraph
o Shift : are used for typing the symbol which is on top of the key such symbol
like:<,> ?, &, *, (, ), ^, %, $, €, “, !, ,᷆ +, ~, @< :, {, }.
o Shift is also used for typing upper case and lower case
o DELETE: are used to delete forward to use delete key you need to highlight the
text to be deleted
o Caps lock: for typing upper case only this is done when the caps button is on

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Typing
- Refers to insertion of text in word processor or any application program and text
box
- Typing is done by pressing the desired keys on the key board
- Some keys have two symbols on them, to type the top symbol hold SHIFT + the
key which is holding the symbol

Typing upper case (capital letter)

o Hold down SHIFT together with desired alphabetical letter
o Switch on CAPS LOCK by pressing on caps lock button. Then all characters will
be in upper case

Blind typing
- It refers to the process of pressing hands dangled at the middle of the keyboard
while fingers press other keys
- Fingers are used to type a letter or symbol close to it
- Thumb finger used to place space bar. All the eight finger including thumbs rest
in the Centre of the keyboard

Finger layout and hand position

- The left hand with four fingers must be pressed on keys ASDF and its thumb on
space bar
- The right hand finger should lay on JKL and thumb on space bar

Good keyboard posture

❖ Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground maintaining an alert posture
❖ Place the material to be typed on your left, in a position you can read without
straining

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 ❖ Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the home row in
readiness to press other keys
❖ Always return fingers to the home row position after striking other keys
❖ Start typing slowly first. Do not look on your fingers when typing. If you do so o
❖ You will nervy to type quickly and accurately.
Mouse or mice skills
- A mouse is a device which is used to input data in the computer system
- A mouse is the main tool which is used to interact with graphical interface (GUI )
- A standard personal computer mouse has two buttons while a standard
Macintosh mouse has one button.

Parts of a mouse

Mouse terms
Left click
- Single click (or Click): Press and release the left mouse buttons (left button).
This is used to select options or items
- Double click: Quickly press and release the left mouse button twice. Mainly
used for opening documents

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 - Drag and drop: Point over an object using a pointer, click and hold un object
and move it to the desired location and release the button
Right click
- Right click: press and release the right mouse button. This usually provides a
list of shortcuts. To exit the list simply click anywhere else way a from the list

Scroll
This is the rotating button between the two click buttons and is used to scroll up and
down pages. In some cases, the rotating button between the two click buttons can
pressed for other actions.

Types of computer mouse

Computer mouse are classified into many categories as follows

• Mechanical mouse: Houses a hard rubber ball that rolls as the mouse is
moved. Sensors inside the mouse body detect the movement and translate it into
information that the computer interprets.
• Optical mouse: Uses an LED sensor to detect tabletop movement and then
sends off that information to the computer for merry munching.
• Infrared (IR) or radio frequency cordless mouse: With both these types,
the mouse relays a signal to a base station wired to the computer’s mouse port.
The cordless mouse requires power, which comes in the form of batteries.
• Trackball mouse: Like an upside-down mouse. Rather than roll the mouse
around, you use your thumb or index finger to roll a ball on top of the mouse.
The whole contraption stays stationary, so it doesn’t need a lot of room, and its
cord never gets tangled.
• Stylus mouse: Another mouse mutation enjoyed by the artistic type is the
stylus mouse, which looks like a pen and draws on a special pad.

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 • Cordless 3-D mouse: This kind of mouse can be pointed at the computer
screen like a TV remote.

Mouse pointer
The mouse pointer is the little indicator that moves when you move the mouse.
Sometimes, the mouse pointer has a different shape, depending on where it’s currently
resting or to show that a computer is processing something so you must wait.
The following diagram illustrate various shapes of mouse

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Functions of a mouse
- Mouse is used to perform the following
o Selecting text or graphics
o Drawing auto shapes
o Pointing on menus
o Displaying menus
o Inputting data

Good mouse use

❖ Place the mouse on a flat surface
❖ Gently hold the mouse with your right hard, using the thumb and the two fingers
❖ The index finger should rest on the left button while the middle rest on the right
button

Advantages of using a mouse

o It is inexpensive
o It is easy and convenient to use

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 o Most computers software accommodates the use of a mouse

Disadvantages of using a mouse

o It cannot be used to input text
o It is slow when selecting menu options
o It requires a flat surface to operate
o It is not very accurate for drawing purpose

Practical hands on skills

Turning on the computer (Booting)

• This is also called booting of a computer
• Booting is the process when the computer transfers the application
program from the main memory to the application areas or working area.
Types of booting
Cold Booting - when the computer is being switched on for the first time
Warm Booting - when the computer is being re-started while it was on operation.
To boot your computer system follow the steps:
1. Switch on the power button on the system unit (cold Boot)
2. Press the button to turn on the monitor
3. Wait for your computer to load operating system\

Logging in a computer system

• Open the log in window by pushing Ctrl, Alt and Delete buttons
simultaneously.
• If your user name is visible:
o Type in your password into the Password field.

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 o Click the arrow.
• If some other user name is visible:
o Click the Switch User button.
o Choose Other User.

o Type your username and password into the respective fields.

o Click the arrow.

Logging off
• Click the Start button in the lower left corner.
• Click the arrow button which can be found next to the Shut down button.

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 • Choose Log off.

Creating user accounts

To create a new user account:

1. Choose Start→Control Panel and in the resulting window, click the Add or Remove User
Accounts link.

The Manage Accounts dialog box appears.

2. Click Create a New Account.

The Create New Account dialog box appears.

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 The click on create account

Changing user Account types

To change account type follow the following steps

- Open Control Panel.

- Click the Change account type option.
- Select the account that you want to modify.
- Click the Change the account type option.
- Select either Standard or Administrator depending on your requirements.
- Click the Change Account Type button.

Creating a new user with a User Passwords

- Select the Windows Start menu button.

- Select Control Panel .
- Select User Accounts .
- Select Manage another account .
- Select Create a new account .

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 - In the New Account Name text box, type a name for the new account.
- Click Create Account .
- The new user now appears in the Choose the account you would like to change
box.
- "Make changes to your user account", click Set a password.
- In the "New password" and "Confirm new password" fields, enter the
password.

Using the mouse

1. Roll the mouse over the screen to move the pointer
2. One left click for basic functions
3. Two left clicks for opening programs
4. One right click for various help various help functions

Navigating through windows operating system

Recall that the windows operating system has a WIMP based GUI where W is for
Windows. Some examples of windows that you encounter on a windows operating
system are the following:
• Desktop window
• Folder window
• Application window

Folders of a computer
In computers, a folder is the virtual location for applications, documents, data or other sub-
folders. Folders help in storing and organizing files and data in the computer. The term is most
commonly used with graphical user interface operating systems.

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Some examples of common folder in a windows operating system are
- Desktop folder
- Documents folder
- Music folder
- Downloads folder
- Pictures folder

Windows desktop folder (desktop window)

The desktop- The desktop is the onscreen work area analogous to a physical desktop.
Everything else you see on the screen is actually resting on top of this virtual desktop. from the moment

you start your computer, to the moment you turn it off, the desktop is always there. The desktop has
two parts – The work area, and the taskbar. The work area has desktop icons. The
taskbar has the start button, taskbar buttons/icons, toolbars and notification area.

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 Figure x.x: windows desktop

Work area. The onscreen area where users can perform their work, as well as store
programs, documents, and their shortcuts. Although in technical terms the desktop
refers both to taskbar and work area, people loosely take the work area as the desktop
and they use it interchangeably. If you right click the work area you get desktop
properties. The appearance of the desktop can be changed using the following desktop
properties: Display settings and Personalize.

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Figure x.x: Desktop properties

The desktop icons-Each little picture on the desktop is an icon. Each icon, in turn, represents some

program you can run, or some location on your computer where things are stored. The Recycle bin
icon is one of the most common icon that sits on the desktop- the recycle bin keeps
deleted items. If items need to be permanently deleted, the recycle bin must be
emptied. If you want to use an item from the recycle bin then it needs to be restored.
A restored item returns to the previous location where it was deleted from.

The taskbar - This is a special toolbar that is unique to the desktop. You can use the
taskbar for such tasks as switching between open windows and starting new
applications. The taskbar includes the following:

• Start menu
• Quick Launch bar (Windows Vista and earlier only)
• Taskbar buttons
• Toolbars (optional)
• Notification area

Figure x.x: windows Taskbar

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Start Button - The start button is where you can start any program on your computer. When you
click the Start button, the Start menu opens.

The Start menu contains commands that can access programs, documents, and
settings. Examples of some contents (commands) of the start menu are accessories- paint, calculator,
notepad, snipping tool; Microsoft office programs – word, excel, access, and so on; file explorer – my

documents, my pictures, my computer (This PC), and so on; Control Panel; Games; Help and
Support; Shut down; Search programs and files.

Figure x.x: Windows Vista start menu

The Notifications area - The Notifications area contains the icons that keep you posted as
to the status of various programs or services running on your computer.

Folder window

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Each window can be divided into several sections: folder content, Navigation pane on the left, the Preview pane on
the right, the Search pane above, and the Details pane

Figure x.x: folder window

Application window

Most windows have certain elements in common, such as a title bar and a menu bar.
Not all windows, however, have every element.

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Figure x.x: elements of an application window

A menu bar displays commands or options in drop-down menus. The Close button
in the upper right corner of a window closes the window. The Maximize button in
the upper right corner of a window enlarges the active window so that it fills the entire
desktop. The Minimize button in the upper right corner of a window reduces the
active window to an icon on the Windows taskbar.

Menus

Menus are hierarchical lists of commands or options available to users in the current
context. Commands are actions users can take while using your application.

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Figure x.x: Menu example. Menu items are the ones we are calling commands or
options.

Toolbars are a way to group commands for efficient access. Toolbars can be more
efficient than menu bars because they are direct (always displayed instead of being
displayed on mouse click), immediate (instead of requiring additional input) and contain
the most frequently used commands (instead of a comprehensive list). In contrast to
menu bars, toolbars don't have to be comprehensive or self-explanatory just quick,
convenient, and efficient.

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Figure x.x: toolbar example

A ribbon is a command bar that organizes a program's features into a series of tabs at
the top of a window. A ribbon can replace both the traditional menu bar and toolbars.

Ribbon example

Dialog Boxes

A dialog box is a secondary window that allows users to perform a command, asks
users a question, or provides users with information or progress feedback. There are
two types of dialog boxes – modal and modeless. Modal dialog boxes require users
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to complete and close before continuing with the owner window. Modeless dialog
boxes allow users to switch between the dialog box and the owner window as desired.

Dialog boxes consist of a title bar (to identify the command, feature, or program where
a dialog box came from), an optional main instruction (to explain the user's objective
with the dialog box), various controls in the content area (to present options), and
commit buttons (to indicate how the user wants to commit to the task).

Standard Icons

Standard icons are the error, warning, information, and question mark icons that are
part of Windows.

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The standard icons are notable because they are built into many Windows application
programming interfaces (APIs), such as task dialogs, message boxes, balloons, and
notifications. They are also commonly used on in-place messages and status bars. The
standard icons have these meanings:

• Error icon. The user interface (UI) is presenting an error or problem that has
occurred.
• Warning icon. The UI is presenting a condition that might cause a problem in
the future.
• Information icon. The UI is presenting useful information.
• Question mark icon. The UI indicates a Help entry point.

Windows Search facility

Windows provides search at several levels for example a search facility is provided
along the start menu. A search facility is also provided along the folder window. The
Microsoft search allows supports searching via tags, comments, and document metadata.

Turning off the computer

1. Go to the start icon on the button of screen
2. Left click once
3. Left click once on turn off computer or Shutdown
4. Left click turn off computer. Wait until computer turns off then off screen and
power

File Management in a computer system

- File management in windows can be done through Windows explorer or My
Computer.

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 - Windows Explorer displays the hierarchical list of files, folders, and storage drives
(both fixed and removable) on your computer.
- It also lists any network drives that have been mapped to as a drive letters on
your computer.

Using Windows Explorer

Windows offer another utility "Windows Explorer" which helps you in working with files
and folders on your computer.

To open Windows Explorer,

• Click on Start,

• Point to All Programs,

• Point to Accessories, and then click on Windows Explorer

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The left pane of the Explorer window shows a hierarchy of all the drives, folders and
desktop items on your computer. A drive or folder that contains other folders has a plus
sign to the left of the icon. Click the plus sign to expand it and see the folders inside.

Opening drives and folders

Two drives nearly all computers have are a floppy drive (drive A:) and a hard drive
(drive C:). If you have more than one drive, then they are named D:, E: and so on. If
you have a CD drive or a DVD drive, it also is named with a letter.

- Opening a hard drive is easy. Just double click the icon representing the drive
you want to open. Files and folders contained in the drive are now shown in the
opened window. Now for opening a folder, double click its icon.

Coping or Moving a file or Folder using My Document

• Click on Start, and then click on My Documents.

• Click the file or folder to be copied. More than one file or folder can be copied at
a time.

• To select more than one consecutive files or folders, click the first file or folder,
press and hold down CTRL key, and then click the last files or folders.

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 • To select non-consecutive files or folders, press and hold down CTRL key, and
then click each of the files or folders to be copied.

• Under Edit menu, select Copy.

• Select the target drive or folder to which you want to copy the files

• Under Edit menu, select Paste to copy the desired file or folder to the target
drive.

View file details

1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents.

2. Double-click the folder that contains the files to be viewed.

3. On the View menu, click Details.

4. It will display all the details about the files such as Name, Type, size etc.

Copying and moving files using Explorer

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1. Click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories, and then click
Windows Explorer.
2. Make sure the destination for the file or folder you want to move is visible.
3. Drag the file or folder from the right pane and drop it on to the
destination folder in the left pane to move the file or folder there.
4. If you drag an item while pressing the right mouse button, you can move,
copy, or create a shortcut to the file in its new location.
5. To copy the item instead of moving it, press and hold down CTRL while
dragging.
6. If you drag an item to another disk, it is copied, not moved. To move the
item, press and hold down SHIFT while dragging.
7. Dragging a program to a new location creates a shortcut to that program.
To move a program, right-click and then drag the program to the new
location.

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Create a new folder

- Folders help you to organize your files. You can create a folder either by using
My Computer window or through Windows Explorer.
- You can create a Folder in any existing disk drive or folder or on the windows
desktop. The steps for creating a folder are:

1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents

2. Under File menu click New and select Folder.

3. A new folder is displayed with the default name, New Folder.

4. Type a name for the new folder, and then press ENTER.

5. A new folder can also be created directly on the desktop by right-clicking a blank
area on the desktop, pointing to New, and then clicking Folder.

Rename a file or folder

1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents

2. Click on the file or folder you want to rename.

3. Under File menu click on Rename.

4. Type the new name, and then press ENTER key.

5. Alternately file or folder can also be renamed by right-clicking it and then clicking on
Rename.

Delete a file or folder

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1. Click on Start, and then click on My Documents

2. Click on the file or folder you want to delete.

3. Under File menu click on Delete.

4. Files or folders can also be deleted by right-clicking the file or folder and then clicking
Delete.

5. Deleted files or folders are stored in the Recycle Bin, till they are permanently
removed from the Recycle Bin.

6. To retrieve a deleted file, double-click the Recycle Bin icon on the desktop. Right-
click on the file to be retrieved, and then click Restore.

7. To permanently delete a file, press and hold down SHIFT key and drag it to the
Recycle Bin.

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 Computer studies
form 1

Chapter 5
SAFE USE OF COMPUTERS

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Eliot Kalenga

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CHAPTER 5. SAFE USE OF COMPUTERS

Protection of computers and users

Computers are delicate devices that need to be handled carefully. To protect the
computers the users do the following:

• Security of computer hardware and soft ware

• Powering the computer on/off
• Protecting users from hazards.
• Safe disposal of computers components.
• Protecting against malware, viruses and worms.

Hazards to system

The following are hazards to computer system

a. Power surge/cut

- Power surges or unexpected power cuts can not only cause instant loss of data
but can also fry a processor rendering it useless.
- It is not just power from the grid that causes problems either, lightning can
surge through cables (even phone wires) frazzling your system and a build up of
static can cause similar results.

b. Dirt/Dust

- dusty environment will clog a computer and block cooling vents causing a
computer to overheat.
- Dust can also contain conductive material and particles can stick to circuit boards
and cause a short circuit.
- A cloud of dust can also explode if it comes into contact with a source of ignition
(like a computer).
- Even home computers if not properly cleaned can succumb to problems caused
by too much dust.

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 c. Water/fluids

- Of course computers are electrical and with all electrical equipment, computers
and water do not mix, just one spilt cup of coffee could see the end of your PC.

d. Heat

- Processors can run exceptionally hot and if a computers cooling system is

inadequate (because the machine has been upgraded, overclocked or just
clogged up with dust and grime) it will only be a matter of time before it packs
up for good.

e. Cold

- Just as with heat, computers don't enjoy the cold too much either.
- Processors will not operate at all if the operating temperature is too cold as
condensation inside the machine can freeze and expand damaging the processor
and electronics.

f. Knocks/bangs

- Computers are sensitive machines, simply moving a PC to another room can

cause havoc, disrupting the delicate circuitry and hard drives.
- Dropping a computer or severe knocks and bangs will permanently damage the
circuits and processors or dislodge wiring.

Hazards to computer users

The following are some of hazards to computer users

Musculoskeletal Problems

• This includes areas of your body such as your back, neck, chest, arms, shoulders
and feet.
• Having sore muscles and complaints of the muscles being tired are common.

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 • Numbness may occur in the arms and hands.
• These troubles may occur because the posture you assume when using the
computer is most likely incorrect.
• You may find that you are sitting in an uncomfortable chair, or that you have a
workstation that is not ergonomically correct for your body.

Tips to Consider

• Find a correct height for both your desk and chair so that your computer screen
is at eye level or slightly lower.
• Sit with your back straight, legs at 90 degree angles to the floor, and feet resting
flat on the floor.
• ALWAYS take small breaks from your computer work to stretch your muscles,
keep your blood flowing, and to rest your eyes.

2. Vision Problems

• Computers are notorious for their bright lights, glare and flickering images that
can cause strain on your eyes.
• Finding that you constantly focusing on the screen with delays in blinking can
result in drying out your eyes.

Tips to Consider

• Make sure to adjust the brightness on your computer screen so that your eyes
are not as strained.

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 • For example, if you are sitting in a dark room your computer screen will most
likely be very bright and cause your eyes to strain, so to save your eyes you
should lower the brightness.
• Tilt your screen to decrease any glare.
• Maintain a proper vision distance from the screen, and do not forget to blink.

3. Repetitive Stress Injuries

• You may notice pain in your neck, shoulders, or really anywhere from the
shoulders to your fingers related to repetitive muscle use.
• Using the computer may cause you to use your muscles in an odd way that may
cause increased stiffness, pain, or swelling in any of those areas.
• One of the most common conditions related to repetitive use of your muscles
when using the computer is carpal tunnel syndrome.

Tips to Consider

• Place your mouse at a location next to the keyboard that will require you to
move your whole arm to get to it rather that just twisting your wrist outward to
reach it and move it.
• Type gentle to decrease the stress put on each of your fingers.
• Keep your wrists flexible when typing; avoid keeping them fixed in a certain
position; keeping them flexible will avoid repetitive, strenuous stress.

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 • Relax your arms and try to get a few stretches in when you are not typing or
using your mouse.

4. Headaches

• Headaches are common and may occur because of the increased muscle tension
or from pain in the neck.
• Any vision problems, or continued strain on the eyes can also cause headaches.

Tips to Consider

• Attend regular eye exams in order to work toward correcting any vision
problems.
• Try your best to keep your neck straight in front of the computer and take
breaks.

5. Obesity

• Prolonged use of computers may lead to an overall sedentary lifestyle that lacks
adequate physical activity and/or exercise.
• In children prolonged use of computers, or electronics in general, is a major
contributing factor to obesity.

Tips to Consider

• Set limits for using electronics.

• Encourage outdoor play or a certain hobby that may take away time spent using
electronics in order to lead a more active lifestyle.
• As for adults, if your occupation requires computer use for up to 8 hours daily,
you should not use a computer again when you get home…you should take a
break and try to squeeze in some exercise until you go back to work.

6. Stress Disorders

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 • Technology impacts our behaviors and emotions.
• Prolonged use of computers may be accompanied by poor health and increased
pressure placed on you in your workplace environment, which could both lead to
stress.
• The longer your stress occurs and is left untreated, the greater your chances are
of contracting more serious health problems.
• Stress can lead to decreased attention span, lack of concentration, dizziness and
becoming easily burned out.

Tips to Consider

• Promote your own health and prevent future health conditions or worsening the
ones you already have by seeking treatment options for any stress that you may
encounter.
• Try things from yoga, to natural remedies, to medications as prescribed by a
medical provider to combat your stress.

7. Laptop Use Injuries

• Laptop injuries fall into a category of their own; there is a growing use of laptops
that continues to cause more pain and strain among those individuals who use
them.
• Laptops are designed for short periods of use for those who do not have access
to desktop computer.
• In present day individuals choose to use laptops over desktops more frequently,
due to convenience.
• The problem is this: the screen and keyboard are very close together and there
is really no right way to use a laptop because if you position the screen at the
right height for your back and neck, it will cause you to have to lift your arms

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 and shoulders too high to use it and vice versa…no matter what it will probably
cause a problem for you somewhere.

Tips to Consider

• Use a desktop computer that is set up ergonomically-correct for you as

frequently as possible; only use a laptop intermittently.
• Use separate laptop equipment, such as a wireless mouse or keyboard or a
laptop stand.
• As always, take frequent breaks.
• If you have to take your laptop with you, make sure to carry it in a backpack or
luggage; otherwise it may cause extra strain on your muscles from carrying it.

8. Sleeping Problems

• Artificial lighting that is given off from computer screens can actually trick your
brain and suppress its release of melatonin – the substance that assists your
sleeping patterns.

Tips to Consider

• Refrain from using a computer right before going to bed.

• Resort to reading a book or something to that degree prior to going to bed, so
falling asleep may come more easily for you.

9. Hearing Loss From Headphones

• At times you may be required to use headphones in order to better concentrate

on something or maybe because the background noise level is too high.
• Frequently individuals will turn the volume up very high, when actually it would
not even need to be close to that volume to hear the audio effectively.
• Listening to audio with headphones on a consistent basis and using a volume
that is too high can result in hearing impairment.

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Tips to Consider

• Keep the volume of your headphones down to a tolerable level, one that blocks
out any extra noise but that is just loud enough for you to hear.
• Listening to your headphones at approximately 80 decibels is recommended; if
you are unaware of what that sound level is it can easily be researched.

10. Increased Risk of Blood Clots

• Being immobile and not allowing your blood a chance to get moving around your
extremities may cause it to pool, creating build-up of blood cells that will
eventually clot (or stick together) due to not being able to be circulated around.
• Blood clots can be life-threatening if they break away from where they are
lodged and travel to another area, such as your lungs.

• Sitting in one position for too long (especially if your legs are crossed), generally
over a period of over 4 hours, can greatly increase your risk for this.

Tips to Consider

• Avoid crossing your legs when using a computer for an extended period of time.

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 • Take many breaks and stretch your legs to get the blood flowing to decrease the
chance of it pooling in your extremities.
• If you do have to sit for an extended period, make sure to bend and move your
extremities even while sitting because any little bit will he

Measure that protect hardware and software

• Burglar proofing the room- It includes fitting grills on doors, windows, and
roof to control forceful entry into a computer room.
• Installing fire prevention and control equipment such as smoke detectors,
non-liquids based fire extinguishers.
• The room should be well laid out with enough space for movement and
setup of computers.
• Powering the computer on/off, the computer should be always be switched
off using the correct procedures to avoid loss of data and destruction of
software.
• Dust and dump control, the room should be installed with good windows
curtains and an air conditioning system that filters dust particles.
• Insulating power cables, cables and power sockets should be well installed
and be of the correct power rating to avoid short circuit.
• Avoid taking meals in the compute laboratory, food particles may fall in
moving computer parts like keyboards.

Data and software loss

Data loss is defined as unexpected missing of data files from a computer system

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Factors that can lead to software and data loss.
There are many factors that may lead to data loss or software loss. Some of them have
been described below

1. Deleting files accidentally

- Data files deleted from the computer unintentionally by the user
2. Viruses and damaging malware
- Data files may be damages by viruses
- There are numerous new viruses which attack computers every day.
- Being connected to worldwide network has many advantages; however, it opens
computers to many serious risks. may differ greatly but the majority of viruses
affects operational software, misuses Internet connection and damages stored
data.

3. Mechanical damages of hard drive

- Hard drives of computers are the most fragile parts of computers; they break
down more often than any other device connected to computing.
- There are so many moving parts inside of hard drives that it is no wonder they
break down so easily.
4. Power failures

There are two adversary effects of power failures.

- When you are halfway through writing a long article and you have not saved it
yet, then in case of power going out you lose your data. This is perhaps the
simplest example but imagine working with sophisticated databases or creating
detail-rich graphic illustrations...you get the idea what can happen if you lose
power during working.
- Another, even deeper problem may arise when power failures affect operation

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 systems or hardware of computers. Shutting computer down suddenly without
proper shutdown procedures may cause problems with rebooting operation
system later.

5. Theft of computer
- It is a real tragedy to lose both computer and data at the same time .
- There is always the danger of burglars breaking in to your home and stealing
electronic devices. While traveling, you may leave your laptop unattended; lose it
in an airport, conference centers, coffee shops or any other crowded place.
6. Spilling coffee, and other water damages
- Since laptop usage has been growing during past few years, the damages
caused by spilling drinks on to the computers have become more often as well.
- Average laptop does not have extra covers to protect internal parts from getting
soaked
- Liquids cause short circuit of important electronic components and they are really
hard to recover afterwards.
7. Fire accidents and explosions
- Explosions happen rarely but fire most probably completely destroys both you
computer and data saved on it.

- Fire is also dangerous to the backups that are stored in the same house. For
example, having weekly backups stored on an external hard drive which is kept
in same building does not help much if the building burns down.
- In this case, both computer and backup drive will be destroyed and data will be
completely lost. The safest practice against fire is to make regular backups and
keep them in other (different) locations.

Measures against loss of data and software

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 1. Up – to- date antivirus program must be installed in the computer.
2. Make sure you scan all external storage media and e-mail for viruses
3. Take regular backup of all the important data and software and store in a safe
place.
4. Connect the computers to a UPS to prevent data and software loss during power
surge
5. All data must be properly saved and the computer must be safely shut down.

6. Enforce physical security to avoid theft of computer and computer accessories

7. Use trusted software to a void corrupting the operating system.
8. Write protect the storage media so that only the trusted users can save content
on the storage media.
9. Handle the storage devices and media with care to avoid damage due to
dropping, dust heat, water or magnetic effects.

Safe disposal of computers components

Computers that you no longer need should be disposed of with great care. The data on
your computer can easily be accessed whether you sell, scrap, give away or donate it,
and even ‘deleted’ data can be retrieved with relative ease by criminals.
The following are risks associated with careless disposal of computers

1. The personal information stored in files on your computer can be accessed and
used for criminal activity.
2. Any passwords stored on your computer could give access to secure websites
holding your personal and financial information.

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 3. Any browsing history stored on your computer can be accessed.
4. Emails stored on your computer can be accessed.
5. Disposing of your computer without having retrieved the information you may
need in the future may cause inconvenience or disruption.

Guidelines for Safe Disposal of computers

1. Copy all of the data you will need in the future, on to your new PC or storage
device, or back it up in the cloud.
2. Fully erase the hard disk(s) so that any personal information is completely
deleted. Simply deleting files is not enough to permanently erase them.
3. Ensure that any CDs or DVDs which contain your data are removed from the
computer.
4. Don’t forget that your CDs, DVDs, memory cards, USB sticks and other USB
connected devices may also contain your sensitive data and should be disposed
of with equal care.
5. If the computer equipment is at the end of its life and you do not intend to sell it
or give it away, take it to a proper disposal facility, which will ensure that is
dismantled and the components recycled correctly and responsibly

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 6. Donate, resell, or recycle.

- You can’t just throw your computer away. There are various components within
a computer that are either environmentally toxic, such as mercury and lead, or
valuable, such as copper, aluminum, and gold.

- Because of this, there are many programs available to help take your old
computers off your hands.

Computer Viruses

A computer virus is a type of computer program that, when executed, replicates itself
by modifying other computer programs and inserting its own code.
Types of Computer Viruses
The following are the common types of computer viruses
1. Boot sector virus

This type of virus can take control when you start — or boot — your computer. One
way it can spread is by plugging an infected USB drive into your computer.

2. Web scripting virus

This type of virus exploits the code of web browsers and web pages. If you access such
a web page, the virus can infect your computer.

3. Browser hijacker

This type of virus “hijacks” certain web browser functions, and you may be
automatically directed to an unintended website.

4. Resident virus

This is a general term for any virus that inserts itself in a computer system’s memory. A
resident virus can execute anytime when an operating system loads.

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5. Direct action virus

This type of virus comes into action when you execute a file containing a virus.
Otherwise, it remains dormant.

6. Polymorphic virus

A polymorphic virus changes its code each time an infected file is executed. It does this
to evade antivirus programs.

7. File infector virus

This common virus inserts malicious code into executable files — files used to perform
certain functions or operations on a system.

8. Multipartite virus

This kind of virus infects and spreads in multiple ways. It can infect both program files
and system sectors.

9. Macro virus

Macro viruses are written in the same macro language used for software applications.
Such viruses spread when you open an infected document, often through email
attachments.

What are the signs of a computer virus?

A computer virus attack can produce a variety of symptoms. Here are some of them:

❖ Frequent pop-up windows. Pop-ups might encourage you to visit unusual

sites. Or they might prod you to download antivirus or other software programs.
❖ Changes to your homepage. Your usual homepage may change to another
website, for instance. Plus, you may be unable to reset it.
❖ Mass emails being sent from your email account. A criminal may take
control of your account or send emails in your name from another infected
computer.

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 ❖ Frequent crashes. A virus can inflict major damage on your hard drive. This
may cause your device to freeze or crash. It may also prevent your device from
coming back on.
❖ Unusually slow computer performance. A sudden change of processing
speed could signal that your computer has a virus.
❖ Unknown programs that start up when you turn on your computer. You
may become aware of the unfamiliar program when you start your computer. Or
you might notice it by checking your computer’s list of active applications.
❖ Unusual activities like password changes. This could prevent you from
logging into your computer.

Ways in which viruses are spread

❖ Sharing of infected removable storage media
❖ Downloading of untrusted freeware and shareware
❖ Through e-mails
❖ Accepting software updates from invalidated sources

Ways of preventing the spread of virus viruses

❖ Avoid sharing of infected removable storage media
❖ Avoid downloading untrusted freeware and shareware.
❖ Install and update trusted antivirus software

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 Computer Studies
Form 2
Chapter 1
COMPUTER AND SOCIETY

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Eliot Kalenga

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

CHAPTER 1: COMPUTERS AND SOCIETY

Areas where Computers are used

There are so many fields in which computers are used some of these areas are as
follows

A. Financial systems
B. Accounting system
C. Banking systems
D. Sales and marketing
E. Retail system
F. Reservation of epos terminal
G. Education system
H. Communication system
I. Industrial system
J. Scientific and research systems
K. Scientific and research systems
L. Library systems
M. Entertaining and multimedia systems
L. Transport systems
M. Law enforcement systems
N. Computers in agriculture
N. Human resource system
O. Communication system

A. Financial systems
• In financial systems computers enables organization to manage their financial
• The financial institutions include:
1. Accounting systems

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 2. Banking systems
3. Payroll processing systems

B. Accounting systems
• Accounting systems are popular in business management
• Computers in accounting systems are used to enter customer’s order and billing
sup systems records for generating customers’ orders
• For keeping of the items in stock and help in management of items reorder
• Computers also help in hook keeping and produce reports in data being
processing.

Business accounting activities

Here are the six accounting business;

1. Customer order and billing orders and delivery.

2. Inventory management – for keeping track of items in stock and to know items to
be reordered
3. General ledger accounting – for summarizing the financial transactions.
4. Accounts receivable for keeping track of record owned by each other such as taxes
5. Accounting payable – keep track of record business owes others such as taxes
6. Cash book – for recording daily cash transaction in the business

C. Banking systems
• The banking industry is one of the earliest customers of information and
communication technology.
• The computers in banking services perform the following tasks.
1. Process customer transactions
• Computers in bank are used for easy carrying out financial transactions such
as

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 • Customers deposits
• Withdrawing money through ATM machines
• Calculating interest on savings and loans
• Creating reports for each customer account
2. Cheque clearing and processing
• Computerized cheques clearing and processing is made possible due to special
characters on printed using ink containing magnetic particles
• Cheques are processing using magnetic ink character reader which enters all
details on a computer of processing.
3. Electroning funds transfer (eft)
• EFT is the movement of money between different accounts using a
computerized system
• EFT transfer funds from the payers account by crediting the payee’s account
electronically in the same or different bank.
4. Internet banking
• It enables bank users to access their bank accounts through the internet.
• Bank customers can query, account statement, pay bills and transfer fund
electronically
• Internet banking is also known as e – banking
5. Mobile banking
• It is the process where account holder in different banking system performs
transaction using mobile phones.
6. Payroll processing systems
• Computers in pay roll systems are used to process accurate information about
employee incomes including gross pay, deductions and the net pay.
• Payroll systems are designed to produce reports that can be analyzed to meet
specific organizational information needs such as pay slips and reports that
shows a breakdown of payroll expenses against production and income.

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 D. Sales and marketing
• Without proper marketing a business cannot survive in a competitive
environment
• Computers in sales and marketing are being used in a number of ways to
promote sales and marketing.
Computers in sales are used in the following areas
1. Electronic commerce or e-business
2. Electronic presentation
3. Advertising

E. Retail systems

Computers are becoming more popular in retail stores as :

• Supermarkets
• Distribution outlets.
• Computers are used in stores for stock control and transaction handling.
• Shops owners processing data to be ordered and reordered
• Most retail transaction are handled using and electronic point – sale (EPOS)
• EPOS is a computer terminal used in retail stores to input and output data.
• EPOS terminal has all the normal facilities of cash register, direct data capture
devices such as bar reader, card reader, a monitor and a receipt printer.
• Transaction at the point of sale terminal my involve the following steps;
o The bar code leader is passed over the items bar code to generate the item
number.
o Using the number, the computer searches for the item with corresponding
number in the product file.
o Once record is found its description and price is used for processing sales.

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 Advantages of epos terminal

1. Correct price are used at the checkout counter.

2. They are fast because the attendant does not have to enter details manually.

F. Reservation of epos terminal

Computer in reservation systems are used mainly to make bookings in areas such as

• Airlines
• Hotels
• Car rental and theaters
• Bookings are made from a remote terminal connected to a centralized computer
Known as server.
• To access a server a client makes enquires via the remote terminal referred to as
client computer or using mobile phone

G. Education systems

Most educational institutions uses computers for administrative task such as :

• Compiling examinational reports

• Writing memos
• For accounting purposes.
• Computers are also playing an increasingly important role in educational
institutions in the following ways

1. Computers aided tutorials , where by computers act as teachers through electronic

programmers

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2. Problems solving through the use of electronic programs for mathematical and
other science researches.
3. E-learning is where by people pasue different courses through the internet
electronic.
H. Communication systems
• Communication refers to the distribution of data information from one person to
another.
• Effective and efficient data communication is achieved by use of high – speed
electronic devices such as computers.

• Examples of communication systems are:

1. The internet
• It facilitates the transfer of communication from one location to another location
services available on the internet transfer;
• World wide web (www)
• Electronic mail (e-mail)
2. Facsimile (fax)
• Facsimile in short ( fax) machine is a telecommunication device used to send
documents via telecommunication channel.
• A document is placed in the machine, scanned and converted into analogue from
then transmitted over a telephone line.
• The receiving fax machine converts the analogue data into the original softcopy
and prints a hardcopy.
• To send fax over the internet a special MODEM, called fax MODEM is required and
is being attached to the sending and receiving computers.
3. Video conferencing

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• Video conferencing refers to the use of computers, a digital video cameras, audio
capturing devices and communication networks to enable people in different
location to see and talk to each other.
• Each participant’s computer is attached with web camera (webcam) speakers and
a microphones and appropriate communications software.
• Video conferencing is popular in TV broadcasting stations where field reporters
interact with new casters.
4. Telecommuting
• Telecommuting it is the term used to refer to a situation where an employee work
usually at home using computer connected to the workplace network.
• Telecommuting has reduced unnecessary travel to the work place and also
reduced travel expenses as well as less due to commuting inconveniences such
as traffic jams.

I. Industrial systems
• The application of computers technology in industrial or manufacturing process
has become one of the most effective methods of automated production which
has improved the productivity.
• Computers are used in some of the following industrial plants;
• Motor vehicle manufactures
• Mining plants
• Chemical plants
• Refineries
• Computers in industries are used in a number of ways of which some includes
• Process control
• Industrial simulation

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• Computers aided design and manufacturing

J. Scientific and research systems

• A computer has a wide variety of applications in science, research and technology
some of which are;
1. Weather forecasting – through the use of geographical information systems (GIS)
2. Medical research
3. Military and space exploration science
4. Social researches.

K. Library systems
• Library use computerized system for a number of task such as;
• Lending system : the library lending system manages the issuance and return
of borrowed reading materials.
• Inventory; it involves use of computer to manage stock, which includes checking
for books currently in stock and those on high demand.
• Cataloguing system; it is a collection of cards with information about each book
reference found in the library.

L. Entertaining and multimedia systems

• The advancement in multimedia technology has produced computers that can be
used in recreation and entertainment.
• The term multimedia refers to text, video and sound multimedia computers are
computers that not only processes text but can also process video and sound.
• Multimedia computers should have the following elements.
1. A high resolution monitor ( screen)
2. A sound card that processes sound
• Multimedia computers can be used in the following areas;

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1. Games
2. Music and video
• Multimedia computers are used in recording synthesizing, editing and adding
special effects to music.
• In video industry computers are used to produce highly simulated and animated
movies, general scenes and actors.

O. Transport systems
• Computers are also highly used in transport systems in the following areas;
1. Road traffic control
2. Air traffic control – through the use of geographical position system (GPS)
3. Shipping control whereby computers are used to guide the paths or direction taken
by spaceships and water vessels as they travel to distant land geographical position
systems (GPS) is also used.

P. Law enforcement systems

• Crime has become more sophisticated hence very difficult to deal with
• Immediate and accurate information is very crucial detection.
• Computers in law enforcement are used for biometric analysis
• Biometric analysis refers to the process or study, measurement and analysis of
human biological characteristic such as fingerprints, skin colour, retina of the eye
and voice.
• Barometric devices are attached to the computers to perform its tasks in identifying
people by recognizing one or more specific attributes such as fingerprints like iris
colour.

Q. Computers in agriculture
• In agriculture computers are used for;

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 1. Agriculture – for improving resistance of crops
2. Agribusiness – for marketing product.
3. Agricultural administration – for record keeping.

R. Human resource system

• Human resource information systems (HRIS) have become a new way of
processing all aspects of human resource management and some of them are;
➢ Recruitment
➢ Placement
➢ Monitoring
➢ Monitoring and appraisal
➢ Leave management
➢ Payment processing

Implications of using computers

The use of ICT offers a different set of opportunities and challenge in our society. Some
of the effects of ICT in our society are;

1. Legal issues
2. Economic issues
3. Environmental issues
4. Effect on employment
5. Effects on automated production
6. Issues of workers health
7. Ethical issues

1. Legal issues

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 • The internet and remote communications means that exchange of information is
no longer paper based/face but electronic between remote individuals. But fraud
and validity is taking a Centre stage.
• Government has to pass new registration to support electronic communications
e.g. a mobile SMS and e-mail need to be recognized as legal documents.
2. Economic issues

The use of computers provides both benefits and challenge economically

Benefits

➢ More efficiency means better utilization of resources.

➢ Accountability and transparency in economic planning and management will
enhance development.
➢ Individuals can transfer money and do e-commerce hence enhancing economic
development.

Challenges

➢ Electronic fraud i.e scam money laundering

➢ The needs to enforce security
➢ ICT equipment are expensive to buy, install and maintain.

3. Environmental issues
➢ Emission of heart into the environment and other forms of electromagnetic
radiations.
➢ Cadmium oxide found in mobile phone and laptop batteries could leak into
underground water if proper disposal is not done
➢ Emission of greenhouse gases during manufacture of ICT components

Electromagnetic emission – low emission ICT device has to be used.

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Energy consumption and radiation – the environment protection agency ( EPA)
launched energy star policy to encourage minimal use of power by electronic devices

Environmental pollution – IT components have contributed to environment pollution

because of huge garbage damps of dead computer parts, printers, ink, toner cartridges
and monitors.\

4. Effects on employment
• Computers at work place has resulted in creation of new jobs replacement of
computer illiterate workers and displacement of jobs that were formerly manual.

5. Automated production
• Number of manufacturing industries such as vehicle assembly, oil refineries and
food processing use computers.

Advantages of using automated production

➢ It has increased efficiency due to balancing of workload and production.

➢ It has improved customer services. Adequate and high quality goods are produced
➢ Efficiency utilization of resources such as raw materials, personnel and equipment
hence less expense incurred.

Disadvantages of automated production

➢ High initial cost of setting up an automated system. E.g the cost of one industrial
robot is high than employing a human resource.
➢ Automated production may lead to unemployment in areas that are labour
intensive one person can do the work of twenty people.

6. Issue of workers health

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It has resulted to

• repetitive strain injuries,

• eye strain and headaches,
• electromagnetic emissions and
• environmental issues.

7. Ethical issues
• Ethical in the society is both an informal and formal process of placing values on
actions, classifying them as either good or bad,
• computer has changed the way people used to communicate, work and relate.
• This has resulted to ethical dilemma due to the use of internet, social network
and mobile phones.

Disadvantages of computing ethics

➢ It has promoted corruption and fraud in offices.

➢ It has increased

Cultural effects

• Most of moral intergrity has been compromised through some networking

platforms such as
- Hacking
- Eavesdropping
- Piracy
• This is due to the exposure to websites on the internet

Safeguarding computers
- Computer resources are expensive, therefore need to be safeguarded from
a. Theft
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 b. Breakage
c. Virus infection and
d. Unauthorized access

- Safeguarding your computers requires protecting your hardware against

damage or theft, protecting computer systems against malware and protecting
valuable data from being accessed by unauthorized personnel or stolen by
disgruntled staff.

Ways of safeguarding computers

- The following are some of ways for safeguarding of computers

i. Use of firewall
- Set up between an internal computer network and the Internet.
- Filter out unwanted intrusions
ii. Content filtering ;
- Exclude or deny the access to some web pages on the internet

iii. Use of passwords

- used to authenticate a user to access a system.
- Good password must be combination of letters, numbers and characters( avoid
the obvious)

iv. Use of up to date anti-virus

- To protect computer and data against infection by viruses

Physical and Logical security layers

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Physical security is the protection of personnel, hardware, software, networks and
data from physical actions and events that could cause serious loss or damage to an
enterprise, agency or institution.

Logical Security consists of software safeguards for an organization’s systems,

including user

- identification and password access,

- authenticating,
- access rights and
- authority levels.

These measures are to ensure that only authorized users are able to perform actions
or access information in a network or a workstation.

References

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001). Malawi senior secondary teaching
syllabus for computer studies forms 1-2. MIE: Domasi.

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001). Malawi senior secondary teaching
syllabus for computer studies forms 3-4. MIE: Domasi.

Nasalangwa Andrew, (2014) Excel and succeed Junior secondary computer studies form
1, Nirobi, Kenya.

Langat, J Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2006). Foundation computer studies student’s book

for form 2. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Langat, J Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2006). Foundation computer studies student’s book

for form 3. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

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Mulli, D Ochieng’, D Ndegwa, J, Kioko, J (2010). Log on computer studies for senior
secondary volume 1. Nairobi: Kenyatta Literature Bureau.

Mulli, D. Ochieng’, D Ndegwa, J, Kioko, J (2010). Log on Computer studies for senior
secondary volume 2. Nairobi: Kenyatta Literature Bureau.

Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2005). Foundation computer studies student’s book for form 1.
Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2005). Foundation computer studies student’s book for form 4.
Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Stephen, M (2010). Get started computing windows 7 edition. London: Hodder Education.
Stephen, M (2010). Get started excel windows 7 edition. London: Hodder Education.

http://www.cs.bu.edu

www.google.com

https://www.www.tutorialspoint.com

Wikipedia

Online Oxford dictionary

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 Computer Studies
Form 2
Chapter 2
USING WORD PROCESSOR

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Eliot Kalenga

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

CHAPTER 2: USING WORD PROCESSOR (MS WORD)

Word processors

Definition of word processing

Word processing is the process of creating, formatting editing and deleting text and
graphics

What is an electronic word processor?

It is an application program used to create, format, edit and delete text and graphics.

Purpose of a Word Processor

- In general word processors have the following purposes

a. Creating text and graphics
- It allows different input devices such as keyboard, mouse and joystick which can
be used to key in text and draw graphics in word processor.
b. Formatting text and graphics
- It allows user to change text and graphic into different styles such as bold, italic
underline, Arial and time new roman.
c. Editing text and graphics
- It involves corrections of errors and adding of text and graphics
d. Deleting of text and graphics
- It also allows the user to remove the text and graphics completely in a
document.

EXAMPLES OF WORD PROCESSORS PROGRAM

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 • Microsoft word
• Notepad
• Word pad
NB: Before electronic word processors, Manual word processors were used such
as type writer

A typewriter

ADVANTAGES OF WORD PROCESSOR OVER A TYPEWRITER

• Easy formatting of text and graphics in word processor than a typewriter .

• Mistake can be corrected before printing in a word processor than a type writer.
• Many copies can be processor than a typewriter.
• Computer keyboard do not requires pressing hard in order to key in text than a
typewriter.
• It is easy to insert pictures and other graphics within the stretch of text while type
writer requires manual insertion of pictures.

CONTENTS OF WORD PROCESSOR

The following are some of the features of WP.

1. Cursor
- This is blinking vertical line that shows the user where next to type.

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 - You can only be able to type exactly at the position of the cursor.
- Once you type, the cursor then moves to the next available space.
2. Formatting and Editing
- Formatting is changing the appearance of text by selecting font typeface or
hand writing style), colour, alignment, indentation (moving text away from
the margins), bolding, changing size, underline, italic and making bulleted list.
- Editing is correcting errors and ensuring clarity and accuracy like removing
spelling and grammar mistakes.
3. Spelling and grammar check
- WPs have the ability to check the spelling and the grammar of a document
- This can be set to indicate such mistakes by showing different colours on
them. For example in Ms-Word, spelling mistakes are underlined in red and
grammar are underlined in green.
4. Word Wrap
- This is the ability to take an incomplete word to the next line automatically
without pressing the enter key. This is known as word wrap.
5. Thesauras
- This is a Greek word for storehouse. It stores synonyms and antonyms of
different words.
- The user of the WP has the option to obtain different words which mean the
same or opposite as the word to be changed.
6. Auto-correct
- Word which is frequently used with WP can be made to automatically be
corrected or be completed by WP in the process of typing, hence the name
auto-correct.
7. Undo and redo
- Any action done by the user of the WP, can be undone by these two features.

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 - If the user types some words which was not intended, one has the option to
click undo button for the action to be omitted or if one had deleted some
word or sentence or paragraph by mistake, one simply presses the redo
button to have the same deleted items back to the right place.

8. Mail Merge
- This is the ability of WP to create a common letter, e-mail or labels and add
different addresses or particulars to each letter for different people at the
same time.
- It has three main parts:
a. Creating main letter,
b. Creating addresses and
c. Merging the addresses to the letter.

9. Dictionary
- WP has a dictionary where certain words can be added, to make them
accepted by WP such that it will not show the red colour symbolizing that it is
a spelling mistake or a non English word.
- You can add nouns from a different language and WP will recognize them as
part of the English language.
- Depending on the default language used by the computer, certain words
may not be accepted though they are English words.
- You need to add such words to the dictionary of WP. For example, British
English will accept labour, but American will only accept labor and so on.

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Opening Microsoft word (MS word)

• Click the start button which is at the bottom corner the of the screen.
• Select programs with the mouse pointer
• Click Microsoft word.

Closing the program

- Closing the program will allow the program to shut down, saving the
computer’s resources for the other programs you’d like to run.

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 - Locate and click the “X” button located at the top right-hand side of the
program screen

CLO
SE
- Click on the File tab and click “Close” from the menu

CLO
SE

Tabs and ribbons

- Tabs and Ribbons contain all of the key tools for operating Microsoft Word
2010 smoothly and efficiently.

- Ribbons are located near the top of the program. Locate the
“Home” ribbon and note the different tabs and tab sections.

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DEFINITIONS:
➢ TAB – A broad set of tools needed to perform a specific type of job for your
document
➢ RIBBON – The area of Microsoft Word 2010 that contains the operating tools
➢ TAB SECTION – A specific set of tools needed to perform a more specific job
for your document

Page & word count

REASON: Page and word count helps you track how many pages in your document as
well as how many total words it contains.

- Locate the page and word count feature in the lower left portion of your
program screen

PAGE / WORD
COUNT

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Changing of margins

• Click file menu

• Click page set up to display page setup dialog box.
• Click margins tab
• Types in the measurement of the margins
• Click ok

Viewing a document window

- The word document window can display its contents in different viewers such
as;
a. Normal view
- This is a default view for a document

b. Draft View
- Draft view is the most frequently used view. You use Draft view to quickly
edit your document.

c. Web Layout
- Web Layout view enables you to see your document as it would appear in a
browser such as Internet Explorer.
d. Print Layout
- The Print Layout view shows the document as it will look when it is printed.
e. Reading Layout
- Reading Layout view formats your screen to make reading your document
more comfortable.
f. Outline View
- Outline view displays the document in outline form.

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 To change from one view mode to another;
- Click view menu
- Click the view that is required.

Saving a document

- Once a document has been created it has to be saved so that it is stored in the
computer.
- To save the document for the first time, do the following;

- Click file menu

- Click save as, then the save as dialog box appears
- Type in the file name in the text box.
- Select the location where the document has to be saved.

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 STEP 1:
Note the FILE name
where the document is
being stored

STEP 2:
Type the STEP 3:
document name Click “Save”

- Click save

Opening a saved document

- Click file menu then open dialog box appears.

- Open the file or holder where the file is saved.
- Click open, them the document window will open.

Open Button

DEFINITIONS:
➢ File – a document or item that can be opened with a specific program
➢ Folder – a small place where you store files

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 ➢ Drive – a large place that stores many folders and programs

ICONS (BUTTONS):

FIL FOLD DRIV

E ER E

Opening a New document

- Click on the “File” tab and locate the “New” button
- Click on the word “New”

DEFINITIONS:
➢ Template – a pre-formatted document that allows you to simply “fill in the
blanks” rather than create a similar document from scratch
➢ Sample templates – a template that is already installed on your computer and
ready to use
➢ My templates – additional templates that typically come standard with
microsoft word
➢ New from existing – a template that you previously built and saved yourself
➢ Office.com templates – templates found online, typically through the
microsoft website

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 Typing a document
The keyboard
New• The SPACE BAR, RETURN, and ARROW keys are the main keyboard tools used to
Button navigate through a Microsoft Word 2010 document.

• Locate the following keys on your keyboard

TAB BACKSPA ENTE

KEY SPACE CE R ARROW
DELE KEYS
BAR
TE
- Open the existing document file labeled “Keyboard Practice” located on the C:
drive in the folder labeled “Training Class Files – DO NOT REMOVE”
- Follow the instructions at the top of the document to complete the activity

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 Font options
- Using the FONT options will allow you to customize your text and affect the
overall presentation of the document

DEFINITIONS:
➢ FONT – The style and typeface in which the text of a Microsoft Word document
is presented

NB : Locate the FONT ribbon on Microsoft Word

➢ Become familiar with the basic FONT buttons presented on the ribbon

ITALI
FON BOL CSUNDERLI
T D FONT TEXT
NE
SIZE COLOR

Indentations & bullets

- Indentations & bullets allow you to shape your document so it is easier to
scan and read complex information. These tools are used frequently in the
business world.
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 DEFINITIONS:
➢ INDENT - set in from the margin; "Indent the paragraphs of a letter" –
Performed by using the “Tab” key on the keyboard
➢ BULLET - A symbol or used to introduce items in a list – Performed by using the
“Bullets” button on the “Paragraph” tab section

• Locate the INDENT & BULLETS on the picture below

Bullets

Indent Using spell check

- Using Spell Check helps to ensure that your document is free of any spelling
or grammatical errors. This is an important feature that is used often by
professionals of all areas.

- Locate the SPELL CHECK button on the picture below. NOTE: It is located
on the “Review” ribbon

Spell
Check
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Formatting a document
CUT, COPY & PASTE
- The Cut, Copy, & Paste features are a vital part of most everyday business
applications of Microsoft Word, as well as many other programs.

DEFINITIONS:
➢ Clipboard – This is the area where items being cut, copied, and pasted are
temporarily stored. Think of it just as the name implies, as an imaginary
clipboard to hold the items needed for the project at hand
➢ Cut – The process of removing a text, picture, or other object from the
document and placing it on the CLIPBOARD
➢ Copy – The process of making a copy of a text, picture, or other object from the
document and placing it on the CLIPBOARD
➢ Paste – The process of removing something from the CLIPBOARD and adding it
to the current document

• Locate the “CUT”, “COPY” & “PASTE” buttons located in the “Clipboard” Tab
Section of the “Home” tab

Paste

Cop Cu
y t

Changing margins

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 - Margins allow you to further shape your document by setting the outer
limits of where text can and cannot be typed

• Locate the “Margins” menu found in the “Page Setup” Tab Section of the “Page
Layout” tab

Margi
• Click on the “Margins” menu button and
ns view the different options

Using themes
- Themes can help to add a little extra flair to your document by changing
colors and layouts at the touch of a button.

• Locate the “Themes” menu found in the “Themes” Tab Section of the “Page
Layout” tab

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 Theme
s

Click on the “Themes” menu button and view the different options

Assigning password to your document

- It is important to assign password to your document to avoid other users to

work on your document.
- They are types of password to be assigned such as password to open and
password to modify.
- Password to open restricts other users from opening the file altogether.
- Password to modify restricts the users not to save any change to the document.
• To assign the password to the following steps

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 - Click file menu
- Click save as a save as dialog box will appears
- Click tools on the save as dialog box.
- Click protect document A security dialog box will appears.
- Click in text box of your chosen password ( to open or to modify)
- Click ok. You will be prompted to type the password again click ok.

Merging

- Merging is the process of bringing text and graphic together. They are two
main types of merging and these are;
a. Mail merge

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 b. Text merge
a. Mail merge
- involves bringing information from a data source such as addresses and labels
to be come one with text which is typed.
- Mail merge helps to simplify the tasks to type one letter and attach it with
many addresses at once.
b. text merge involves bringing together text typed and saved in different files
to be come one element. Text merge compares the two documents and
highlighting the differences which can be edited accordingly.

MERGING MAIL

• When creating mail merge a list of addresses for the recipients is required. To
create a mail merge from a new mailing list do the following in Ms word window;
- Click maillings
- Select start mail merge
• In the task pane follow the follow all the six steps as follow;
- Select the document type e.g letters, e-mail messages and labels.
- Starting document e.g select current document in the task pane.
- Selecting recipients by clicking type new list. Then type the new recipients
address in the new address list window, and click save and OK to confirm.

- Write your letter by adding the address block and greetings line on top of your
letter.

- Preview your letter and make some changes if required

- Complete the merge by either printing or editing individual letter. In every step
remember to click next in the dialogue box.

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Creating and Editing a Table

- Open Word or the document where you wish to put a table. You can insert
tables into any version of Word.
- Position the cursor on the area where you want the table to be inserted. Click
the “Table” button that is located under the “Insert” tab. ...
- Choose your method of inserting your table.

Editing tables

Tables can be resized, new columns/rows inserted, rows/columns can be merged and
they can also be split.

- Resizing rows/columns

The easier way of expanding your rows is to place the cursor within a row and press
enter.

Hint: Alternatively, select the row to expand and right click. A pop-up window will
appear, choose table properties then click the row tab. The window below will appear.
On size, specify height.

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Resizing columns

Place the cursor on the boundaries of the column you intend to expand. A double
headed pointer as shown below will appear. Columns are resized by moving the double
headed pointer in the direction you want to expand the table. This is illustrated below.

Inserting rows and columns

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To insert a row or a column, simply select the row or column. Right click on it and click
insert, then choose row/column and the position of insertion desired

Deleting rows/columns

• Highlight the row/column to delete.

• Right click on it

• On the pop-up menu, click either delete rows or delete columns depending on what
you selected to delete.

Merging rows/columns

• Highlight the row/column to merge

• Right click on the same

• On the pop-up window click merge cells.

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• The cells will be merged.

Entering data in a table

- Simply place your cursor in the cell you wish to enter data and type the usual
way.

Formatting Tables

- Formatting a table is to make it appealing to the reader.

- You can put borders and shading on it to enhance the contents.

Steps:

- Highlight the entire table or row/column as desired.

- Right click and choose borders and shading from the pop-up menu.

When you click on borders and shading, the following window pops-up.

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To apply the borders

• Highlight where to apply border,

• Click a setting e.g. Box, grid

• Choose the style you want,

• Choose colour

• Choose width to apply to the borders

• On Apply to box, click where to apply the border

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Exercise

- Create a table of 4 rows and 5 columns

- Apply the grid borders to the table
- Apply colour of your desire Apply appropriate width.

Exercise

Using shading tab, apply shading on the first row of the table in on the exercise above.
Make sure to choose, the style, the colour and where to apply the shading.

Split cells

Click in a cell, or select multiple cells that you want to split.

Under Table Tools, on the Layout tab, in the Merge group, click Split Cells.

Hint: Once you highlight the table tools will appear on top of the menus.

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Sort the contents of a table

In Print Layout view, move the pointer over the table until the table move handle
appears. Click the table move handle to select the table that you want to sort.

Under Table Tools, on the Layout tab, in the Data group, click Sort. In the Sort dialog
box, select the options that you want.

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Sort a single column in a table

- Select the column that you want to sort.

- Under Table Tools, on the Layout tab, in the Data group, click Sort.
- Under M list has click Header row or No header row. Click Options. Under Sort
options, select the Sort column only check box. Click OK.

Sort by more than one word or field inside a table column

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- To sort the data in a table that is based on the contents of a column that includes
more than one word, you must first use characters to separate the data including data
in the header row.

- For example, if the cells in a column contain both last and first names, you can use
commas to separate the names.

- Select the column that you want to sort.

- Under Table Tools, on the Layout tab, in the Data group, click Sort.

Inserting images in a document

 To insert an image into your document

- Select the “Insert” menu. Locate and press the “Picture” button in the
“Illustrations” section.
- In the Dialog box that appears, browse to the photo you wish to insert and press
the “Insert” button
- .

Printing a document
PRINT PREVIEW / PRINT

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 - Print preview allows you to see your document as it will appear when
printed.
- This is important to check for any last minute issues before printing.
Microsoft Word 2010 has a built in Print Preview from the Print Menu.

• Locate and left-click the “Print” menu button located in the “File” tab
o Notice the different options to customize your print

Print

• Become familiar with the following areas of this menu

o Printer – Selects the printer that you want to print the document
o Print All Pages/Pages – Decides how much of the document to print
o Copies – Select how many copies of each printed sheet you would like

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 o Print Button – Starts the printing process
- Printing can be done in many ways in application programs such as Ms Word,
excel and Ms Access, to print your work do the following;
o Click on the file menu
o Click page setup to set page orientation either portrait or landscape
o Click print preview.
o On file menu select print then on the print dialogue box specify the number
of copy needed and the page need either Odd or Even only, but by default
ALL is selected to print all the work
o Click OK

References

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001). Malawi senior secondary teaching
syllabus for computer studies forms 1-2. MIE: Domasi.

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001). Malawi senior secondary teaching
syllabus for computer studies forms 3-4. MIE: Domasi.

Nasalangwa Andrew, (2014) Excel and succeed Junior secondary computer studies form
1, Nirobi, Kenya.

Langat, J Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2006). Foundation computer studies student’s book

for form 2. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Langat, J Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2006). Foundation computer studies student’s book

for form 3. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Mulli, D Ochieng’, D Ndegwa, J, Kioko, J (2010). Log on computer studies for senior
secondary volume 1. Nairobi: Kenyatta Literature Bureau.

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Mulli, D. Ochieng’, D Ndegwa, J, Kioko, J (2010). Log on Computer studies for senior
secondary volume 2. Nairobi: Kenyatta Literature Bureau.

Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2005). Foundation computer studies student’s book for form 1.
Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2005). Foundation computer studies student’s book for form 4.
Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Stephen, M (2010). Get started computing windows 7 edition. London: Hodder Education.
Stephen, M (2010). Get started excel windows 7 edition. London: Hodder Education.

http://www.cs.bu.edu

www.google.com

https://www.www.tutorialspoint.com

Wikipedia

Online Oxford dictionary

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

 Computer Studies
Form 2
Chapter 3
PRESENTATION SOFTWARE

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Eliot Kalenga

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

CHAPTER 3: PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
Introduction: business executives, managers, marketers, teachers and many other
categories of people often find themselves faced with the challenge of talking to an
audience concerning a particular topic when trying to sell new ideas. Presentation
software helps to simplify the work of managers.

Presentation software

What is presentation graphics

➢ An electronic presentation is a collection of slides that may contain text,

pictures, drawings, tables sound and video.
➢ A slide is the work area in a presentation where information such as text, graphics
or multimedia content is placed.
➢ The presentation collection can run automatically or can be controlled by a
presenter.
➢ A presentation software is an application software used to create an electronic
presentation that communicates ideas, messages and other information to the
audience.

Types of presentation soft ware

There are many types of presentation software available as stand alone or as a

component of a suite. Example of presentation software are;

➢ Microsoft PowerPoint
➢ Lotu’s freelance Graphics
➢ Corel presentations
➢ Harvard Graphics
➢ Open Office Impress e.t.c

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Purpose of using presentation software

Some of the areas where electronic presentation has become handy include;

➢ presentation facts and figures – examples, sales people often have to give
presentation to customers or managers just to let managers the sales
performances and the customers the latest product.
➢ Teaching – presentation software is regularly used as teaching.
➢ Reporting research findings - researchers and students present their project
reports through electronic presentation.
➢ Conferences – presentation software is regularly used during workshop and
seminars speakers use software to drive their point home.

Advantages of using presentation software

➢ It is easy to learn.
➢ It has large library of background templates and custom layout.
➢ Multimedia effects can easily be added to the presentation.
➢ Presentation are easy to edit.
➢ It can easily produce output in different format e.g. interactive whiteboard and
handouts.
➢ Excellent for summarizing facts using charts or diagrams to an audience.
➢ Can be used to produce a set of hangouts for people to write on whilst
presentation is being given.
➢ Let’ the speaker face audience and make eye contact rather than facing the screen.

Features of presentation software

➢ They have large range of readily available pre-designed templates that one can
easily use to create the presentation.
➢ It has a selection of layouts used to create slides.

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 ➢ It has master slide used to set up content that presenter could wish to appear
on every page such as footers or page number.
➢ It has animation and transition effects used to add emphasis to presentation.
➢ It allows the users to run on-screen shows and upload the presentation on the
internet and print the handouts that can be distributed to the audience to help
them easily follow the presentation.

Presentation design guidelines

To produce an effective presentation one should adhere to four P’s that is

Plan
Prepare
Practice
Present

The following factors should be considered when designing a presentation;

➢ You must have the objective of the presentation.

➢ You must consider the length of the presentation.
➢ You must consider the targeted audience.
➢ You must consider the type of presentation e.g business or academic
➢ You must consider the content of the presentation e.g should meet subject matter.
➢ You must consider the organization e.g should have opening slide, main body and
the conclusion

Starting PowerPoint 2010/ 20013

1. On the programs menu , point on Microsoft Office

2. Click Microsoft office PowerPoint 2003 / 2007. The PowerPoint application window
with a default blank slide will appears. Check the figure below;

Features of the PowerPoint application window

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When working with Ms PowerPoint observe the following features;

➢ Microsoft office button which will help you to perform command like save as
when saving your work e.t.c
➢ Ribbon, it has tabs like Home, insert, Design, Animation, Slide Show, review and
view in Ms Office 2007.
➢ Quick access button contains frequently use commands like undo or redo.
➢ Work area contains panes to insert and graphics.
➢ Status bar, which displays the current actions in the slides.
➢ Mini toolbar it display common formatting tools, such as bold, Italic, fonts, Font
size and Font color.
➢ Note pane, used to add more notes that could not fit on the slide.

Working with Presentation Software

Creating a new presentation

There are three ways of creating new power point presentation

i. From blank slide

ii. From template
iii. From existing presentation

To create a new presentation from a blank slide proceeds as follow;

1. Click Microsoft office button.

2. Click new then a new presentation dialog box appears (Ctrl + N )4we
3. Click blank presentation

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To create a new presentation from template

1. In the new presentation window, click installed templates or press Shift + Ctrl +
P)
2. In the installed template section, choose the desired template.

To create a presentation from existing presentation:

1. In the new presentation window, click new from existing.

2. On the displayed dialog box, select the file you want to use. The file will open in
slide master view.
3. Modify the presentation as desired then save it with a different name.

Choosing appropriate layout

To apply a slide layout, proceed as follows:

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 1. On the home tab, in the slide ground, click layout icon.
2. Select a layout style from the displayed thumbnails as shown in the figure below.

Choosing a slide view

There are three main views of slides in a presentation

1. Normal view – is the main editing view and it has four working areas, outlines,
slide tab, slide pane and notes pane.

2. Slide sorter view

- Displays all the slides
- One is able to open any slide of his choice

-
3. Slide show
- A full screen view

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 Adding a new slide

To add a new slide proceeds as follows:

1. Select the slide immediate before where you want the new slide to be inserted.
2. Click new slide layout that fits the contents.
3. Add contents to the slide.

Formatting a presentation
For the presentation to appear to the audience do the following;

➢ Make text large enough

➢ Keep it simple
➢ Make use of pictures where possible
➢ Use good color background
➢ Use good background not distractive one.

Formatting drawing

To format a shape :

1. Select the shape.

2. Drawing tools tab appears.
3. Click on formatting tab to display the ribbon.

Format the selected shape as follows;

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 ➢ Fill shape with patterns click shape fill to change the fill color.
➢ Change shape outline, click shape outline to change the outline colour, width and
style.
➢ Shape effects, click shape effects to apply visual effects such shadow, Bevel and
3-D rotation
➢ Group objects, click on group button arrange group
➢ Align objects, click on align button in arrange group
➢ Rotate objects, click on rotate button in arrange group.

Setting up preparation for a presentation

To make the presentation happen do the following setup;

1. Rehearse and time the delivery of presentation before hand.

2. Be sure to test the slide show using the projector if one will be used during the
preparation.
3. Decide whether the presentation is to be set up to run continuously on a screen
so that passersby can stop and watch.
4. Decide handout can be given to the audience for them to make their own notes.
5. Ask whether you will use data projector or overhead projector.
6. Ask if the presentation software are available in the PCs to be used and burn the
presentation software onto a CD/DVD

Setting up the show

To setup the show type, proceed as follows:

1. Click the slide show tab.

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 2. On the slide show ribbon, click setup slide show. A dialog box is displayed as shown
below.
3. In the dialog box, do the following:
➢ Click presented by a speaker (full screen) to deliver the presentation before a live
audience.
➢ Click browse by a an individual (window) to enable your audience to view the
presentation on the CD or internet.
➢ Click show scrollbar check box to allow your audience to scroll through a self –
running presentation from unattended computer. Click browse to kiosk. A kiosk is
a terminal located in an area frequently visited by many people.
4. In the show options tab, specify how you want sound files narrations or animation
in your presentation E.g select loop continuously until ESC.
5. Use the options in the advance slides sections to specify how to move from one
slide to another e.g. click manually to advance to each slide manually during the
presentation.
6. Click OK to apply the settings and close the dialog box.

Printing a presentation

Check the four options below when printing a presentation:

➢ Slide – this option lets you prints one slide per page.
➢ Handout – this option allows for more slides (1,2,3,4,6, or 9) per page.
➢ Notes page – prints slides that includes the speaker notes.
➢ Outline view – used to print the outline of the presentation.

To setup the print options proceed as follow

1. Click the Ms Office Button.

2. Click print. A print dialog box is displayed.

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 3. In the print dialog box, click the arrow next to print what. Choose what you want
to print.
4. Click the preview button to see how the hardcopy will look like
5. Specify other print options and click OK.

Presenting
To start the slide show proceed as follows:

1. Simply press F5 or click the slide show tab

2. On the show ribbon, select any of the start show options.
3. If advancing to the next slide is not automatic, you may use the arrow keys to
move forward or use a mouse. Press Escape (ESC) key to end the slide show

References

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001). Malawi senior secondary teaching
syllabus for computer studies forms 1-2. MIE: Domasi.

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001). Malawi senior secondary teaching
syllabus for computer studies forms 3-4. MIE: Domasi.

Nasalangwa Andrew, (2014) Excel and succeed Junior secondary computer studies form
1, Nirobi, Kenya.

Langat, J Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2006). Foundation computer studies student’s book

for form 2. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Langat, J Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2006). Foundation computer studies student’s book

for form 3. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Mulli, D Ochieng’, D Ndegwa, J, Kioko, J (2010). Log on computer studies for senior
secondary volume 1. Nairobi: Kenyatta Literature Bureau.

Mulli, D. Ochieng’, D Ndegwa, J, Kioko, J (2010). Log on Computer studies for senior
secondary volume 2. Nairobi: Kenyatta Literature Bureau.

Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2005). Foundation computer studies student’s book for form 1.
Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2005). Foundation computer studies student’s book for form 4.
Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Stephen, M (2010). Get started computing windows 7 edition. London: Hodder Education.
Stephen, M (2010). Get started excel windows 7 edition. London: Hodder Education.

http://www.cs.bu.edu

www.google.com

https://www.www.tutorialspoint.com

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Wikipedia

Online Oxford dictionary

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

 Computer Studies
Form 2
Chapter 4
MANAGEMENT OF COMPUTERS

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Eliot Kalenga

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

CHAPTER 4: MANAGEMENT OF COMPUTERS

Introduction: computers are made up of separate parts which are assembled together
a working unit. So it is important for us to know how to assemble a computer, configure
its hardware and software and read system information.

Hardware Installation

Setting up computer is very important before carrying out any activity. The following
precautions should be observed;

➢ All devices should disconnect from power source before starting to work on them.
➢ You must be guided by your ICT trainer working on peripheral devices.
➢ Never work alone because you may need help in case of emergency.
➢ You must discharge any static electricity that might have built in the hands by
touching the earthed metallic object and then wearing an antistatic wrist member.
The human body can hold 200 volts of static charge that can damage sensitive
components on the mother bold.

Tools and other requirements when connecting computers hardwares

The tools required include:

➢ Screw drivers
➢ Antistatic wrist member
➢ Pliers
➢ Device manuals
➢ Device software ( drivers )

Mounting internal devices

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External devices are connected to the motherboard through ports and internal devices
are connected through SLOTS and SOCKETS . study the device manual carefully before
connecting the internal and external devices.

When connecting the internal components note the following;

➢ Power supply – it receives AC power from the wall socket and converts it to 12
volts DC power cables needed by computer components.
➢ Power cables – provide power to system unit components.
➢ Optical disk drive – used to read / write data from or to optical disk.
➢ Hard disk – used to store computer programs and data for a long time.
➢ Data cables – enable exchange of data between components.
➢ Motherboard – used to interconnect all devices, chips and components with
copper circuit drawn on it.
➢ Expansion lots – helps when adding new device to the computer such as TV
card, network card E.t.c
➢ Interface ports – enables connection of peripheral devices such as mouse,
keyboard e.t.c
➢ Memory slots – enables installation of RAM chips on the motherboard.
➢ Chips – have processing logic and firmware needed for correcting functioning of
the computer.

Mounting hard drives and optical drives

Special ribbon cables are used to correct computer components on the motherboard.
Hard disk and optical drive are connected on the motherboard through interface
connectors referred to as controllers.

Types of controllers

➢ Enhancement Integrated Drive Electronic (EIDE).

➢ Serial advanced Technology Attached (SATA).

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 ➢ Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

Hard drive

NB: SATA has replaced EIDE, ATA and PATA. SATA is more efficient and support hot-
swapping. Hot-swapping means that the drive can be removed or inserted while the
computer is still on. SATA and EIDE are the common controllers used in most computers.

Steps to be followed when mounting an EIDE or SATA Hard drive.

To mount and EIDE or SATA Hard drive proceeds as follows;

➢ Wear antistatic wrist member to discharge any static charge on the body
➢ Determine which drive will be master and use the drive information to determine
which jumper settings to use for a master or a slave
➢ Check that a free drive bay is available, slide a drive into the bay and screw it into
place.
➢ Ensure that there is a free power connector from the power supply unit and
connect it to the drive. Notice that it is designed to fit in its socket in only one
direction.
➢ Identify pin 1 as labeled on the drives socket and match it with the red or brown
continuous line of the ribbon cable. Most cables will only fit in one direction.
➢ Connect the interface cable to the drive, then into the controller slot on the
motherboard.

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 ➢ If installation is complete replace the casting cover.
➢ If installation is complete replace the casing cover.

Installation floppy drives

Floppy drives are installed the same way the EIDE drives but floppy drives have no master
or slave configuration. It is possible to attach two floppy drives on the ribbon cable and
one floppy drive will automatically be assigned by letter A and the other on the
motherboard will be assigned by letter B

Connecting external devices

You must check the port and interface cable of the device being connected to the
computer system. When connecting external device proceed as follows;

Gently and carefully connect the interface cable of each device to the correct port and to
the device if it is not already fixed permanently.

Connect the computer to the power source and switch it on.

Observe boot up information on the screen to see whether power On – Self Test (post)
display any error message.

A successful boot means that the computer was properly set up. Then it also means that
new programs must be installed in the hard disk drive.

Device Management
Hardware and software have to be configured for easy management using system
information.
System Information refers to Hardware and software configurations of a computer

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System information
System information is not limited to the following;

a. The hardware device present on the computer including used space and empty
space.
b. The type of processor on the computer and its speed.
c. The Random Access Memory (RAM) installed on the computer and its size.
d. The width of the system bus.
e. The size of the hard disk on the computer including used space and empty space.
f. The type of operating system installed

Checking system information

System information can be accessed through the control panel of the operating system (
for windows user) when the computer is on.

- It is possible to check all these when the computer has booted properly. In
windows,

Following the steps below;

➢ Click start then select control panel.

➢ In the control panel windows, click system.
➢ The system windows open as shown below.

Alternatively you can go to

- my computer in windows 7 environment then

- right click any where
- click on properties
- showing system information.

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 Showing system information.

CHECKING THE HARD DISK SIZE

To check hard disk sizes do the following;

➢ Double click my computer icon on the desktop

➢ In my computer window, right click the icon associated to your hard disk (s) and
then select properties. Check the details shown below;

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Importance of checking system properties

It is important to check system information before buying a computer or loading any

software in an existing one because the system information determines the cost,
performance and the software that can run in the computer.

The following properties are generally true:

➢ The larger the Random Access Memory (RAM), the better the performance of a
computer the and higher the cost .
➢ The larger the hard disk size of a computer, the larger the data the computer can
store and the larger the software that can be installed on the computer. Larger
hard disks also imply better performance and higher cost.
➢ The higher the cache memory of a computer, the faster the response time of the
computer. Cache memory also has implications on the cost of the computer with
higher cache implying higher cost.

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For good functioning of the computer all the system properties must be balanced

The table below summarises the effect of system information on the performance and
cost of a computer

System information Effect on performance Effect on cost

Large RAM size Fast High
Large Disk space Fast high
High processor speed Fast high
High cache memory Fast high
Fast high

References

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001). Malawi senior secondary teaching
syllabus for computer studies forms 1-2. MIE: Domasi.

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001). Malawi senior secondary teaching
syllabus for computer studies forms 3-4. MIE: Domasi.

Nasalangwa Andrew, (2014) Excel and succeed Junior secondary computer studies form
1, Nirobi, Kenya.

Langat, J Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2006). Foundation computer studies student’s book

for form 2. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Langat, J Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2006). Foundation computer studies student’s book

for form 3. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Mulli, D Ochieng’, D Ndegwa, J, Kioko, J (2010). Log on computer studies for senior
secondary volume 1. Nairobi: Kenyatta Literature Bureau.

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Mulli, D. Ochieng’, D Ndegwa, J, Kioko, J (2010). Log on Computer studies for senior
secondary volume 2. Nairobi: Kenyatta Literature Bureau.

Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2005). Foundation computer studies student’s book for form 1.
Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2005). Foundation computer studies student’s book for form 4.
Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Stephen, M (2010). Get started computing windows 7 edition. London: Hodder Education.
Stephen, M (2010). Get started excel windows 7 edition. London: Hodder Education.

http://www.cs.bu.edu

www.google.com

https://www.www.tutorialspoint.com

Wikipedia

Online Oxford dictionary

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

 Computer Studies
Form 2
Chapter 5
TROUBLESHOOTING
COMPUTERS

Website: www.learnmalawi.com

Email: info@learnmalawi.com

Compiled By: Eliot Kalenga

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

CHAPTER 5: TROUBLESHOOTING OF COMPUTERS
Introduction

There are number of problems associated with computers, someone would want to
diagnose and fix such problem.

Computer troubleshooting: is a process of diagnosing and fixing computer related

problems

Tracing Hardware Problem

Most hardware problems are caused by the following:

1. Loose cable connections or improper fitting in the motherboard slots.

2. Spoilt and damage hard ware device like disconnected circuits, cable breaks
or burned chip on the motherboard .
3. Lack of appropriate drivers or corrupted software drivers for a specific
hardware. Drivers are special firmware that enables hardware components to
function properly.
Problem 1 and 3 can be fixed easily by loose points and installing drivers
respectively but 2 my require replacement of component’s.

It is possible to find out which hardware devices are functioning properly and which are
not via device managers’ window and drivers indicated and those are not working
Properly or those have missing drivers have a ! or ?

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Possible solutions to hardware problems
1. If the device was bought separately form rest of the computer, them it came with
an installation disk except for plug and play devices that has the relevant drivers.
However, most devices nowadays have drivers somewhere on the internet which
are downloadable.
2. Allow windows to detect the device and search for a driver on the hard disk or
internet. This is usually one of the easiest ways of solving the problems.

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 If 1 and 2 does not then personnel for further advice,

Some hardware related problems and non diagnostic troubleshooting

Hardware related Suggested cause Suggested solution

problem
Number key pad Number lock key is active Press number lock key
does not work
Monitor is blank • Monitor not switched • Switch on the monitor
on • Connect cable
• Cable not connected • Swap monitor
• Bad/damaged monitor • Press power button of
• Computer on stand by computer
Computer cannot • Power supply damage • Replace power supply
switch on • Power surges due on • Disconnect all cables and
and off of electricity wait for 10 minutes then
• Bad power cable connect the cables and
damaged switch on
• Switch not working • Replace the power cable
• Call for a technician
Monitor showing no • Data cable not • Connect data cable
data connecting monitor properly
and mother board • Replace video card
• Bad/damaged video • Replace RAM
card
• Wrong /damage
memory module

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Computer beeping • Wrong/damaged • Install right memory
/cannot start memory • Install memory correctly
• Memory not installed • Replace hard drive
properly
• Hard drive damaged
Computer shows • Hard drive is full • Delete some files and
message • Attack by virus empty recycle bin
‘low disk space’ • Non compress video , • Run a fresh anti-virus
clips/files, films and • Compress or remove
audio music video and music files

References

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001). Malawi senior secondary teaching
syllabus for computer studies forms 1-2. MIE: Domasi.

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001). Malawi senior secondary teaching
syllabus for computer studies forms 3-4. MIE: Domasi.

Nasalangwa Andrew, (2014) Excel and succeed Junior secondary computer studies form
1, Nirobi, Kenya.

Langat, J Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2006). Foundation computer studies student’s book

for form 2. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Langat, J Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2006). Foundation computer studies student’s book

for form 3. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

Mulli, D Ochieng’, D Ndegwa, J, Kioko, J (2010). Log on computer studies for senior
secondary volume 1. Nairobi: Kenyatta Literature Bureau.

Mulli, D. Ochieng’, D Ndegwa, J, Kioko, J (2010). Log on Computer studies for senior
secondary volume 2. Nairobi: Kenyatta Literature Bureau.

Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2005). Foundation computer studies student’s book for form 1.
Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2005). Foundation computer studies student’s book for form 4.
Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Stephen, M (2010). Get started computing windows 7 edition. London: Hodder Education.
Stephen, M (2010). Get started excel windows 7 edition. London: Hodder Education.

http://www.cs.bu.edu

www.google.com

https://www.www.tutorialspoint.com

Wikipedia

Online Oxford dictionary

Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

CHAPTER 1: Using spreadsheet

Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

Contents
• Meaning of a spreadsheet
• List types of spreadsheets
• Exploring features of a spreadsheet
• Benefits of spreadsheets
• Differences between a workbook and a worksheet
• identifying cells, columns and rows
• Difference between labels and values
• Differences between relative cell references and absolute cell
references
• Launching a spreadsheet programme
• Creating a worksheet and a workbook
• Saving a workbook
• Closing a worksheet
• Opening a workbook
• Entering data in a worksheet
• Editing a worksheet and a workbook
• Formatting a worksheet and a workbook
• Protecting workbooks
• Using shortcuts and commands in a worksheet
• Using relative and absolute cell addressing in a worksheet
• Freezing panes
• Hiding and unhiding columns
• Using basic formulae
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 • Using basic built-in functions in a worksheet (eg SUM, AVERAGE, MIN,
MAX, COUNT, IF)

Introduction
People across the global work with numbers and manipulate them using
formulas. spreadsheets have become the one of best approaches for data
organization, manipulation and analyzing
Definition of spreadsheet
- This is a book which organizes data in roles and columns
Types of spreadsheet
- Spreadsheets are classified into two
a. Manual or traditional spreadsheets
b. Electronic spreadsheets
Manual spreadsheet
- This is made up of sheet of papers divided into rows and columns on
which numerical data is entered manually

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Electronic spreadsheet
This is application software consisting of rows and columns used to organize,
calculate and analyse numerical data electronically

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3
Examples of electronic spreadsheets
a. Lotus 1-2-3
b. Microsoft Excel
c. LibreOffice/OpenOffice/NeoOffice
d. Quattro pro
e. Lotus symphony spreadsheets
f. PlanMaker
g. Google Sheets - (online and free).

Uses of electronic spreadsheets

1. Storing data
- Data can be stored in orderly manner due to the arrangement of rows
and columns
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 2. Analyzing data
- Various analytical actions can be performed on data entered in
electronic spreadsheet
3. Data presentation
- Electronic spreadsheet provides many ways of presenting data
entered, including tables, graphs and charts
4. Future planning
- Due to visualization aspect, one is able to have an insight of present
and future trend of data hence ability to calculate the potential effects
of a mode;
5. Information modeling
- Able to include calculations that are automatically processed when
when the values in a cell are edited
6. Data manipulation
- Allow users to enter custom formulas with a range of common inbuilt
functions for data manipulation.
7. Decision making
- Ability to carry out performance measurement, e.g sales projections
analysis

Advantage of electronic spreadsheet over manual spreadsheet

1. Accuracy and speed

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- Complex calculations in electronic spreadsheets can be perfomed very
quickly and accurately than using manual spreadsheet
2. Professional- looking results
- Data in electronic spreadsheets look professional due to the ability to
quickly edit and format, perform calculations, create graphs and print
the spreadsheet
3. Ability to edit data
- Data entered in electronic spreadsheet can be edited and revised using
program commands
- Cell entries can be erased, moved or copied
4. Ability to format data
The appearance of data entered in electronic spreadsheets can be
enhanced in many ways
5. Auto recalculations
- Dada in a cell where formula has been used can change and updated
automatically if cell contents has been edited
6. Chart creation
- Ability to create chart for the data hence enhance data visualization
7. Easy to store and to retrieve data
- Ability to hold vast amount of data than traditional spreadsheets with
tools for easy retrieval and sorting of said data
8. Ability to use multiple worksheets and files

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 - Has ability to open and use multiple files and able to create multiple
worksheets
9. Forecasting
- Predictions can be made about what is likely to happen during next
time
10. Modeling scenarios
- Has ability to model different scenarios to find out what is likely to
happen when a variable is changed

Components of spreadsheet
- Any Spreadsheet has the following components
i. Worksheet
- Work area that has rows and columns where data is entered

ii. Database
- Collection of related data items organized for rapid search and retrieval
of data
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iii. Charts/graphs
- Visual representation of worksheet data
- Helps users to easily pick out pattern and trends of data

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%

Using spreadsheet ( MicroSoft Excel 2007)

This is one of package of Microsoft Office application software

Starting Excel
To start Microsoft excel window spreadsheet follow the following steps
1. Click the start button on the lower left corner of your computer
2. Click the All programs arrow at the bottom left of the start menu

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3. Click the Microsoft Office folder on the start menu. This will open
the list of Microsoft office application
4. Click the Microsoft Excel 2007 option

The above excel window is displayed

Features of Excel Spreadsheet
The following diagram illustrates various features of excel spreadsheet
window

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1. Rows
- This is horizontal arrangement of cells in a worksheet
- Rows are labeled using numbers 1,2,3, ….
2. Columns
- A column is vertical arrangement of cells in a worksheet
- Columns are labeled using letters A, B, C …. In a worksheet
3. Cell
- A cell is the intersection between a column and a row

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- A cell pointer indicates the current active cell and usually highlighted
with a bold outline
4. Worksheet
- This is working area made up of rows and columns where data is
entered
5. Cell address
- This is a name of cell
- Also called cell reference
- Cell address is formed by combining column position and row position ,
for example cell A1 is formed by intersecting column A and Row 1
6. Workbook
- This is excel file that contains one or more worksheets
- Excel will assign file name to the workbook such as Book1, Book2,
Book3 and so on, depending on how many workbooks are opened.
7. Worksheet tabs
- Worksheet tabs identify the various worksheets in a workbook and
allow you to move from one worksheet to another
- A workbook initially contains three worksheets which are saved in a
single file
8. Title bar
- This displays the name of the program as well as the name of the
current workbook if it has been saved

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- It the workbook has not been saved, it is identified by a number for
example Book1
9. Scroll bars
- There are vertical and horizontal scroll bars
- They are used to scroll the workbook window vertically or horizontally
through a worksheet
10. Status bar
- It displays helpful information as you use the program
- The ready indicator that appears lets you know that the program is
ready for data input
11. Name box
- This identifies an active cell by indicating its cell address
- An active cell is a cell with a black highlighted outline/boarder which is
ready for data entry
12. Formula bar
- This displays the contents of the active cell, if any
13. Quick access toolbar
- This is a customizable toolbar that contains a set of commands that
are independent of the tab that is currently displayed.
14. Ribbon
- Strip of buttons and icons located above the work area
- Above the ribbon are a number of tabs such as Home, Insert and page
layout

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Navigating through the excel worksheet
There are many ways of how one can navigate through excel worksheet
1. Using arrow keys of a keyboard
- Up and down arrows to move up or down of the active cell
- Left and right arrows to navigate into a cell to the left or right of an
active cell
2. Clicking a cell where you want to navigate into
3. Using tab key
- To navigate into cell to the right of an active cell

Entering data in a worksheet

There are four types of data that can be entered into an excel worksheet
1. Labels
- These are alphanumerical characters entered into a cell

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 - For example names of students in form three at Kings Foundation can
be entered as labels
- Sometimes numerical values can be formatted so that they are used as
labels
2. Values
- This is numerical data that can be manipulated mathematically in a
worksheet
- Examples of such values include currency, number (0-9) and date
3. Formula
- This is mathematical expression that can be used to manipulate data in
a worksheet
- For example formula =B1+B3 adds the contents of cells B1 and B3.
4. Function
- This is inbuilt formula that can be quickly used instead of having to
create a new formula each time.
- For example a function =SUM(B1:B7) adds up the contents of cells
B1 up to B7

Process of entering data in Excel

- To enter data in Excel, just select a cell and begin typing.
- You'll see the text appear both in the cell and in the formula bar.
- To tell Excel to accept the data you've typed, press enter.

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 - The information will be entered immediately, and the cursor will move
down one cell.

Editing a worksheet

This involves changing the appearance of the data being handled in an excel
worksheet

Inserting Data

For inserting data in MS Excel, just activate the cell type text or number
and press enter or Navigation keys.

Inserting Formula

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For inserting formula in MS Excel go to the formula bar, enter the formula
and then press enter or navigation key. See the screen-shot below to
understand it.

Modifying Cell Content

For modifying the cell content just activate the cell, enter a new value and
then press enter or navigation key to see the changes. See the screen-shot
below to understand it.

Select Data in a work sheet

There are three ways of doing this
i. Select with Mouse

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 - Drag the mouse over the data you want to select. It will select those
cells as shown below.
ii. Select with special
- If you want to select specific region, select any cell in that region.
Pressing F5 will show the below dialogue box
- Click on Special button to see the below dialogue box. Select
current region from the radio buttons. Click on ok to see the current
region selected.

Delete data in a worksheet

There are two ways
i. Delete with a mouse
- Select the data you want to delete.
- Right Click on the sheet. Select the delete option, to delete the
data.
ii. Delete with a delete key
- Select the data you want to delete. Press on the Delete Button from
the keyboard, it will delete the data.

iii. Selective delete for rows

- Select the rows, which you want to delete with Mouse click +
Control Key. Then right click to show the various options. Select the
Delete option to delete the selected rows.
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Move data in a worksheet
To move data in a worksheet follow the following steps.
Step 1 − Select the data you want to Move. Right Click and Select the cut
option.
Step 2 − Select the first cell where you want to move the data. Right
click on it and paste the data.

Copy and paste

- MS Excel provides copy paste option in different ways. As follows:
i. Using a shortcut
- To copy and paste, just select the cells you want to copy. Choose
copy option after right click or press Control + C.Select the cell
where you need to paste this copied content. Right click and select
paste option or press Control + V.

In this case, MS Excel will copy everything such as values, formulas,

Formats, Comments and validation. MS Excel will overwrite the content with
paste. If you want to undo this, press Control + Z from the keyboard.

ii. Using office Clipboard

- When you copy data in MS Excel, it puts the copied content in

Windows and Office Clipboard. You can view the clipboard content by
Home → Clipboard.

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 - View the clipboard content. Select the cell where you need to paste.
Click on paste, to paste the content.

iii. Copy and paste I a special way

- You may not want to copy everything in some cases. For example, you
want to copy only Values or you want to copy only the formatting of
cells. Select the paste special option as shown below.

Below are the various options available in paste special.

• All − Pastes the cell’s contents, formats, and data validation from the
Windows Clipboard.
• Formulas − Pastes formulas, but not formatting.
• Values − Pastes only values not the formulas.
• Formats − Pastes only the formatting of the source range.
• Comments − Pastes the comments with the respective cells.
• Validation − Pastes validation applied in the cells.
• All using source theme − Pastes formulas, and all formatting.
• All except borders − Pastes everything except borders that appear
in the source range.
• Column Width − Pastes formulas, and also duplicates the column
width of the copied cells.
• Formulas & Number Formats − Pastes formulas and number
formatting only.
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• Values & Number Formats − Pastes the results of formulas, plus
the number.
• Merge Conditional Formatting − This icon is displayed only when
the copied cells contain conditional formatting. When clicked, it merges
the copied conditional formatting with any conditional formatting in the
destination range.
• Transpose − Changes the orientation of the copied range. Rows
become columns, and columns become rows. Any formulas in the
copied range are adjusted so that they work properly when
transposed.

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Find and Replace

To access the Find & Replace, Choose Home → Find & Select → Find or
press Control + F Key. See the image below.

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You can replace the found text with the new text in the Replace tab.

Exploring Options

Now, let us see the various options available under the Find dialogue.

• Within − Specifying the search should be in Sheet or workbook.

• Search By − Specifying the internal search method by rows or by
columns.
• Look In − If you want to find text in formula as well, then select this
option.
• Match Case − If you want to match the case like lower case or upper
case of words, then check this option.
• Match Entire Cell Content − If you want the exact match of the
word with cell, then check this option.

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Spell Check

Let us see how to access the spell check.

• To access the spell checker, Choose Review ➪ Spelling or press F7.

• To check the spelling in just a particular range, select the range
before you activate the spell checker.
• If the spell checker finds any words it does not recognize as correct, it
displays the Spelling dialogue with suggested options.

The following are various options available in spell check dialogue.

• Ignore Once − Ignores the word and continues the spell check.

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• Ignore All − Ignores the word and all subsequent occurrences of it.
• Add to Dictionary − Adds the word to the dictionary.
• Change − Changes the word to the selected word in the Suggestions
list.
• Change All − Changes the word to the selected word in the
Suggestions list and changes all subsequent occurrences of it without
asking.
• AutoCorrect − Adds the misspelled word and its correct spelling
(which you select from the list) to the AutoCorrect list.

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Zooming in and Zooming Out

- By default, everything on screen is displayed at 100% in MS Excel.

- You can change the zoom percentage from 10% (tiny) to 400%
(huge).

- Zooming doesn’t change the font size, so it has no effect on the

printed output.

Zoom In

- You can zoom in the workbook by moving the zoom slider to the right.

- It will change the only view of the workbook. You can have maximum
of 400% zoom in

Zoom Out

- You can zoom out the workbook by moving the slider to the left.
- It will change the only view of the workbook.
- You can have maximum of 10% zoom in

Undo and Redo Changes

You can reverse almost every action in Excel by using the Undo command.
We can undo changes in following two ways.

• From the Quick access tool-bar » Click Undo.

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 • Press Control + Z

- You can reverse the effects of the past 100 actions that you performed
by executing Undo more than once.
- If you click the arrow on the right side of the Undo button, you see a
list of the actions that you can reverse. Redo Changes

You can again reverse back the action done with undo in Excel by using the
Redo command. We can redo changes in following two ways.

• From the Quick access tool-bar » Click Redo.

• Press Control + Y.

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Formatting Cell

- MS Excel Cell can hold different types of data like Numbers, Currency,
Dates, etc.
- You can set the cell type in various ways as shown below −

• Right Click on the cell » Format cells » Number.

• Click on the Ribbon from the ribbon.

Various Cell Formats

Below are the various cell formats.

• General − This is the default cell format of Cell.

• Number − This displays cell as number with separator.

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 • Currency − This displays cell as currency i.e. with currency sign.
• Accounting − Similar to Currency, used for accounting purpose.
• Date − Various date formats are available under this like 17-09-2013,
17th-Sep-2013, etc.
• Time − Various Time formats are available under this, like 1.30PM,
13.30, etc.
• Percentage − This displays cell as percentage with decimal places
like 50.00%.
• Fraction − This displays cell as fraction like 1/4, 1/2 etc.
• Scientific − This displays cell as exponential like 5.6E+01.
• Text − This displays cell as normal text.
• Special − Special formats of cell like Zip code, Phone Number.
• Custom − You can use custom format by using this.

Setting Font from Home

- You can set the font of the selected text from Home » Font group »
select the font.

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Setting Font From Format Cell Dialogue

• Right click on cell » Format cells » Font Tab

• Press Control + 1 or Shift + Control + F

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Text Decoration

Various options are available in Home tab of the ribbon as mentioned below.

• Bold − It makes the text in bold by choosing Home » Font Group »

Click B or Press Control + B.
• Italic − It makes the text italic by choosing Home » Font Group »
Click I or Press Control + I.
• Underline − It makes the text to be underlined by choosing Home »
Font Group » Click U or Press Control + U.

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 • Double Underline − It makes the text highlighted as double
underlined by choose Home » Font Group » Click arrow near U »
Select Double Underline.

- There are more options available for text decoration in Formatting cells
» Font Tab » Effects cells as mentioned below.

• Strike-through − It strikes the text in the center vertically.

• Super Script − It makes the content to appear as a super script.
• Sub Script − It makes content to appear as a sub script.

Rotate Cells
Rotate cells

There are several ways to do this

1. Click on the orientation in the Home tab. Choose options available

like Angle CounterClockwise, Angle Clockwise, etc.

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 2. Right Click on the cell. Choose Format cells » Alignment » Set the
degree for rotation.

Changing Background Color

- By default the background color of the cell is white in MS Excel.

- You can change it as per your need from Home tab » Font group »
Background color.

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Changing Foreground Color

- By default, the foreground or text color is black in MS Excel. You can

change it as per your need from Home tab » Font group »
Foreground color.

Also you can change the foreground color by selecting the cell Right click »
Format cells » Font Tab » Color.

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Change Alignment
This involves making changes on the orientation of data in a cell
Can be done in two ways
1. Using Home Tab

- You can change the Horizontal and vertical alignment of the cell.
- By default, Excel aligns numbers to the right and text to the left.
- Click on the available option in the Alignment group in Home tab to
change alignment.

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 2. Using Format Cells

- Right click on the cell and choose format cell. In format cells dialogue,
choose Alignment Tab. Select the available options from the Vertical
alignment and Horizontal alignment options.

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Exploring Alignment Options

1. Horizontal Alignment − You can set horizontal alignment to Left,

Centre, Right, etc.

• Left − Aligns the cell contents to the left side of the cell.
• Center − Centers the cell contents in the cell.
• Right − Aligns the cell contents to the right side of the cell.
• Fill − Repeats the contents of the cell until the cell’s width is filled.
• Justify − Justifies the text to the left and right of the cell. This option
is applicable only if the cell is formatted as wrapped text and uses
more than one line.

2. Vertical Alignment − You can set Vertical alignment to top, Middle,

bottom, etc.

• Top Aligns the cell contents to the top of the cell.

• Center Centers the cell contents vertically in the cell.
• Bottom Aligns the cell contents to the bottom of the cell.
• Justify Justifies the text vertically in the cell; this option is applicable
only if the cell is formatted as wrapped text and uses more than one
line.

Merge Cells

- MS Excel enables you to merge two or more cells.

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 - When you merge cells, you don’t combine the contents of the cells.
- Rather, you combine a group of cells into a single cell that occupies
the same space.

You can merge cells by various ways as mentioned below.

1. Choose Merge & Center control on the Ribbon, which is

simpler. To merge cells, select the cells that you want to merge
and then click the Merge & Center button.
2. Choose Alignment tab of the Format Cells dialogue box to
merge the cells.

Additional Options

The Home » Alignment group » Merge & Center control contains a

drop-down list with these additional options −

• Merge Across − When a multi-row range is selected, this command

creates multiple merged cells — one for each row.
• Merge Cells − Merges the selected cells without applying the Center
attribute.
• Unmerge Cells − Unmerges the selected cells.

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Wrap Text and Shrink to Fit

- If the text is too wide to fit the column width but don’t want that text
to spill over into adjacent cells, you can use either the Wrap Text
option or the Shrink to Fit option to accommodate that text.

Boarders and shades

Apply Borders

- MS Excel enables you to apply borders to the cells. For applying

border, select the range of cells Right Click » Format cells »
Border Tab » Select the Border Style.

- Then you can apply border by Home Tab » Font group » Apply
Borders.

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Apply Shading

- You can add shading to the cell from the Home tab » Font Group »
Select the Color.

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Printing a worksheet

- If you want to print a copy of a worksheet with no layout adjustment,

use the Quick Print option.
- There are two ways in which we can use this option.

1. Choose File » Print (which displays the Print pane), and then click the
Print button.
2. Press Ctrl+P and then click the Print button (or press Enter).

Adjusting Common Page Setup Settings

- You can adjust the print settings available in the Page setup dialogue
in different ways as discussed below.
- Page setup options include Page orientation, Page Size, Page Margins,
etc.

1. The Print screen in Backstage View, displayed when you choose File »
Print.
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 2. The Page Layout tab of the Ribbon.

Choosing Your Printer

- To switch to a different printer, choose File » Print and use the drop-
down control in the Printer section to select any other installed printer.

Specifying What You Want to Print

- Sometimes you may want to print only a part of the worksheet rather
than the entire active area. Choose File » Print and use the controls
in the Settings section to specify what to print.

• Active Sheets − Prints the active sheet or sheets that you selected.
• Entire Workbook − Prints the entire workbook, including chart
sheets.

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 • Selection − Prints only the range that you selected before choosing
File » Print.

Close, save and Open a Workbook

To close a workbook follow the following steps

Step 1 − Click the Close Button as shown below.

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You'll see a confirmation message to save the workbook.

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Step 2 − Press the Save Button to save the workbook

Opening a worksheet

The following are the steps for opening excel workbook

Step 1 − Click the File Menu as shown below. You can see the Open
option in File Menu.

- There are two more columns Recent workbooks and Recent places,
where you can see the recently opened workbooks and the recent
places from where workbooks are opened.

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Step 2 − Clicking the Open Option will open the browse dialog as shown
below. Browse the directory and find the file you need to open.

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Step 3 − Once you select the workbook your workbook will be opened as
below −

Cell referencing
- A cell reference refers to a cell or a range of cells on a worksheet
- Can be used in a formula so that Microsoft Office Excel can find the
values or data that you want that formula to calculate.
- In one or several formulas, you can use a cell reference to refer to:
... Data contained in different areas of a worksheet.
Types of cell reference
iv. There are three types of cell references

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 1. Relative cell references:
- It does not contain dollar signs in a row or column, e.g. A2.
- Relative cell references type in excel change when a formula is copied
or dragged to another cell.
- In Excel, cell referencing is relative by default, it is most commonly
used cell reference in the formula.

2. Absolute cell references

- Absolute Cell Reference in Excel contains dollar signs attached to each

letter or number in a reference, e.g. $B$4,
- Here if we mention a dollar sign before the column and row
identifiers, it makes absolute or locks both the column and the row i.e.
where Cell reference remains constant even if it copied or dragged to
another cell.

3. Mixed cell references in Excel:

- It contains dollar signs attached to either the letter or the number in a

reference. E.g. $B2 or B$4. It is a combination of relative and absolute
references (mixed reference type in excel)

Formulae and functions

Definitions

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A formula is mathematical expression which is used to perform calculation
and return a result in excel worksheet
A functions are predefined (inbuilt) formulas that perform certain types of
calculations automatically and return the result.
Entering Formulas
v. A formula in excel always begins with an equal sign (=) which
defines it as numerical entry
Formulas use the following arithmetic operators to specify the numerical
operation to perform

Operator Description examples Comment

+ Addition =B2+B3 Adds the contents of cells B2 and
=45+67 B3
Adds 45 and 67
vi. Subtraction =B2+B3 Subtract the contents of cells B2
=67 - 45 and B3
Subtract 45 from 67
* Multiplication =B2+B3 Multiply the contents of cells B2
=45+67 and B3
Multiply 45 and 67
/ Divison =B2/B3 Divides the contents of Cell B2 by
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 =45/67 the contents of cell B3
Divide 45 by 67
^ Exponentiation B2^2 Square the contents of cell B2
(raising to a 45^2 Square 45
power)

Order of Operations

If more than one operator is used in a formula, there is a specific order that
Excel will follow to perform these mathematical operations. This order of
operations can be changed by adding brackets to the equation. An easy way
to remember the order of operations is to use the acronym:

BEDMAS

The Order of Operations is:

Brackets
Exponents
Division
Multiplication
Addition
Subtraction

How the Order of Operations Works

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Any operation(s) contained in brackets will be carried out first followed by
any exponents.

After that, Excel considers division or multiplication operations to be of equal

importance, and carries out these operations in the order they occur left to
right in the equation.

The same goes for the next two operations – addition and subtraction. They
are considered equal in the order of operations. Which ever one appears first
in an equation, either addition or subtraction, is the operation carried out
first.

Therefore to enter a formulas in a cell follow the following steps

1. Type an equal sign
2. Click or type a cell location, if using constants type a number
3. Type a mathematical operator
4. Click or type the cell location
5. Use parenthesis where necessary to control the order of operations
6. Press the Enter

Using Excel Function

Excel functions must also start with an equal sign followed by function name
and arguments.

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The following is a general syntax for writing excel functions
=Function Name(Argument1, Argument2, …., Argument n)
Function Name – identifies the type of calculationto be performent
Argument – This is the data the function uses to perform the calculation
Arguments can either be numbers or names or range or cell references that
contains numbers. For example =SUM(B2,B3,B4) adds the contents of
cells B2, B3 and B4

Entering a function in a cell

There are two ways to get the function wizard.
i. If you look at the Standard Toolbar, the function wizard
icon looks like this:

ii. The other way to get to the function wizard is to go to the

Menu INSERT -- down to FUNCTION.

vii. Either way you get there, at this point

Excel will list all of the functions
available.
viii. Upon choosing the function, Excel will
prompt you for the information it needs to complete the function.
Mini descriptions are available for each of the cells.

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 ix. It is often necessary for you to understand the functions in
order to be able to figure out these descriptions. Once you’ve
learned the functions, though, it is faster to type the basic
function in from the keyboard as opposed to going through the
steps of this tool.

Some commonly used function

The following are some of commonly used function in excel spreadsheet
1. SUM
2. PRODUCT
3. MULTIPLY
4. DIVIDE
5. AVERAGE
6. MAX
7. MIN
8. COUNT
9. IF

SUM FUNCTION

- The Sum function takes all of the values in each

of the specified cells and totals their values.

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 - The syntax is: =SUM(first value, second value, etc)

• Blank cells will return a value of zero to be added to the total.

• Text cells can not be added to a number and will produce an error.

Let's use the table here for the discussion that A

follows: 1 25

2 50
We will look at several different specific examples
that show how the typical function can be used! 3 75

Notice that in A4 there is a TEXT entry. This has NO 4 Test

numeric value and can not be included in a total. 5

Example Cells to ADD Answer

=sum(A1:A3) A1, A2, A3 150

=sum(A1:A3,
A1, A2, A3 and 100 250
100)

=sum(A1+A4) A1, A4 #VALUE!

=sum(A1:A2,
A1, A2, A5 75
A5)

PRODUCT FUNCTION

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An example of multiplying two numbers, such as 235
and 546, using the PRODUCT function would be:

=PRODUCT( 235 , 546 )

The answer of 128,310 will appear in the cell where

you type the function.

While this approach to using the PRODUCT function works, it limits the
usefulness of the function. A better way of using the function is to type the
numbers you are multiplying into cells on the spreadsheet and then enter
those cell references (the address of the cells) into the function.

For example, if we enter the numbers 235 and 546 into cells C1 and C2, we
would write the function as:

=PRODUCT( C1:C2 )

The answer is still 128,310, but the advantage of this approach is that if the
numbers ever change, you only need to change the numbers in cells C1 or
C2 and the function automatically updates the answer.

For example, if you find that the number in C1 wasn't 235 but 230, simply
type 230 in cell C1 and the function updates the answer to 128,580.

This approach works well for instances where you have constantly changing
numbers – say on a monthly income statement where the income amounts
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get multiplied by set numbers to find deduction rates for taxes, pensions, or
medical benefits.

DIVISION

To divide two numbers in Excel you need to create a formula. Important

points to remember about Excel formulas:

• formulas in Excel always begin with the equal sign ( = )

• the equal sign always goes in the cell where you want the answer to
go
• the division symbol is the forward slash ( / )

Use Cell References in Formulas

Even though you can use numbers directly in your division formula, it is
much better to use the references or addresses of the cells containing your
data. If you use the cell references [A1, B1, F2] rather than the actual data,
later, if you need to change the data in either cell, the results of the formula
will update automatically without you having to rewrite the formula.

Setting Up the Division Formula

As an example, lets create a formula in cell E1 that will divide the contents
of cell C1 by cell D1.

Our formula:
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=C1 / D1

Our data:

• place the number 20 in cell C1

• place the number 10 in cell D1

Division Formula Steps

To divide 20 by 10 and have the answer appear in cell E1:

1. Type an equal sign in cell E1.

2. Click on cell C1 with the mouse pointer.
3. Type the division sign ( / ) in cell E1.
4. Click on cell D1 with the mouse pointer.
5. Press the ENTER key on the keyboard.
6. The answer 2 should be present in cell E1.
7. Even though you see the answer in cell E1, if you click on that cell you
will see our formula in the formula bar above the work area.

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To expand your formula to include additional operations - such as
subtraction or addition - just continue to add the correct mathematical
operator followed by the cell reference containing your data.

AVERAGE FUNCTION

- The average function finds the average of the specified data.

(Simplifies adding all of the indicated cells together and dividing by the
total number of cells.)
- The syntax is as follows.

=Average (first value, second value, etc.)

- Text fields and blank entries are not included in the calculations of the
Average Function.

1 25
Let's use the table here for the discussion that follows:
2 50
We will look at several different specific examples that show
3 75
how the average function can be used!
4 100

Example Cells to average Answer

=average (A1:A4) A1, A2, A3, A4 62.5

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=average (A1:A4,
A1, A2, A3, A4 and 300 110
300)

=average (A1:A5) A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 62.5

=average (A1:A2,
A1, A2, A4 58.33
A4)

MAX FUNCTION

This will return the largest (max) value in the selected range of cells.

• Blank entries are not included in the calculations of the Max Function.

A
x. Text entries are not included in the calculations 1 10
of the Max Function.
2 20
- Let's use the table here for the discussion that follows.
3 30
We will look at several different specific examples that show
how the Max functions can be used! 4 Test

Example of Max Cells to look at Ans. Max

=max (A1:A4) A1, A2, A3, A4 30

=max (A1:A4, A1, A2, A3, A4 and 100 100

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100)

=max (A1, A3) A1, A3 30

=max (A1, A5) A1, A5 10

MIN FUNCTION

This will return the smallest (Min) value in the selected range of cells.

• Blank entries are not included in the calculations of the Min Function.

A
Text entries are not included in the calculations of the Min 1 10
Function. Let's use the table here for the discussion that
2 20
follows.
3 30
We will look at several different specific examples that show
how the min functions can be used! 4 Test

Example of min Cells to look at Ans. min

=min (A1:A4) A1, A2, A3, A4 10

=min (A2:A3, 100) A2, A3 and 100 20

=min (A1, A3) A1, A3 10

=min (A1, A5) A1, A5 (displays the smallest 10

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 number)

COUNT FUNCTION

- This will return the number of entries (actually counts each cell that
contains number data) in the selected range of cells.

• Blank entries are not counted.

• Text entries are NOT counted.

1 10
Let's use the table here for the discussion that follows.
2 20
We will look at several different specific examples that show
3 30
how the Count functions can be used!
4 Test

Example of
Cells to look at Answer
Count

=Count (A1:A3) A1, A2, A3 3

=Count (A1:A3, A1, A2, A3 and 100 4

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100)

=Count (A1, A3) A1, A3 2

=Count (A1, A4) A1, A4 1

=Count (A1, A5) A1, A5 1

COUNTA FUNCTION

xi. This will return the number of entries (actually counts each cell
that contains number data OR text data) in the selected range of
cells.

• Blank entries are not Counted.

• Text entries ARE Counted.

1 10
Let's use the table here for the discussion that follows.
2 20
We will look at several different specific examples that show
3 30
how the CountA functions can be used!
4 Test

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Example of
Cells to look at Answer
CountA

=CountA (A1:A3) A1, A2, A3 3

=CountA (A1:A3,
A1, A2, A3 and 100 4
100)

=CountA (A1, A3) A1, A3 2

=CountA (A1, A4) A1, A4 2

=CountA (A1, A5) A1, A5 1

IF FUNCTION

The IF function will check the logical condition of a statement and return
one value if true and a different value if false. The syntax is

• =IF (condition, value-if-true, value-if-false)

• value returned may be either a number or text
• if value returned is text, it must be in quotes

Let's use the table here A B

for the discussion that
1 Price Over a dollar?
follows. We will look at
2 $.95 No
several different
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 specific examples that 3 $1.37 Yes
show how the IF
comparing
functions can be used! 4 returning #
#

5 14000 0.08

6 8453 0.05

Example of IF
Compares Answer
typed into column B

=IF
is ( .95 > 1) No
(A2>1,"Yes","No")

=IF (A3>1, "Yes",

is (1.37 > 1) Yes
"No")

=IF (A5>10000, is (14000 >

.08
.08, .05) 10000)

=IF (A6>10000, is (8453 >

.05
.08, .05) 10000)

PMT FUNCTION

The PMT function returns the periodic (in this case monthly) payment for an
annuity (in this case a loan). This is the PMT function that was used for the
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car purchase in the first example. There are a few things that we must know
in order for this function to work. To calculate the loan we must know a
combination of the following

• (rate) interest rate per period

• (NPER) number of payments until repaid
• (PV) present value of the loan (amount we are borrowing)
• (FV) future value of the money (for saving or investing)
• (type) enter 0 or 1 to indicate when payments are due.

=PMT(rate, NPER, PV, FV, type)

equation goes into c7 =PMT(C4/12,C5,-C3)

C4 is the yearly interest and since it's

compounded monthly we divide by 12

C5 is the number of months (# of payments)

-C3 is the amount of money we have (borrow -

negative)

Note that the rate is per period. If we have an annual interest rate of 9.6%
and we are calculating monthly payments, we must divide the annual
interest rate by 12 to calculate the monthly interest rate.

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 SIN, COS. TAN FUNCTIONS

Excel has most of the math and trig functions built into it. If you need to use
the SIN, COS, TAN functions, they can be typed into any cell. If you
wanted to find:

angle Sin cos Tan

REF =sin(REF) =cos(REF) =tan(REF)

0 0.00 1.00 0.00

30 0.50 0.87 0.58

45 0.71 0.71 1.00

90 1.00 0.00

180 0.00 -1.00 0.00

format for degrees formula = sin (angle * pi()/180) the argument angle is
in degrees
format for radians formula = sin (angle) the argument angle is in radians

To calculate trig functions in degrees you must convert them - otherwise

excel will calculate them in radians.

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You can type in either an actual number for the REF or you can also type in
a reference from the excel spreadsheet (like A2).

COPYING A FUNCTION OR A FORMULA

Sometimes when we enter a formula, we need to repeat the same formula

for many different cells. In the spreadsheet we can use the copy and paste
command. The cell locations in the formula are pasted relative to the
position we Copy them from.

A B C Cells information is copied from its relative position. In

other words in the original cell (C1) the equation was
1 5 3 =A1+B1
(A1+B1). When we paste the function it will look to the
2 8 2 =A2+B2
two cells to the left. So the equation pasted into (C2)
3 4 6 =A3+B3
would be (A2+B2). And the equation pasted into (C3)
4 3 8 =? + ? would be (A3+B3).

FILL DOWN THE FORMULA OR A FUNCTION

If you have a lot of duplicate formulas you can also perform what is referred
to as a FILL DOWN.

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Often we have several cells that need the same formula (in relationship) to
the location it is to be typed into. There is a short cut that is called Fill
Down. There are a number of ways to perform this operation. One of the
ways is to

1. select the cell that has the original formula

2. hold the shift key down and click on the last cell (in the series that
needs the formula)
3. under the edit menu go down to fill and over to down

Cells information is copied from its relative position. In

A B C
other words in the original cell (C1) the equation was
1 5 3 =A1+B1 (A1+B1). When we paste the function it will look to the
2 8 2 fill down two cells to the left. So the equation pasted into (C2)

3 4 6 fill down would be (A2+B2). And the equation pasted into (C3)
would be (A3+B3). And the equation pasted into (C4)
4 3 8 fill down
would be(A4+B4).

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Chapter 2: Introduction to Desktop publishing

Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

Contents

• Definition
• Benefits of desktop Publishing
• Examples of desktop publishing software
o corel draw
o photoshop
o publisher
o page maker
• Types of Desktop Publishing Software
o graphical based
o layout based
• Features of Desktop Publishing Software
• Working with desktop publishing software
o creating, formatting, editing, saving, printing, opening, closing,
graphics, inserting objects, exiting
• Designing publications
o Types, orientation, layout, margins, text boxes, page size,
manipulating graphics, moving, resizing, reshaping, flipping and
rotating, cropping, exporting and printing publications

Definition of desktop publishing

- Desktop publishing (DTP) refers to the process of designing

publications of professional quality
- Examples of publicatipns include
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 i. Newspapers
ii. Invitational cards
iii. Posters,
iv. Fliers
v. Journals
vi. Books

Desktop publishing software

- This is special purpose software which is used to create publications
of professional quality.
Examples of publishing software
i. Adobe pageMaker
ii. Microsoft publisher
iii. quarkXpress
iv. Adobe InDesign
v. Adobe Illustrator
vi. CorelDraw
vii. SerisPageplus
viii. Apple page
Benefits of desktop publishing
i. Every item on a page is contained in a frame hence can
be edited and formatted independently
ii. DTPs provide mote control on how text and graphics can
be arranged and formatted
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 iii. Frames containing text or graphics need not flow in logic
sequence, For example, a story on page 1 may be
continued on page 8
iv. In DTPs, provide master used to set a common layout
which may be repeated on several pages.
v. In DTPs, publications can be printed in a form suitable for
commercial, digital or offset printing using color
separations.
vi. Most DTPs have predefined templates such as brochures,
booklets, posters and business cards
vii. Multiple stories from different authors can be handled
with ease
viii. DTPs ensures files print properly in their true colour, fonts
and measurements

Types of DTP software

- DTP software can be classied into two broad categories namely
i. Graphic-based DTPs
ii. Layout-based DTPs

Graphic-based DTPs
- These DTPs are specifically used to edit and format graphics objects
such as pictures and vector drawings

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 - Vector drawings are freehand drawings such as those drawn by fine
arts
Examples of Graphic-based DTPs are
i. Adobe photoshop
ii. Adobe illustrator

Layout-based DTPs
- These types are specifically used to design page layout for text and
graphic
- Examples of layout-based DTPs includes
i. Adobe page maker
ii. Microsoft publisher
iii. Adobe InDesign

Purpose of Desktop Publishing software

- The following are the purpose of DTPs

i. Graphics Design
- DTPs lets the user to manipulate graphics such as pictures
ii. Page layout design
- DTPs are used to design a page layout by setting consistent picture
and object locations, diving a page in a number of newspaper
columns and adding layers.
- A layer can be viewed as the arrangement of objects on top of each
other with each object being on its layer.
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 iii. Printing
- DTPs offer more flexibility in printing, like in image color separation.

Features of DTP software

- The following are the common tools of in most DTP software

i) Select Tool
- Used to select, move and resize images and text
ii) Text tool
- Used to draw text frames, insert and manipulate text
iii) Shapes tool
- For drawing basic shapes like rectangles and for importing objects
iv) Zoom tool
- For magnifying publications view
v) Rotate tool
- For rotating text or graphics

Getting started with Microsoft publisher

To launch Microsoft publisher 2010, follow the following steps
1. On start menu click Microsoft office
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 2. Click on Publisher 2010
3. Choose whether to to use blank design or template.

Creating a new publication

- Publisher offers dozens of templates for almost any type of

publication you would want to create, including
i) brochures,
ii) newsletters, and
iii) greeting cards.
- Of course, if you can't find a template you like you can always
modify one to suit your needs or even create a publication from a
blank page.
- Understanding Publisher's templates and layout tools will help you
create publications that look the way you want.

To create a new publication from a template:

1. Click the File tab to go to Backstage view, then select New. The
Available Templates pane will appear.
2. Select the type of publication you wish to create.

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3. A selection of templates will appear in the Available Templates pane.
Choose from one of two categories:
o Office.com templates, which include templates created by
other users. User-created templates are indicated with a User
icon .
o .

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 o Installed templates created by Microsoft.

4. A preview of the selected template will appear in the Preview pane

on the right. Review the template, and modify template options as
desired.

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5. When you are satisfied with the template, click Create.

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6. The new publication will be created.

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- Depending on the type of publication you create, your template may
offer more customization options than shown in the example
above.

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Creating blank publications

- If you don't want to use a template or can't find a template that suits
your needs, you can create a blank publication.
- Remember, when you create a blank publication you will have to set
up page margins, add guides, and make all layout and design
decisions on your own.

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 • To create a blank publication, click the New tab in Backstage view,
then select a blank page size in the Available Templates pane.

Customizing your publication layout

- Whether you chose to create a publication from a template or from a

blank page, you may decide to change the publication layout.
- Three components you can change are
i) margins,
ii) size, and
iii) orientation.

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 - Although you can modify these settings at any time, you should be
careful if your publication already contains objects like text, images,
and shapes, as you'll have to adjust them to fit the new layout.

To modify page margins:

1. On the Ribbon, select the Page Design tab, then locate the Page
Setup group.
2. Click the Margins drop-down command.

3. A drop-down list will appear. Select the desired margins.

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4. The new margins will be applied.

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- If you are not satisfied with any of the margin options, select
Custom margins... to open the Layout Guides dialog box. There,
you can specify margin widths.

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To change page size:

1. On the Ribbon, select the Page Design tab, then locate the Page
Setup group.
2. Click the Size drop-down command.

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3. Select the desired page size from the drop-down list that appears.
Remember, you should make sure your printer is capable of handling
paper that size.

4. Your publication's page size will be changed.

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 - If the desired page size isn't included in the drop-down list, select
More Preset Page Sizes... to view a larger list of page sizes.

To change page orientation:

1. On the Ribbon, select the Page Design tab, locate the Page Setup
group, then click the Orientation drop-down command.
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2. Select Portrait orientation to make your publication taller than wide
or Landscape to make it wider than tall.

3. Your publication's page orientation will be changed.

- Depending on the template you chose, changing the page orientation

may have a negative effect on your presentation.
- While some templates work equally well in both orientations, others
do not.

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Changing or adding a template

- If you create a publication from a template and later decide the

chosen template doesn't quite suit your needs, you can always
change it.
- You can also apply templates to publications that were originally
created from blank pages.

To apply a new template to an existing publication:

1. On the Ribbon, select the Page Design tab, then locate the
Template group.
2. Click the Change Template command.
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3. The Change Template dialog box will appear. Select a template to
preview it in the Preview pane.
4. Modify template options as desired.
5. When you are satisfied with the new template, click OK.

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6. A dialog box will appear asking you how you wish to use the
template. You can either:
o Apply the template to the current publication
o Create a new publication that includes the text and images you
have added
7. Click OK.

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 8. The new template will be applied to your publication.

Adding, rearranging, and deleting pages

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 - If you're creating a newsletter or another type of publication with
multiple pages, you might find the Page Navigation pane useful.
- The Page Navigation pane gives you a way to view and scroll through
the pages in your publication. It also includes features that let you
add, move, and delete pages.

• To open the Page Navigation pane, click the View tab on the
Ribbon, then locate the Show group. Select the Page Navigation
check box.

To add a new page:

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1. In the Page Navigation pane, right-click any page, then select Insert
Page.

2. The Insert Page dialog box will appear. Specify the number of
pages to insert and the location where you wish to insert them.
3. Choose what will appear on the new pages. By default, the pages will
be blank, but you can also choose to create pages that include one
text box or pages that are duplicates of an existing page.
4. Click OK.

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 5. The new page or pages will be inserted.

Depending on the template you're using, when you add a new page you
may see a dialog box with page layout options.

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To move a page:

1. In the Page Navigation pane, locate the page you wish to move.

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2. Click and drag the page to its new location, then release the
mouse.

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 3. The new page order will be applied.

To delete a page

1. In the Page Navigation pane, right-click the page you wish to delete,
then select Delete in the list that appears.

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 2. If the page is part of a two-page spread, Publisher will ask if you
wish to delete one or both pages. Make your selection, then click OK.

3. The page will be deleted.

Challenge!

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 1. Open Publisher and create a new publication from a template. Be
sure to review the template options.
2. Modify the page margins to make them wider.
3. Change the page orientation to see how it affects the layout of
your publication.
4. Add a new page to your publication.
5. Move the page you just added so it is the first page in your
publication.
6. Close the publication without saving it.

Formatting publication

Using text in Publisher

- As you enter text in Publisher, you'll need to adjust it to make it fit

your publication. While most of Publisher's text tools are the same as
those in other Office programs, a few are specifically designed to
handle Publisher's unique publication tasks.

Text basics

- In order to use Publisher 2010 you should already feel comfortable

using Microsoft Word to insert and edit text.

Working with text boxes

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 - In Publisher, text is contained in text boxes, which are blocks of
text that you can place on the page.
- When you create or select a text box, the Text Box Tools tab will
appear on the Ribbon. On this tab are commands that let you adjust
and format your text box and the text it contains.

To insert a text box:

1. On the Ribbon, select the Insert tab, then locate the Text group.
2. Click the Draw Text Box command.

3. The cursor will turn into crosshairs . Click anywhere onyour

publication and drag your mouse to create the text box.

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 4. You can now start typing inside the text box.

Wrapping text

- If you place a text box near an image or another object, you may
notice that the text is overlapping with the object or doesn't appear
exactly where you want.
- To fix this problem, you'll need to change the object's text
wrapping settings.

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To wrap text around an object:

1. Select the object, then click the Format tab that appears on the
Ribbon.
2. Locate the Arrange group, then click the Wrap Text drop-down
command.

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3. Select the desired wrap option. The text will adjust based on the
option you have selected.

4. If necessary, reposition the object until the text wraps correctly.

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- If you can’t get your text to wrap the way you wish, click the Wrap
Text command and select More Layout Options from the menu.
- You can make more precise changes in the Advanced Layout dialog
box that appears.

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Connecting text boxes

- As you work with text boxes, you might find that a text box isn't
large enough to contain all of the text you want to include.
- When you run out of room for text, you can use the Link command
to connect text boxes.
- Once two or more text boxes are connected, text will overflow or
continue from one text box to the next.

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To connect to a new text box:

1. Select your text box.

2. Click the Text Box Tools Format tab, then locate the Linking
group.
3. Click the Create Link command.

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4. The Link icon will appear in place of your cursor. Click the spot on
your publication where you would like to add the linked text box.

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5. The text box will be added. Resize it as necessary.

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6. Continue typing your text. Any text that overflows from the original
text box will now appear in the connected box.

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Modifying text boxes

Text Fit

- The Text Fit options allow you to format text boxes that
automatically adjust font or text box size to get a good fit.
- There are four text fit options you can apply to any text box:
i. Best Fit,
- which makes the text larger or smaller to fit the text box

ii. Shrink Text on Overflow,

- which automatically shrinks the font size when the text box has no
room for additional text

iii. Grow Text Box to Fit,

- which automatically enlarges the text box based on text size and
length

iv. Do not Autofit,

- which makes no automatic changes to the text or text box size; this
is the default option

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For instance, if your text box was too small for your text you might apply
Shrink Text on Overflow or Grow Text Box to Fit.

- On the other hand, if you have a certain amount of space for your
text box and want your text to fill the entire area, you might select
Best Fit.

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 • To modify text fit, select the text box, then click the Text Fit drop-
down command in the Text group of the Text Box Tools tab. Select
the desired option.

Hyphenation

Publisher automatically hyphenates words at the ends of lines in order to

improve text fit. You can control if and how your words are hyphenated by
modifying your hyphenation settings.

To modify hyphenation settings:

1. Select a text box, then click the Text Box Tools Format tab on the
Ribbon and locate the Text group.
2. Click the Hyphenation command.

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3. The Hyphenation dialog box will appear. Modify your hyphenation
settings as desired.
o To remove all hyphenation, uncheck the Automatically
hyphenate this story box.

o To change how frequently Publisher hyphenates words, use the

up and down arrows to adjust the size of the hyphenation
zone.
o If you increase the size of the hyphenation zone, your
publication will have fewer hyphens. If you decrease it, the

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 right edge of the text will appear more even, but your text will
contain more hyphens.

o To specify exactly where each word should be hyphenated,

click Manual... The Hyphenate dialog box will appear,
containing one hyphenated word from your text box. To change
where the hyphen appears in that word, simply click the place
where you want the hyphen to appear, then click Yes.

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 4. Click OK. The hyphenation will be adjusted.

Formatting text

- Publisher 2010 includes various typography commands that are

designed to help you embellish your text.
- Although Publisher's developers have touted this as a significant
feature, it's important to note that many of these effects only
work with a small number of fonts, such as Calibri, Cambria,
and Gabriola.

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 - Still, if you're using these fonts the typography commands can
enhance the appearance of your text.
- Typography commands can be found in the Text Box Tools tab.
- To apply any command, simply select your text, then click the
desired command. Certain commands, like Stylistic Sets, will
include a drop-down list of choices.

There are six Publisher typography commands:

i. Drop Cap,
- which enlarges the first letter of the selected text

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 ii. Number Style,
- which lets you choose between four different styles for number
spacing and alignment

iii. Ligatures,

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- which connect certain combinations of letters to make them easier to
read

iv. Sets,
- which let you choose between various embellishments for your
fonts, usually in the form of exaggerated serifs or flourishes

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 v. Swash,
- which embellishes capital letters

vii. Stylistic Alternates,

- which offer alternate versions of specific letters such as g

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Working with shapes

- Using shapes and objects is an easy way add graphic design

elements to your publication. While you may not need shapes in
every publication you create, they can add visual appeal.

To insert a shape:

1. Select the Insert tab, then locate the Illustrations group.

2. Click the Shapes drop-down command.

3. Select a shape from the drop-down menu.

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4. Click and drag the mouse until the shape is the desired size.

5. Release the mouse button. The shape will be added to your

publication.

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To resize a shape:

1. Select the shape.

2. Click and drag one of the sizing handles on the corners and sides
of the text box until it is the desired size. You can:
o Drag the top or bottom sizing handles to modify shape height
o Drag the side handles to modify shape width
o Drag the corner handles to modify height and width at the
same time

3. To rotate the shape, click and drag the green handle.

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4. Some shapes also have one or more yellow handles that can be
used to modify the shape. For example, with this sun shape you can
adjust the diameter of the center circle and the length of the points.

- If you hold down the shift key while resizing a shape, the shape will
keep its proportions instead of getting stretched out.

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 - For instance, if you hold down the shift key while you resize a
square, the final shape will remain a perfect square with four equal
sides.

Modifying shapes

To change to a different shape:

1. Select the shape, then click the Format tab and locate the Shape
Styles group.
2. Click the Change Shape drop-down command.
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3. A drop-down list will appear. Select the desired shape.

4. The shape will be changed.

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To change shape style:

1. Select the shape, then click the Format tab and locate the Shape
Styles group.
2. Click the More Shape Styles drop-down arrow.

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3. A drop-down list of styles will appear. Move your cursor over the
styles to see a live preview of the style in your publication, then
select the desired style.

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4. The style will be applied to the shape.

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To change the shape fill color:

1. Select the shape, then click the Format tab and locate the Shape
Styles group.
2. Click the Shape Fill drop-down command.

3. A drop-down list of colors will appear. Select the desired fill color
from the list. You can also choose No Fill to remove the fill from
your shape or More Fill Colors to select a custom color.

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 4. The new fill color will be applied.

To change the shape outline:

1. Select the shape, then click the Format tab and locate the Shape
Styles group.
2. Click the Shape Outline drop-down command.

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3. A drop-down list of options will appear. Select the desired outline
color from the list. You can also choose No Outline to remove the
outline from your shape or More Outline Colors to select a custom
color.

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4. If desired, further modify your shape outline by changing the
outline's weight (thickness) and whether or not it is a dashed line.

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 5. The shape outline will be modified.

To add a shadow:

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1. Select the shape, then click the Format tab and locate the Shadow
Effects group.
2. Click the Shadow Effects drop-down command.

3. A drop-down menu with a list of shadow choices will appear. Move

your mouse over a shadow effect to see a live preview of it in your
publication.

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4. Click the desired shadow effect to apply it to your shape.

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 - You can select Shadow Options from the drop-down menu and
click the Color button to select a different shadow color for your
shape.

Working with Building Blocks

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 - Building Blocks are another type of object in Publisher.
- They usually contain some combination of text, shapes, and
images, and they're meant to enhance the appearance of your
publication.
- Once you insert a Building Block, you can modify it to suit your
needs.

Types of Building Blocks:

There are four types of Building Blocks:

i. Page parts,
- which are stylized placeholders for your images and text

ii. Calendars

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iii. Borders & Accents

iv. Advertisements

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To insert a Building Block:

1. Select the Insert tab, then locate the Building Blocks group.
2. Click one of the four Building Block drop-down commands.

3. A drop-down menu will appear with Building Block styles and options.
Select the desired Building Block.
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4. The Building Block will be inserted.

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5. If desired, modify the Building Block's text and formatting until you
are satisfied with its appearance.

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Arranging objects

- Publisher offers a number of tools to help you arrange and order

your objects.
- These tools work for any object, and they can help you lay out your
pages quickly and precisely.

Aligning

- You can click and drag objects to align them manually, but this can
be difficult and time consuming.
- Publisher includes several commands that allow you to align your
objects quickly and precisely. Objects can be aligned to each other
or to the page.

To align two or more objects:

1. Click and drag your mouse to form a selection box around the
objects you want to align. All of the objects will now have sizing
handles to show that they are selected.

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2. Click the Format tab, then locate the Arrange group.
3. Click the Align drop-down command.

4. Select one of the six alignment options.

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5. The objects will align to each other based on the option you have
selected.

- Another way to select multiple objects at once is to simply hold down

the shift key and click each object you wish to select.

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To align objects to the page:

1. Select the object or objects you want to align.

2. Click the Format tab, then locate the Arrange group.
3. Click the Align drop-down command.

4. From the drop-down list that appears, select Relative to Margin

Guides.
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5. Select one of the six alignment options.

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 6. The objects will align to the page based on the option you have
selected.

Distributing objects evenly

- If you have arranged objects in a row or column, you may want them
to be an equal distance from one another for a neater appearance.
- You can do this by distributing the objects horizontally or
vertically.

To distribute objects:

1. Select the objects you want to align.

2. Click the Format tab, then locate the Arrange group.
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3. Click the Align drop-down command.

4. From the drop-down menu that appears, select Distribute

Horizontally or Distribute Vertically.

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 5. The objects will be distributed evenly.

Grouping

- At times, you may want to group multiple objects into one object
so they will stay together if they're moved.
- This can be easier than selecting all of the objects each time you
want to move them.

To group objects:

1. Select the objects you wish to group.

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2. Click the Format tab, then locate the Arrange group.
3. Click the Group command.

4. The selected objects will now be grouped. There will be a single

box with sizing handles around the entire group to show that
they're one object.

- You can ungroup grouped objects at any time. Simply select the
group, then click the Ungroup command.

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Moving objects backward and forward

- In addition to aligning and grouping objects, Publisher gives you the

ability to arrange objects in a specific order.
- Ordering is important when two or more objects overlap, as it will
determine which objects are in the front or the back.

To change the ordering by one level:

1. Select the object you wish to move.

2. Click the Format tab, then locate the Arrange group.
3. Click the Bring Forward or Send Backward command to change
the object's ordering by one level. If the object overlaps with more
than one other object, you may need to click the command several
times to achieve the desired ordering.

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4. The objects will reorder themselves.

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To bring an object to the front or back:

If you want to move an object behind or in front of several objects, it's

usually faster to bring it to front or send it to back rather than clicking
the ordering commands multiple times.

1. Select the object you wish to move.

2. Click the Format tab, then locate the Arrange group.
3. Click the Bring Forward or Send Backward drop-down command

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4. From the drop-down menu, select Bring to Front or Send to Back.

5. The objects will reorder themselves.

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Adding pictures

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 - To add a picture to your publication, you can either insert an image
you have saved on your computer or choose one from Publisher's
large selection of Clip Art.
- Once you've added images, you can then edit them as you wish.

To insert a picture from a file:

1. Select the Insert tab, then locate the Illustrations group.

2. Click the Picture command.

3. The Insert Picture dialog box will appear. Locate and select the
picture you would like to insert, then click Insert.

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 4. The picture will be added to your publication.

To Insert Clip Art:

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1. Select the Insert tab, then locate the Illustrations group.
2. Click the Clip Art command.

3. The Clip Art pane will appear on the right. Use the search tools to
search for a suitable image.
o Enter keywords in the Search for: field that are related to the
image you wish to find.
o Click the drop-down arrow in the Results should be: field,
then deselect any types of media you do not wish to see.
o If you would like to also search for Clip Art on Office.com, place
a check mark next to Include Office.com content.
Otherwise, it will just search for Clip Art on your computer.

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4. Click Go to begin your search.
5. Publisher will display pictures that meet your search terms. When
you've found a picture you wish to use, click it.

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6. The Clip Art will be added to your publication.

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If you can't find Clip Art that suits your needs, you can also search on the
Microsoft Office website by clicking the Find more at Office.com link at
the bottom of the Clip Art pane.

Replacing existing pictures

- If you started your publication from a template, you're likely to

want to replace some of the template's pictures with your own.
- The Change Picture command lets you insert new pictures in place
of existing ones. When you use this command, the new picture will
appear in the location of the original one, with the original picture's
formatting applied.

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Fitting pictures in your publication

To get your picture to fit well on the page, you may have to adjust it by
resizing, cropping, and rearranging it.

To resize a picture:

1. Select the picture.

2. Click one of the corner sizing handles and drag your mouse until the
picture is the desired size.

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3. Release your mouse. The picture will be resized.

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- If you know exactly how many inches tall and wide you want your
picture to be, you can resize it to those specifications.
- Click the Picture Tools Format tab, then locate the Size group.
Enter the desired height of your picture in the top box and the
desired width in the bottom box.

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To crop a picture:

1. Select the picture, then click the Picture Tools Format tab and
locate the Crop group.
2. Click the Crop command.

3. The black cropping handles will appear. Click and drag a handle
to crop the picture. The areas that will be cropped will appear to be
semi-transparent.

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4. When you are satisfied with the appearance of your picture, click the
Crop command again.
5. The picture will be cropped.

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Arranging pictures

- To get your pictures to fit properly with text and other objects, you
may have to align them and adjust their text wrap settings.
- The procedures for doing these things are identical to the procedures
for working with shapes and other objects.

Modifying pictures

Brightness and contrast

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 - One of the most basic edits you can make to a picture is modifying
its brightness and contrast.
- Although these tools are separated into two commands in Publisher,
they are most effective when used together.

To adjust brightness and contrast:

1. Select the picture you wish to adjust, then select the Picture Tools
Format tab and locate the Adjust group.
2. Click the Brightness drop-down command.

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3. From the drop-down menu that appears, select the desired
brightness. Positive numbers (+) will make the picture brighter,
while negative numbers (-) will make the picture darker.

4. Click the Contrast drop-down command.

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5. Select the desired contrast level. Positive numbers (+) will create
a greater contrast between the light and dark areas of the picture,
while negative numbers (-) will reduce the contrast.

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To recolor the picture:

1. Select the picture you wish to recolor, then select the Picture Tools
Format tab and locate the Adjust group.
2. Click the Recolor drop-down command.

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3. From the drop-down menu that appears, select a recoloring option
or select More Variations to see additional color choices.

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 4. The picture will be recolored.

To apply a picture style:

1. Select the picture, then click the Picture Tools Format tab and
locate the Picture Styles group.
2. Click the More Picture Styles drop-down arrow.

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3. A drop-down list of styles will appear. Move your cursor over the
styles to see a live preview of each style in your publication, then
select the desired style.

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4. The style will be applied to the picture.

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To add a caption:

1. Select the picture, then click the Picture Tools Format tab and
locate the Picture Styles group.
2. Click the Caption drop-down command.

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3. A drop-down list of caption styles will appear. Move your cursor
over the caption styles to see a live preview of the captions with
your picture, then select the desired caption style.

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4. Click the caption text box and type your caption text.

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To restore a picture to its original appearance:

1. Select the picture, then click the Picture Tools Format tab and
locate the Adjust group.
2. Click the Reset Picture command.

3. The picture will be restored to its original appearance.

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Preparing your pictures for publication

Compressing pictures

- You'll need to monitor the file size of publications that include

pictures, especially if you send them via email.
- Large, high-resolution pictures can quickly cause your publication to
become too large, which may make it difficult or impossible to attach
to an email.
- In addition, cropped areas of pictures are saved with the
publication by default, which can add to the file size.

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 - Publisher can reduce the file size by compressing pictures, lowering
their resolution, and deleting cropped areas.

NB: Only compress pictures after you have edited and resized them.
Attempting to enlarge or otherwise edit a compressed picture may result
in a blurry or otherwise low-quality image.

To compress pictures:

1. Select a picture, then click the Picture Tools Format tab and locate
the Adjust group.
2. Click the Compress Pictures command.

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 3. The Compress Pictures dialog box will appear. Review the settings
in the Compression Options section. All four boxes should be
checked.
4. In the Target Output section, select your planned method of
publication.
5. Choose whether to compress every picture in the publication or the
selected picture only.
6. When you are satisfied with the publication settings, click OK. The
picture or pictures will be compressed.

Test printing

- Depending on the types of edits you make to your pictures, they may
not print exactly as they appear onscreen.

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- While this could signal a problem with your printer or ink, these print
errors are often caused by problems in Publisher itself.
- If the pictures are especially blurry, grainy, oddly colored, or
otherwise distorted from their onscreen appearance, consider saving
your publication as a PDF, then opening and printing the PDF
version.

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CHAPTER 3: SOFTWARE INSTALLATION

Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

Contents

• Install an operating system, device drivers, and application software

o discussing procedure for installing software
o installing windows operating system
o installing ubuntu operating system
o installing printer drivers, scanner drivers and USB drivers
o installing MS office/open office
• Upgrade an operating stem, device drivers and application software
o upgrading an operating system, device drivers and application
software

Introduction
This section discusses basic skills on how to install computer software
starting with Operating system, utility software and application software.

Definitions
Software installation refers to copying of computer program into a hard
disk of computer in a form that it can be executed by the CPU.
- Software installation is also called program setup

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 - Today most of software installations platforms are GUI-based wizards
that requires minimal input from the user.
Software Uninstallation: refers to an act of removing the program from
the computer.
- This involves more than erasing the program folder since registry files
and other code in the system need to be modified or deleted for
complete uninstallation.

Factors to consider before software Installation

Before installation of any software you must consider the following:
1. System configurations compatibility
- Type and speed of processor
- RAM size
- Hard disk space
2. Reading the installation manual
- To get details on the minimal system requirements, warnings and user
license agreement
3. User needs
- Software to be installed should be the one to meet the specific user
needs
- This will ensure that no unnecessary software is installed which could
end up taking valuable storage space.

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 Installation of Operating system
Operating systems exist in various categories such as
i. Windows Operating system
ii. Linux Operating system
iii. Mac-OS

Installing Windows 7 Operating system

Installation of any windows operating system involves some common
steps.
This section will concentrate on windows 7 installation
Two methods can be used
1. Upgrading – changing a version of windows from lower to
upper version for example upgrading from windows XP to
windows 7
2. Fresh installation – installing a new copy of operating
system

windows 7 installation Steps

1. Check for Minimum requirements for Windows 7
Installation
- The following system requirements must be satisfied for windows 7 to
get installed

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 Part Minimum Requirement

Processor (CPU) 1 GHz or faster CPU

Memory (RAM) 1 GB RAM (32-bit) or 2 GB RAM (64-bit)

Hard drive free space 16 GB available disk space (32-bit) or 20 GB

(64-bit)

Disc drive DVD drive

Graphics memory 128 MB or more

2. Get windows 7 set up into a bootable media

- Operating system boot by
a. Flash Drive (Bootable Pen Drive)
b. Bootable CD/DVD
c. Hard Disk
NB: If you purchase a DVD or CD of windows then it is already in
bootable form

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 3. Insert Windows 7 DVD into optical drive or removable
bootable flash containing windows 7 operating system and
start the computer
- Then your computer will display the following interface

- After pressing any key, the windows files start loading as follows

- Followed by the following display

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4. Select your language, time & currency format, keyboard or
input method and click Next as displayed below

5. Click install now

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6. The following screen will displayed

7. Check I accept the license terms and click Next.

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8. Click Upgrade if you already have a previous Windows version
or Custom (advanced) if you don’t have a
previous Windows version or want to install a fresh copy
of Windows 7.

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9. Select the drive where you want to install Windows 7 and
click Next. If you want to make any partitions, click Drive options
(advanced), make the partitions and then click Next.

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10. It will now start installing Windows 7. The first step,
(i.e. Copying Windows files) was already done when you booted
the Windows 7 DVD so it will complete instantly.

11. After completing the first step, it will expand (decompress) the
files that it had copied.

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12. After that it will automatically restart after 15 seconds and
continue the setup. You can also click Restart now to restart
without any delays.

13. After installation, Please do not press key this time

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Copyright © learnmalawi | All rights reserved

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 \

14. A
fter restarting for the first time, it will continue the setup. This is the
last step so it will take the most time than the previous steps.

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15. T
ype your desired user name in the text-box and click Next. It will
automatically fill up the computer name.

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16. I
f you want to set a password, type it in the text-boxes and
click Next.

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17. T
ype your product key in the text-box and click Next. You can also
skip this step and simply click Next if you want to type
the product key later. Windows will run only for 30 days if you do
that.

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18. S
elect your desired option for Windows Updates.

19. S
elect your time and click Next.

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20. I
f you are connected to any network, it will ask you to set the
network’s location.

21. W
indow is finalizing your settings

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Welcome screen

Preparing Desktop

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 And there you have a fresh copy of Windows 7 installed!

Installing Linux Ubuntu operating system

Linux Ubuntu can get installed through the following steps

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 1. Requirements
You'll need to consider the following before starting the installation:
- Connect your laptop to a power source.
- Ensure you have at least 25GB of free storage space, or 5GB for a
minimal installation.
- Have access to either a DVD or a USB flash drive containing the
version of Ubuntu you want to install.
- Make sure you have a recent backup of your data. While it's unlikely
that anything will go wrong, you can never be too prepared.

2. Boot from DVD

It's easy to install Ubuntu from a DVD. Here's what you need to do:

- Put the Ubuntu DVD into your optical/DVD drive.

- Restart your computer.

As soon as your computer boots you'll see the welcome window.

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3. Boot from USB flash drive

- Most computers will boot from USB automatically.

- Simply insert the USB flash drive and either power on your computer
or restart it.
- You should see the same welcome window we saw in the previous
‘Install from DVD' step, prompting you to choose your language and
either install or try the Ubuntu desktop.

NB : If your computer doesn't automatically boot from USB, try holding

F12 when your computer first starts. With most machines, this will allow
you to select the USB device from a system-specific boot menu.
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4. Prepare to install Ubuntu

- You will first be asked to select your keyboard layout. If the installer
doesn't guess the default layout correctly, use the ‘Detect Keyboard
Layout' button to run through a brief configuration procedure.
- After selecting Continue you will be asked What apps would you like to
install to start with? The two options are ‘Normal installation' and
‘Minimal installation'. The first is the equivalent to the old default
bundle of utilities, applications, games and media players - a great
launchpad for any Linux installation. The second takes considerably
less storage space and allows you to install only what you need.
- Beneath the installation-type question are two checkboxes; one to
enable updates while installing and another to enable third-party
software.
- It is recommended to enable both Download updates and Install third-
party software.
- Stay connected to the internet so you can get the latest updates while
you install Ubuntu.
- If you are not connected to the internet, you will be asked to select a
wireless network, if available. We advise you to connect during the
installation so we can ensure your machine is up to date

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5. Allocate drive space

- Use the checkboxes to choose whether you'd like to install Ubuntu

alongside another operating system, delete your existing operating
system and replace it with Ubuntu, or — if you're an advanced user —
choose the 'Something else' option.

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6. Begin installation

- After configuring storage, click on the ‘Install Now' button. A small

pane will appear with an overview of the storage options you've
chosen, with the chance to go back if the details are incorrect.
- Click Continue to fix those changes in place and start the installation
process.

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7. Select your location

- If you are connected to the internet, your location will be detected

automatically. Check your location is correct and click 'Forward' to
proceed.
- If you're unsure of your time zone, type the name of a local town or
city or use the map to select your location.

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8. Login details

- Enter your name and the installer will automatically suggest a

computer name and username. These can easily be changed if you
prefer. The computer name is how your computer will appear on the
network, while your username will be your login and account name.
- Next, enter a strong password. The installer will let you know if it's too
weak.
- You can also choose to enable automatic login and home folder
encryption. If your machine is portable, we recommend keeping
automatic login disabled and enabling encryption. This should stop
people accessing your personal files if the machine is lost or stolen.

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9. Background installation

- The installer will now complete in the background while the installation
window teaches you a little about how awesome Ubuntu is.
- Depending on the speed of your machine and network connection,
installation should only take a few minutes.

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10. Installation complete

- After everything has been installed and configured, a small window will
appear asking you to restart your machine.
- Click on Restart Now and remove either the DVD or USB flash drive
when prompted. If you initiated the installation while testing the
desktop, you also get the option to continue testing.

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Installing Device drivers
- A device driver is a computer program that controls a particular
device that is connected to your computer.
- Typical devices are keyboards, printers, scanners, digital cameras
and external storage devices. Each of these needs a driver in order
to work properly

Installing device drivers in windows 7

- Hardware devices need drivers to function properly. Most of these
drivers are installed automatically by Windows 7 but if this is not the
case these drivers need to be installed by the user.
- Opening the Device Manager (available in the Control Panel) will tell
the user which hardware drivers need to be installed by marking them
with a yellow exclamation mark.

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- To install a driver
- Double click on a driver which you want to install especial the one with
yellow exclamation mark and you will get to this box

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- Click on Update a drive which will give you two options
a. To search a driver from internet
b. To browse it from your local computer

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 NB you need internet connection for your computer to search a driver
from internet.
- Your computer starts searching for a driver and installed automatically

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Installing application software
Installation of application software is only limited to
- Hardware configuration
- Operating system
- License agreement
The following are examples of application software that can be
installed
- Word processor
- Spreadsheet
- Database management system
NB Before you install any application software, select only those
application software relevant to a user of a particular computer ie
whether general purpose or special purpose software

Installing Microsoft office 2010

- Microsoft Office is a suite of desktop productivity applications that is
designed specifically to be used for office or business use.
- It mainly consists of Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access, OneNote,
Outlook and Publisher applications

To install Microsoft Office 2010, follow the following steps

1. Insert your Office 2010 DVD. Alternatively, open the
downloaded Setup file that you received when you purchased Office
2010 online. Either method will follow the same steps.

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 2. Enter the Product Key.
- This is the 25-character key found on the packaging that your Office
2010 came in.
- If you purchased online, the key will be displayed in the order
confirmation window.
- You do not need to enter the dashes in between groups of characters

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 3. Accept the License Terms.
- In order to proceed with the installation, you need to check the box
indicating that you have read and agree to Microsoft’s terms of use.

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 4. Choose your installation.
- Clicking Install Now will install all of the Office products included in the
version that you purchased. Office will be installed to your default hard
drive (the same that Windows is installed on).
- Choose Customize to specify which products you want to install. For
example, if you never use Excel and just need Word, use Customize to
disable the Excel installation.

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- You can also use the Customize option to install Office to a different
location on your computer.

5. Wait for installation to complete.

- Once you have chosen your installation options, Office will be
automatically installed. The amount of time this takes will vary
depending on the version you are installing and the speed of your
computer.

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 - Once Office is finished installing, you can access each of the individual
Office programs from the Start menu.

Application software uninstallation

- If a software is no longer needed in a computer system, must be
removed from a system
- This process is called software uninstallation

To remove programs and software components in Windows 7 from your

computer hard disk drive, follow these steps:

1. Click Start , and then click Control Panel.

2. Under Programs, click Uninstall a program.

The Uninstall or change a program window opens.

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3. Select the program you want to remove.
4. Click Uninstall or Uninstall/Change at the top of the program list then
windows will uninstall the selected software successfully

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CHAPTER 4: TROUBLESHOOTING OF COMPUTERS

Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

Contents

• Tracing hardware problems (Bios, boot sequence, sound)

• Tracing software problems
• Identifying sources of software problems
• Solutions to software problems
o Repair software
o Uninstall software
o System restores
o System update
o Restart processes

Meaning of Trouble Shooting

- Computer troubleshooting is the process of identifying and solving

hardware and software related problems
- Effective troubleshooting uses techniques to diagnose and then fix
computer problems.
- Rarely will simply guessing potential solutions for a problem work.

Troubleshooting is a cycle

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- Refers to series of logical steps that are followed during the
troubleshooting process.

The following flow chart summarises the steps that must be taken
during troubleshooting cycle

Identify a problem

• This step should provide a clear problem statement that defines the
problem as a set of symptoms and associated causes.
• This is done by identifying the general symptoms and then
determining the possible causes that could result in these symptoms.
• The outcome of this step should be a written set of ideas and
possibilities.

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- The following are some of computer problems and how they can be
solved

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 1. The Computer Won’t Start

- A computer that suddenly shuts off or has difficulty starting up

could have a failing power supply.
- Check that the computer is plugged into the power point
properly and, if that doesn’t work, test the power point with
another working device to confirm whether or not there is
adequate power.

2. The Screen is Blank

- If the computer is on but the screen is blank, there may be an

issue with the connection between the computer and the screen.
- First, check to see if the monitor is plugged into a power point
and that the connection between the monitor and computer hard
drive is secure.
- If the problem is on a laptop, then you may need to get a
professional to fix it as some of the internal wires may be worn.

3. Abnormally Functioning Operating System or Software

- If the operating system or other software is either unresponsive or

is acting up, then try restarting your computer and run a virus
scan.

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- To avoid having this happen, install reliable anti-virus software.

4. Windows Won’t Boot

- If you are having troubles booting Windows, then you may have
to reinstall it with the Windows recovery disk.

5. The Screen is Frozen

- When you computer freezes, you may have no other option than
to reboot and risk losing any unsaved work.
- Freezes can be a sign of

i. insufficient ram,
ii. registry conflicts,
iii. corrupt or missing files, or spyware.

- Press and hold the power button until the computer turns off,
then restart it and get to work cleaning up the system so that it
doesn’t freeze again.

6. Computer is Slow

- If your computer is slower than normal, you can often fix the
problem simply by cleaning the hard disk of unwanted files.
- You can also install a firewall, anti-virus and anti-
spyware tools, and schedule regular registry scans.

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- External hard drives are great storage solutions for overtaxed
CPU’s, and will help your computer run faster.

7.Strange Noises

- A lot of noise coming from your computer is generally a sign of

either hardware malfunction or a noisy fan.
- Hard drives often make noise just before they fail, so you may
want to back up information just in case, and fans are very
easy to replace.

Slow Internet

- To improve your Internet browser performance, you need to

clear cookies and Internet temporary files frequently.
- In the Windows search bar, type ‘x’ and hit enter to open the
temporary files folder.

9. Overheating

- If a computer case lacks a sufficient cooling system, then the

computer’s components may start to generate excess heat
during operation.
- To avoid your computer burning itself out, turn it off and let it
rest if it’s getting hot.

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 - Additionally, you can check the fan to make sure it’s working
properly.

10 Dropped Internet Connections

- Dropped Internet connections can be very frustrating.

- Often the problem is simple and may be caused by a bad cable
or phone line, which is easy to fix.
- More serious problems include viruses, a bad network card or
modem, or a problem with the driver.

11. PC Fans not working

- If you notice one or more fans in your PC aren’t working, then

it could be due to the dirt inside.
- You will have to open up the PC and use a compressed air
can or a leaf blower to clean up the fans and other
components.

12. PC crashes before loading the OS

- If your PC only shows manufacturer logo and then

crashes right before it was supposed to load the operating
system, then it’s a problem with RAM or hard disk.

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 - As the OS is unable to load, then either the RAM is corrupted
and can’t hold the boot loader or the hard drive is damaged
and can’t load data inside it.
- If you have multiple RAM slots, then taking out each one of
them one by one and starting the PC will help find the
culprit.
- In the end, you will have to replace the corrupted RAM or the
hard disk, whichever has the issue.

13. Blue Screen of Death

- The dreaded Blue Screen of Death (BSOD) can occur due to

both software and hardware problems, but usually, it’s a
hardware problem.
- Whatever the cause, BSOD requires immediate attention as it’s
a sign of a big problem.

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 - Blue Screen View is a great Nirsoft utility that will show
important information if you have recently suffered a Blue
Screen of Death.
- You should be able to identify and solve the problem using this
information. Below are some common reasons for BSOD and
their solutions.

i) Corrupted drivers

- A corrupt driver may be the cause of BSOD. To find that out,

use the following steps:

• Open Device Manager by typing devmgmt.msc in the Run.

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• Here expand each menu and look for a yellow triangle icon next
to each driver.
• If you find any, right-click on it and select Update Driver
Software to update its driver.

- You can also use a third-party app like IObit Driver Booster to
automatically find and fix driver problems.

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ii) Too much pressure on the RAM

- If you open too many programs that RAM can’t handle,

then it may freeze the system and show BSOD. For that, you
should either stop opening too many programs or upgrade the
RAM.

iii) Faulty hard disk

- BSOD is also a sign of a dying hard disk, use the instructions

in problem #ii above to identify hard disk problems.

iv) Heating PC

- Heating PC also leads to BSOD if too much pressure is put

on the components. Use the instruction in problem #i) to
solve it.

14 CPUs related problems

- Symptoms of a processor error can include slow performance,
POST beep errors, or a system that is not operating properly.
- These errors usually indicate an internal error has occurred.
- Most CPUs will have an onboard fan. •
- his provides cooling directly to the CPU.
- CPUs must be set to receive the correct voltages to run
properly.

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- Motherboards that use Socket 5, Socket 7 or Super Socket 7
chips need to use voltage regulators. •
- Typically, the voltage regulators are built into the board.
- They must be set at the proper voltage, or the CPU can be
damaged.

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CHAPTER 5: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

Contents

• Basic terminologies
o communication
o data communication
o telecommunication
o network
• History of communication technologies
o Telephone
o Cellular
o internet
• Uses of networks
o business applications
▪ e-banking
▪ mobile banking
▪ auto teller machines
▪ point of sale
o home applications
o remote access
o mobile communication
• Elements of communication systems
• Network devices
o Modems
o Routers
o Transmitters
o Receivers
o Switches
o Repeaters
o Hubs
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 o Nics
o Bridges
• Transmission signals (signals; analogue, digital, modulation)
o data signals
o Transmission of data signals
o analogue signals
o digital signals
o modulation
• Transmission media
o Physical
o copper cables
o optic fibre cables
o wireless
• Transmission techniques
o Parallel and serial data transmission techniques
• Transmission modes
o Simplex
o Half duplex
o Full duplex

BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
Communication
- Process of using sounds, words, symbols, signs, pictures or signals to pass a
message or information from one person to the other
- Message origin is called source or sender
- Message target recipient is called receiver
- The message is usually targeted for sending to the receiver

Data Communication
- Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data signals from
one point to the other through communication channel

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 Telecommunication
- Telecommunication the use of technology to exchange messages in form of
data and information over wired or wireless communication media.
- Telecommunication technologies include telegraph, telephone, Radio,
television and computers

Telecommunication network
Telecommunication network is interconnection of telecommunication
equipment like telephone, mobiles, radios, televisions and computers using
transmission media or links
The network enables the flow of data or information from the source to
destination

Computer network
A computer network is an interconnection of computers using transmission
media and networking devices to enable exchange of data and information.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

ICT means the convergence of computer networks with telecommunication
networks like telephone, mobiles, radios and televisions to provide a
communication platform through which people can share information.

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History of communication technologies
- Evolution has not spared communication technologies in the following
aspects
i) telephone
ii) cellular
iii) internet
history of Telephone
- Telephone was inverted after telegraph by Alexander Graham who was
trying to improve telegraph in 1876
- Telegraph used dots and dashes (beeps) coded as electric signals to transmit
text characters over long distances
- The following were the generalised categories of telephone evolution
i) Rotary dial telephone
ii) Touch tone dial telephone
iii) Mobile telephone
iv) Smart phones
Rotary Dialing

- The first rotary dial was invented in 1896.

- Prior to that, telephone owners would have to push a button on their
telephone the required number of pulses by tapping in order to call a
number.
- Understandably, the rotary dial was seen as a superior alternative to this
system. By 1943, the last button tapping telephone had been phased out.
- Rotary dials worked by generating pulses in a certain frequency range based
on where the rotary dial turned.

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Touch Tone Phones

- The first touch tone phone was invented in 1941.

- These phones used tones in the voice frequency range – much different from
the pulses generated by rotary dials.
- You pressed the buttons on the phone to make a phone call.

Cordless Phones

- Cordless phones started to hit the market in the 1970s. In 1986, the FTC had
released the frequency range between 47 and 49 MHz for use by cordless
phones.
- This wider frequency range meant phones could work wirelessly with less
interference and less power required in order to run.
- As cordless phones became more and more popular, the FTC would
eventually grant more and more frequency range to cordless phones over the
years.

The First Cell Phones

- Cell phones have obviously exploded with growth over the past 20-odd
years.
- But the first cell phone dates back to post-World War II America.
- In 1947, researchers began theorizing that a mobile telephone was possible.

Smart phones

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 - The first smartphone, created by IBM, was invented in 1992 and released for
purchase in 1994. It was called the Simon Personal Communicator (SPC).
- While not very compact and sleek, the device still featured several elements
that became staples to every smartphone that followed.
The following are some of the other key features of a smartphone:

• Internet connectivity.
• A mobile browser.
• The ability to sync more than one email account to a device.
• Embedded memory.
• A hardware or software-based QWERTY keyboard.
• Wireless synchronization with other devices, such as laptop or desktop
computers.

Uses of networks

Computer networks have become invaluable to organizations as well as

individuals. Some of its main uses are as follows −

i. Information and Resource Sharing

- Computer networks allow organizations having units which are placed apart
from each other, to share information in a very effective manner.
- Programs and software in any computer can be accessed by other computers
linked to the network. It also allows sharing of hardware equipment, like
printers and scanners among varied users.

ii. Retrieving Remote Information

- Through computer networks, users can retrieve remote information on a

variety of topics.

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- The information is stored in remote databases to which the user gains access
through information systems like the World Wide Web.

iii. Speedy Interpersonal Communication

- Computer networks have increased the speed and volume of communication

like never before. Electronic Mail (email) is extensively used for sending
texts, documents, images, and videos across the globe.
- Online communications have increased by manifold times through social
networking services.

iv. E-Commerce

- Computer networks have paved way for a variety of business and

commercial transactions online, popularly called e-commerce.
- Users and organizations can pool funds, buy or sell items, pay bills, manage
bank accounts, pay taxes, transfer funds and handle investments
electronically.

v. Highly Reliable Systems

- Computer networks allow systems to be distributed in nature, by the virtue

of which data is stored in multiple sources.
- This makes the system highly reliable. If a failure occurs in one source, then
the system will still continue to function and data will still be available from
the other sources.

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 vi. Cost–Effective Systems

- Computer networks have reduced the cost of establishment of computer

systems in organizations.
- Previously, it was imperative for organizations to set up expensive
mainframes for computation and storage.
- With the advent of networks, it is sufficient to set up interconnected personal
computers (PCs) for the same purpose.

vii. VoIP

- VoIP or Voice over Internet protocol has revolutionized telecommunication

systems
- Through this, telephone calls are made digitally using Internet Protocols
instead of the regular analog phone lines.

Elements of communication systems

- Several components are involves in any communication system
- These include sender, transmitter, Channel, Receiver, Message user,
protocol.
Sender
- This is a pwrson who creaytes the message
Transmitter
- This is a device that sends a message
Channel
- This is method how a message is transmitted
- Can also be a medium through which a message passes
Receiver

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 - This is a device that receives the message
Message user
- This is a person who uses received message
Protocol
- These are set of rules and procedures that govern communication on the
network

Network devices

- These are Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax
machines and other electronic devices to a network .
- These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way over same or
different networks.
- Network devices may be inter-network or intra-network.
- Some devices are installed on the device, like NIC card or RJ45 connector,
whereas some are part of the network, like router, switch, etc. Let us explore
some of these devices in greater detail.

Modem

- Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over

telephone or cable lines.
- The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable
wire can transmit only analog data.

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 - The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and
vice versa.
- Modem is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator.
- The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being
sent by the computer.
- The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data when it is
being received by the computer.

Types of Modem

- Modem can be categorized in several ways like direction in which it can

transmit data, type of connection to the transmission line, transmission
mode, etc.
- Depending on direction of data transmission, modem can be of these types −

i. Simplex − A simplex modem can transfer data in only one direction, from
digital device to network (modulator) or network to digital device
(demodulator).

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 ii. Half duplex − A half-duplex modem has the capacity to transfer data in
both the directions but only one at a time.
iii. Full duplex − A full duplex modem can transmit data in both the directions
simultaneously.

RJ45 Connector

- RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45 connector is an 8-pin
jack used by devices to physically connect to Ethernet based local area
networks (LANs).
- Ethernet is a technology that defines protocols for establishing a LAN.
- The cable used for Ethernet LANs are twisted pair ones and have RJ45
connector pins at both ends.
- These pins go into the corresponding socket on devices and connect the
device to the network.

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11
Ethernet Card

- Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a hardware

component used by computers to connect to Ethernet LAN and
communicate with other devices on the LAN.
- The earliest Ethernet cards were external to the system and needed to be
installed manually.
- In modern computer systems, it is an internal hardware component.
- The NIC has RJ45 socket where network cable is physically plugged in.

- Ethernet card speeds may vary depending upon the protocols it supports.
- Old Ethernet cards had maximum speed of 10 Mbps.
- However, modern cards support fast Ethernets up to a speed of 100 Mbps.
- Some cards even have capacity of 1 Gbps.

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Router

- A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one
LAN to another if both networks support the same set of protocols.
- So a router is typically connected to at least two LANs and the internet
service provider (ISP).
- It receives its data in the form of packets, which are data frames with their
destination address added.
- Router also strengthens the signals before transmitting them. That is why it
is also called repeater.

Routing Table

- A router reads its routing table to decide the best available route the packet
can take to reach its destination quickly and accurately.
- The routing table may be of these two types

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13
 i. Static

- In a static routing table the routes are fed manually. So it is suitable only for
very small networks that have maximum two to three routers.

ii. Dynamic

- In a dynamic routing table, the router communicates with other routers

through protocols to determine which routes are free.
- This is suited for larger networks where manual feeding may not be feasible
due to large number of routers.

Switch

- Switch is a network device that connects other devices to Ethernet

networks through twisted pair cables.
- It uses packet switching technique to receive, store and forward data
packets on the network.
- The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the devices connected
to it.
- On receiving a packet, it checks the destination address and transmits the
packet to the correct port.
- Before forwarding, the packets are checked for collision and other network
errors. The data is transmitted in full duplex mode

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 - Data transmission speed in switches can be double that of other network
devices like hubs used for networking.
- This is because switch shares its maximum speed with all the devices
connected to it. This helps in maintaining network speed even during high
traffic. In fact, higher data speeds are achieved on networks through use of
multiple switches.

Gateway

- Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar

networks.
- In networking parlance, networks that use different protocols are dissimilar
networks.
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15
 - A gateway usually is a computer with multiple NICs connected to different
networks.
- A gateway can also be configured completely using software. As networks
connect to a different network through gateways, these gateways are usually
hosts or end points of the network.

- Gateway uses packet switching technique to transmit data from one

network to another. In this way it is similar to a router, the only difference
being router can transmit data only over networks that use same protocols.

Wi-Fi Card

- Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity.

- Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve wireless connection to any network.
- Wi-Fi card is a card used to connect any device to the local network
wirelessly.

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 - The physical area of the network which provides internet access through Wi-
Fi is called Wi-Fi hotspot.
- Hotspots can be set up at home, office or any public space. Hotspots
themselves are connected to the network through wires.

- A Wi-Fi card is used to add capabilities like teleconferencing,

downloading digital camera images, video chat, etc. to old devices. Modern
devices come with their in-built wireless network adapter.

Repeater

- A repeater operates at the physical layer.

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17
 - Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal
becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal
can be transmitted over the same network.
- important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the
signal.
- When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and
regenerate it at the original strength.
- It is a 2 port device.

Hub

- A hub is basically a multiport repeater.

- A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for example,
the connector in star topology which connects different stations.
- Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In
other words, collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains
one. Also, they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data
packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

Types of Hub

i. Active Hub:
- These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can clean, boost
and relay the signal along with the network.
- It serves both as a repeater as well as wiring centre.
- These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
ii. Passive Hub :

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 - These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power supply from
active hub
- These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting
them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.

Bridge

- A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering content by

reading the MAC addresses of source and destination.
- It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.
- It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

TRANSMISSION SIGNALS
- Data Signal refers to voltage level that represent flow of data or information
from one point to another in a network
- When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be first converted into
electromagnetic signals.
- Signals can either be Digital or analog

Digital signals
- These are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage pulses.
- Digital signals are used within the circuitry of a computer system.
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19
 Analog Signals
- Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented by
continuous electromagnetic waves.

NB :
- Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital such as file on the
disk.
- Both analog and digital data can be represented in digital or analog signals.

Transmission Impairment
- When signals travel through the medium, they tend to deteriorate.
- The following are causes of signal impairment
i. Attenuation
- For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be
sufficiently strong. When the signal passes through the medium, it tends to
get weaker.
- As it covers distance, it loses strength.
ii. Dispersion
- As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps.
- The amount of dispersion depends upon the frequency used.
iii. Delay distortion
- Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency.
- If the signal speed and frequency do not match, there are possibilities that
signal reaches destination in arbitrary fashion.
- In digital media, this is very critical that some bits reach earlier than the
previously sent ones.
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 iv. Noise
- Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be
Noise in signal, which may distort the actual information being carried.
- Noise can be characterized in one of the following class
Thermal Noise
o Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may
introduce noise in the media. Up to a certain level, thermal noise is
unavoidable.
Intermodulation
o When multiple frequencies share a medium, their interference can
cause noise in the medium.
o Intermodulation noise occurs if two different frequencies are sharing
a medium and one of them has excessive strength or the component
itself is not functioning properly, then the resultant frequency may not
be delivered as expected.
v. Crosstalk
- This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the media.
- This is because signal in one medium affects the signal of second medium.
vi. Impulse
- This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as lightening,
electricity, short-circuit, or faulty components.
- Digital data is mostly affected by this sort of noise.

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 TRANSMISSION MEDIA: PHYSICAL ;COPPER CABLES, OPTIC
FIBRE CABLES; WIRELESS)
- Transmission media which is also called transmission medium is the
means through which we send our data from one place to another.
- Transmission media is categorized into two main types

a. Wired (bounded) /Guided media

b. Wireless (unbounded)/ Unguided Media

Wired (Bounded) /Guided midea

- Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include i. Twisted-Pair Cable,

ii Coaxial Cable, and

iii. Fibre-Optic Cable.

- A signal travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the medium.
- Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept
and transport signals in the form of electric current.
- Optical fibre is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of
light.

Twisted Pair Cable

- This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others.

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 - It is lightweight, cheap, can be installed easily, and they support many
different types of network.

NB Some important points :

• Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.

• Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
• Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
• Repeater spacing is 2km.

- A twisted pair consists of two conductors(normally copper), each with its

own plastic insulation, twisted together.
- One of these wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is
used only as ground reference.

The receiver uses the difference between the two.

- In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires,

interference(noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted
signals.
- If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the
same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the
noise or crosstalk sources. This results in a difference at the receiver.

Twisted Pair is of two types:

i. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

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23
 ii. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP)

- It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with

Shielded Twisted
- Pair Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its
own colour plastic insulator.
- Identification is the reason behind coloured plastic insulation.
- UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable.
- Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45
connector.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

• Installation is easy
• Flexible
• Cheap

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 • It has high speed capacity,
• 100 meter limit
• Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.
• It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted
together in a helical form to reduce electrical interference from similar pair.

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

• Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable

• Provides less protection from interference.

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

- This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each
pair of insulated conductors.
- Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing.
- Shielding also eliminates crosstalk .
- It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair.
- It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It is more expensive than
coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

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Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

• Easy to install
• Performance is adequate
• Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
• Increases the signalling rate
• Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
• Eliminates crosstalk

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

• Difficult to manufacture
• Heavy

Performance of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

- One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare

attenuation versus frequency and distance.

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 - As shown in the below figure, a twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range of
frequencies. However, with increasing frequency, the attenuation, measured
in decibels per kilometre (dB/km), sharply increases with frequencies above
100kHz. Note that gauge is a measure of the thickness of the wire.

Applications of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

• In telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The DSL lines that are
used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate connections also
use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
• Local Area Network, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair
cables.

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Coaxial Cable

- Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are
parallel to each other.
- Copper is used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a
standard one.
- It is surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, barid or both.
- Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor which completes the circuit.
- The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost
part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.

Here the most common coaxial standards.

• 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.

• 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
• 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
• 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.

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Coaxial Cable Standards

- Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government(RG) ratings.

- Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including
the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and the type of the inner
insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer
casing.
- Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function, as
shown in the table below:

Coaxial Cable Connectors

- To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors.

- The most common type of connector used today is the Bayonet Neill-
Concelman (BNC) connector.
- The below figure shows 3 popular types of these connectors:

i. The BNC Connector,

ii. The BNC T connector and
iii. The BNC terminator.
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29
 - The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to the device,
such as a TV set.
- The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a
connection to a computer or other device.
- The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection
of the signal.

There are two types of Coaxial cables: Baseband and broadband

1. BaseBand

- This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission.

- It is mostly used for LAN's.

- Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed.

- The major drawback is that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.

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2. BroadBand

- This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling.

- It transmits several simultaneous signal using different frequencies.
- It covers large area when compared with Baseband Coaxial Cable.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

• Bandwidth is high
• Used in long distance telephone lines.
• Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
• Much higher noise immunity
• Data transmission without distortion.
• The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better
shielding when compared to twisted pair cable

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

• Single cable failure can fail the entire network.

• Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
• If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

Performance of Coaxial Cable

- We can measure the performance of a coaxial cable in same way as that of

Twisted Pair Cables.
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 - From the below figure, it can be seen that the attenuation is much higher in
coaxial cable than in twisted-pair cable.
- In other words, although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the
signal weakens rapidly and requires the frequent use of repeaters.

Applications of Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, where a single
coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
• Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV
network, the entire network used coaxial cable. Cable TV uses RG-59
coaxial cable.
• In traditional Ethernet LANs. Because of it high bandwidth, and
consequence high data rate, coaxial cable was chosen for digital
transmission in early Ethernet LANs. The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses

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 RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors to transmit data at 10Mbps with a
range of 185 m.

FIBER OPTIC CABLE

- A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the

form of light.
- For better understanding we first need to explore several aspects of the
nature of light.
- Light travels in a straight line as long as it is mobbing through a single
uniform substance.
- If ray of light travelling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.

The below figure shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a
more dense to a less dense substance.

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Bending of a light ray

As the figure shows:

If the angle of incidence I (the angle the ray makes with the line
perpendicular to the interface between the two substances) is less than the
critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to the surface.
If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the ray
reflects(makes a turn) and travels again in the denser substance

If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves
parallel to the surface as shown
Note: The critical angle is a property of the substance, and its value differs from
one substance to another.

- Optical fibres use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or

plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The
difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light
moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being
refracted into it.

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Propagation Modes of Fiber Optic Cable

- Current technology supports two modes

i. Multimode and
ii. Single mode

Multimode can be implemented in two forms: Step-index and

Graded-index.

Multimode Propagation Mode

vii. Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source

move through the core in different paths.
viii. How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure of
the core as shown in the figure below

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35
 In multimode step-index fibre,
- The density of the core remains constant from the centre to the edges.
- A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it
reaches the interface of the core and the cladding.
- The term step-index refers to the suddenness of this change, which
contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes through the fibre.

• In multimode graded-index fibre,

- This distortion gets decreases through the cable.

- The word index here refers to the index of refraction.
- This index of refraction is related to the density.
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 - A graded-index fibre, therefore, is one with varying densities.
- Density is highest at the centre of the core and decreases gradually to its
lowest at the edge.

Single Mode

- Single mode uses step-index fibre and a highly focused source of light that
limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
- The single-mode fibre itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter
than that of multimode fibre, and with substantially lower density.
- The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90
degree to make the propagation of beams almost horizontal.

Fibre Sizes for Fiber Optic Cable

- Optical fibres are defined by the ratio of the diameter or their core to the
diameter of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers.
- The common sizes are shown in the figure below

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Fibre Optic Cable Connectors

There are three types of connectors for fibre-optic cables, as shown in the figure
below.

- The Subscriber Channel(SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses

push/pull locking system.
- The Straight-Tip(ST) connector is used for connecting cable to the
networking devices.
- The MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.

Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable

Fibre optic has several advantages over metallic cable:

• Higher bandwidth
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference

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 • Resistance to corrosive materials
• Light weight
• Greater immunity to tapping

Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable

There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fibre:

• Installation and maintenance

• Unidirectional light propagation
• High Cost

Performance of Fibre Optic Cable

- Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial

cable.
- The performance is such that we need fewer(actually one tenth as many)
repeaters when we use the fibre-optic cable.

Applications of Fibre Optic Cable

• Often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-

effective.
• Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fibre and coaxial
cable thus creating a hybrid network.
• Local-area Networks such as 100Base-FX network and 1000Base-X also use
fibre-optic cable.

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WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA
- Wireless transmission media which are also called Unguided medium
transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
- Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to
anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.

We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups:

1. Radio waves
2. Micro waves
3. Infrared waves

Radio Waves

- Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz

are normally called radio waves.
- Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves,
they are propagated in all directions.
- This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be
aligned.
- A sending antenna send waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna.
- The omnidirectional property has disadvantage, too. The radio waves
transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another
antenna that may send signal suing the same frequency or band.
- Radio waves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies, can
penetrate walls. This characteristic can be both an advantage and a
disadvantage. It is an advantage because, an AM radio can receive signals

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 inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a
communication to just inside or outside a building.

Omnidirectional Antenna for Radio Waves

Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions.

Applications of Radio Waves

• The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for

multicasting in which there is one sender but many receivers.
• AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging
are examples of multicasting.

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Micro Waves

- Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are

called micro waves.
- Micro waves are unidirectional.
- When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
- The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas
can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.

The following describes some characteristics of microwaves propagation:

• Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted

antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart
need to be very tall.
• Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic
can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside the buildings.
• The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore, wider
sub-bands can be assigned and a high date rate is possible.
• Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.

Unidirectional Antenna for Micro Waves

- Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one

direction.
- Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications:

i. Parabolic Dish and

ii. Horn.

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- A parabolic antenna works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and
directing them to a common point.
- In this way, more of the signal is recovered than would be possible with a
single-point receiver.
- A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop.
- Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a stem and deflected outward in a
series of narrow parallel beams by the curved head.
- Received transmissions are collected by the scooped shape of the horn, in a
manner similar to the parabolic dish, and are deflected down into the stem.

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43
Applications of Micro Waves

Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when

unicast(one-to-one) communication is needed between the sender and the receiver.
They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless LANs.

There are 2 types of Microwave Transmission :

1. Terrestrial Microwave
2. Satellite Microwave

Advantages of Microwave Transmission

• Used for long distance telephone communication

• Carries 1000's of voice channels at the same time

Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission

• It is very costly

Terrestrial Microwave

- For increasing the distance served by terrestrial microwave, repeaters can be

installed with each antenna .
- The signal received by an antenna can be converted into transmittable form
and relayed to next antenna as shown in below figure. It is an example of
telephone systems all over the world

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The microwave communication can either parabolic or horn type of antennas

Satellite Microwave

- This is a microwave relay station which is placed in outer space.

- The satellites are launched either by rockets or space shuttles carry them.
- These are positioned 36000 Km above the equator with an orbit speed that
exactly matches the rotation speed of the earth.
- As the satellite is positioned in a geo-synchronous orbit, it is stationery
relative to earth and always stays over the same point on the ground. This is
usually done to allow ground stations to aim antenna at a fixed point in the
sky.

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45
Features of Satellite Microwave

• Bandwidth capacity depends on the frequency used.

• Satellite microwave deployment for orbiting satellite is difficult.

Advantages of Satellite Microwave

• Transmitting station can receive back its own transmission and check
whether the satellite has transmitted information correctly.
• A single microwave relay station which is visible from any point.

Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave

• Satellite manufacturing cost is very high

• Cost of launching satellite is very expensive
• Transmission highly depends on whether conditions, it can go down in bad
weather

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Infrared Waves

- Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for
short-range communication.
- Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This
advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and
another, a short-range communication system in on room cannot be affected
by another system in the next room.
- When we use infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the
remote by our neighbours. However, this same characteristic makes infrared
signals useless for long-range communication.
- In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the
sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

Applications of Infrared Waves

• The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data
transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data
with a very high data rate.
• The Infrared Data Association(IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use
of infrared waves, has established standards for using these signals for
communication between devices such as keyboards, mouse, PCs and
printers.
• Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.

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47
 Factors to be considered while selecting a Transmission Medium

When selecting the suitable transmission media, the following factors must
be considered

1. Transmission Rate
2. Cost and Ease of Installation
3. Resistance to Environmental Conditions
4. Distances

TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES
Data signals can be transmitted using two main techniques
1. Serial data transmission
2. Parallel data transmission

Serial data transmission

- In serial data transmission, bits are sent sequentially (one after the other)
down the same wire (channel)
- Using a single wire reduces costs but slows down the speed of transmission.
- Sending data sequentially is perfect for transmitting over longer distances as
there are no synchronization issues.

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Uses of serial transmission

- Transmission to another computer or to external devices

- Medium to long distances
- Universal Serial Bus (USB)

Parallel data transmission

- In parallel data transmission, multiple bits are sent simultaneously down

different wires (channels) within the same cable.
- Data is synchronized by a clock, however this becomes problematic over
longer distances where synchronization errors may start to occur.
- Using parallel wires is more expensive but transmission is faster.

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49
Uses of parallel transmission

- Fast transmission within a computer system

- Short distances
- Integrated Circuits (IC), Busses

TRANSMISSION MODES

- Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between

two devices connected over a network.
- It is also called Communication Mode.
- These modes direct the direction of flow of information.
- There are three types of transmission modes. They are:

1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode

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SIMPLEX Mode

- In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e.
communication is unidirectional.
- We cannot send a message back to the sender.
- Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex Systems where we just
need to send a command/signal, and do not expect any response back.
- Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting,
television and remote, keyboard and monitor etc.

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51
HALF DUPLEX Mode

- Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both

directions on a signal carrier, but not at the same time.
- For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-
duplex transmission, one workstation can send data on the line and then
immediately receive data on the line from the same direction in which data
was just transmitted. Hence half-duplex transmission implies a bidirectional
line (one that can carry data in both directions) but data can be sent in only
one direction at a time.
- Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a
time but messages are sent in both the directions.

FULL DUPLEX Mode

- In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is

bidirectional at the same time in other words, data can be sent in both
directions simultaneously.
- Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is
communication between two persons by a telephone line, using which both
can talk and listen at the same time.

52
In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other
for receiving data.

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CHAPTER 6: Programming Fundamentals

Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

Contents
• definitions (computer program, programming, compiler, translator,
assembler)
• history of programming languages (machine language, assembly
language, high level languages)
• programming languages (examples: pascal, fortran, COBOL, C, C++,
Java, HTML, visual basic)
• programming techniques
o constructing a computer programme
▪ programme-structure
▪ compiling a computer programme
▪ running a computer programme
o program constructs
▪ discussing data types
▪ discussing data variables
▪ modifying data variables
▪ discussing how to access data types
▪ key words (calculate, count)
▪ input and output (read, display, print)
• designing programs that Read from the keyboard
using the Read command
• writing to the terminal using the Write command
▪ Operators (arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, logical: and, or, not comparison operators; equal
to, not equal to, less than, greater than)
• using arithmetic operators: + (plus), - (minus), //
(forward slash, * (multiplication)

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 • using Boolean and comparison operators in
programming (arithmetic: Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication, Division, logical: and, or, not
comparison operators; equal to, not equal to, less
than, greater than)
▪ Control structures (sequence, selection, loops)
• designing programmes that use control structures
o Debugging programmes

Definitions of terms in programming

computer program
- Set of instructions written using a programming language to tell
computer to perform a task
- A program is like a recipe containing a list of ingredients referred to as
variables and list of instructions ( statements) that instructs a computer
what to do with the variables
Programming language
- A formal language that specifies syntax and semantic rules for writing a
computer programs
- Examples of programming languages include Pascal, FORTRAN and
COBOL
Computer programming
- This is a process of writing a computer program using programming
language
- The person who writes programs is referred to as programmer
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 - Programmers are also called software developers or software engineers
Algorithm
- This is a design of a computer program prior to the implementation
- Algorithms are also referred to as program blue prints
Source code
- This is set of instructions written by a programmer that are not
converted into machine readable form
- This is usually a text file written in programming languages like BASIC,
Pascal or C++
Object code
- This is set of instructions that have been converted into machine
readable form
- Assemblers, interpreters and compliers are used to convert a source
code into an object code
Assembler
- Converts assembly language into machine readable form
Interpreters
- Converts source code into an object code statement by statement
allowing CPU to execute one line at a time
- Interpreted line is not stored in the computer memory hence every time
the program is needed for execution, each line has to be interpreted
- Interpreters were mostly used by early computers that did not have
memory

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Compiler
- Converts entire source code into object code
- The process of converting a source code into an object code by
compilers is called compilation
- The following are the steps of compilation process

a. Preprocess – source code is prepared for the conversion

b. Compile – source code is changed into an object code
c. Linking – libraries are added to an object code to generated an
executable file which is loaded into RAM and executed by CPU

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 Differences between interpreters and compilers
Interpreters Compilers
1. Translate the source code 1. Translate the entire source
to object code one code at once before execution
statement at a time
2. Translate the program each 3. Complied program (object
time it is to run hence code) can be saved on a
slower than compliers storage media and run as
required, hence they are faster
than interpreters
Interpreted object code takes less Compiled programs require more me
memory compared to compiled mory since object files are larger
program

A Brief History of Programming Languages

- Programming languages have been developed in stages called
generations
1. The first generation programming languages (Machine
Language
- The first generation program language is pure machine code, that is

just ones and zeros, e.g.

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 - Programmers have to design their code by hand then transfer it to a
computer by using a punch card, punch tape or flicking switches.
- There is no need to translate the code and it will run straight away.
This may sound rather archaic,
Advantages of Machine language
i. Code can be fast and efficient
ii. Code can make use of specific processor features such as special
registers

Drawbacks of Machine Language

i. Lack of portability

- Code cannot be ported to other systems

ii. Code is difficult to edit and update since very cumbersome to be

understood by human beings

Second generation programming (Assembly Language)

- Second-generation programming languages are a way of describing

Assembly code which you may have already met.
- Uses codes resembling English, programming becomes much easier.
- The usage of these mnemonic codes such as LDA for load and STA for
store means the code is easier to read and write.

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 - To convert an assembly code program into object code to run on a
computer requires an Assembler and each line of assembly can be
replaced by the equivalent one line of object (machine) code

Advantages of second generation languages (Assembly Language)

i. Code can be fast and efficient

ii. Code can make use of specific processor features such as special
registers
iii. As it is closer to plain English, it is easier to read and write when
compared to machine code

Drawbacks of Assembly Language

Lack of portability

- Code cannot be ported to other systems i.e a code only runs on a

machine where it was written

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NB: first and second generation programming languages are referred to Low
level Languages because computers can understand their code with minimal
effort.

Third generation Programming Language (High Level Language)

- Also called structured programming languages

- Structured programming languages has ability to break down a
program into smaller components called modules, each performing a
particular task
- 3GLs are close to human language hence can be read and understood
by people who are experts in programming.
Examples of 3GLs include
i. Pascal
o Enable teaching and learning structuall programming to be easy
ii. FOTRAN (FORmula TRANslator)
o For writing programs that solve scientific, mathematics and
engineering problems
iii. COBOL : (Common Business – Oriented Language)
o Suitable for developing programs that solve business problems
iv. BASIC :(Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
o Suitable for developing business and education systems

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 v. C :
o suitable for developing operating systems
vi. Ada
o suitable for developing military, industrial and real time systems

NB Third generation (High Level Languages) codes are imperative.

- Imperative means that code is executed line by line, in sequence. For
example:

Would output: 8

Fourth generation Programming Language

- Fourth-generation languages are designed to reduce programming

effort and the time it takes to develop software, resulting in a
reduction in the cost of software development.
- They are not always successful in this task, sometimes resulting in
inelegant and hard to maintain code.
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 - Examples of 4GLs includes
i. Structured Query Language (SQL),
ii. Oracle Reports
iii. CSS
An example of code written using SQL is as follows

Scripting Languages
- A scripting language is a programming language designed for
integrating and communicating with other programming languages.
- Some of the most widely used scripting languages are
i. JavaScript,
ii. VBScript,
iii. PHP,
iv. Perl,
v. Python,
vi. Ruby,
vii. ASP and
viii. Tcl.

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 - Since a scripting language is normally used in conjunction with another
programming language, they are often found alongside HTML, Java or
C++.

HTML (HyperText Markup Language)

- is the standard markup language for creating Web pages.

- HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language
- HTML describes the structure of a Web page
- HTML consists of a series of elements
- HTML elements tell the browser how to display the content
- HTML elements are represented by tags
- HTML tags label pieces of content such as "heading", "paragraph",
"table", and so
- Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to render the
content of the page

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Components of HTML code
Consider the following HTML code
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Page Title</title>
</head>
<body>

<h1>My First Heading</h1>

<p>My first paragraph.</p>

</body>
</html>

Code Explanation

• The <!DOCTYPE html> declaration defines this document to be

HTML5
• The <html> element is the root element of an HTML page
• The <head> element contains meta information about the document
• The <title> element specifies a title for the document

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 • The <body> element contains the visible page content
• The <h1> element defines a large heading
• The <p> element defines a paragraph

Advantages of High level language

1. High level languages are programmer friendly. They are easy to write,
debug and maintain.
2. It provides higher level of abstraction from machine languages.
3. It is machine independent language.
4. Easy to learn.
5. Less error prone, easy to find and debug errors.
6. High level programming results in better programming productivity.

Disadvantages of High level language

1. It takes additional translation times to translate the source to machine

code.
2. High level programs are comparatively slower than low level programs.
3. Compared to low level programs, they are generally less memory
efficient.
4. Cannot communicate directly with the hardware.

Program development process

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- A program development process consists of various steps that are
followed to develop a computer program.
- These steps are followed in a sequence in order to develop a
successful and beneficial computer program.
- Following is the brief description about program development process.

problem
definition

Program Review
Algorithm Design
and Maintenance

Program Testing
Program Coding
and debugging

- A programmer has to go through the following stages to develop a

computer program:
1. Defining and Analyzing The Problem
2. Designing The Algorithm
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 3. Coding or Writing The Program
4. Program Testing Execution
5. Debugging
6. Program review and maintenance

Defining and Analyzing The Problem

- In this step, a programmer studies the problem.

- He decides the best way to solve these problems.
- Studying a problem is also necessary because it helps a programmer
to decide about the following things:
o The facts and figures which are necessary for developing the
program.
o way in which the program will be designed
o Also, the language in which the program will be most suitable.
o What is the desired output and in which form it is needed, etc

Designing an Algorithm

- An algorithm is a sequence of steps that must be carried out before a

programmer starts preparing his program.
- The programmer designs an algorithm to help visual possible
alternatives in a program also.

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Coding or Writing the Program

- The next step after designing the algorithm is to write the program in
a high-level language.
- This process is known as coding.

Program Testing

- The process of executing the program to find out errors or bugs is

called test execution.
- It helps a programmer to check the logic of the program. It also
ensures that the program is error-free and workable.
- The following are common types of errors that might be encountered

i. Syntax error

- Due to improper use of language

- Also called grammatical errors
- These errors can be detected by a compiler

ii. Logical error

- Due to improper use of Logic in a program

- Can not be detected by a compiler
- A program runs successfully but gives a wrong output

Tracing an error in a program

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The following steps are used

a. Dry-run (desk check)

- Uses trace table to check whether an algorithm has errors

- Usually dry run checks for logical errors

b. Debugging

- Uses debug utility in an editor to check for syntax errors

c. Test data

- Carry out trial runs using test data to check for logical run-time errors
- Achieved by entering valid and invalid input to test whether the
program produces desired result

Debugging

- Debugging is a process of detecting, locating and correcting the bugs

in a program. It is performed by running the program again and again.

Program review and maintenance

- This is continuous updating and fixing of program errors after
installation
- Maintenance of a program stops only when a program has been
replace or if it becomes unusable

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Final Documentation

- When the program is finalized, its documentation is prepared. Final

documentation is provided to the user.
- It guides the user how to use the program in the most efficient way.
- Furthermore, another purpose of documentation is to allow other
programmers to modify the code if necessary.
- Documentation should also be done in each step during the
development of the program.

Characteristics of a good program

A good computer program should have following characteristics:

1. Portability:
- Portability refers to the ability of an application to run on different
platforms (operating systems) with or without minimal changes.

2. Readability:

- The program should be written in such a way that it makes other

programmers or users to follow the logic of the program without much
effort.
- If a program is written structurally, it helps the programmers to
understand their own program in a better way.
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3. Efficiency:
- Every program requires certain processing time and memory to
process the instructions and data.
- As the processing power and memory are the most precious resources
of a computer, a program should be laid out in such a manner that it
utilizes the least amount of memory and processing time.

4. Structural:

- To develop a program, the task must be broken down into a number

of subtasks.
- These subtasks are developed independently, and each subtask is able
to perform the assigned job without the help of any other subtask.
- If a program is developed structurally, it becomes more readable, and
the testing and documentation process also gets easier.

5. Flexibility:

- A program should be flexible enough to handle most of the changes

without having to rewrite the entire program.
- Most of the programs are developed for a certain period and they
require modifications from time to time.
- For example, in case of payroll management, as the time progresses,
some employees may leave the company while some others may join.

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 Hence, the payroll application should be flexible enough to incorporate
all the changes without having to reconstruct the entire application.

6. Generality:

- Apart from flexibility, the program should also be general.

- Generality means that if a program is developed for a particular task,
then it should also be used for all similar tasks of the same domain.
- For example, if a program is developed for a particular organization,
then it should suit all the other similar organizations.

7. Documentation:

- Documentation is one of the most important components of an

application development.
- Even if a program is developed following the best programming
practices, it will be rendered useless if the end user is not able to fully
utilize the functionality of the application.
- A well-documented application is also useful for other programmers
because even in the absence of the author, they can understand it.

Programming in Visual Basic

- VB.Net is a simple, modern, object-oriented computer programming
language developed by Microsoft to combine the power of .NET

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 Framework and the common language runtime with the productivity
benefits that are the hallmark of Visual Basic.
- VB.NET is implemented by Microsoft's .NET framework. Therefore, it
has full access to all the libraries in the .Net Framework. It's also
possible to run VB.NET programs on Mono, the open-source alternative
to .NET, not only under Windows, but even Linux or Mac OSX.

The following reasons make VB.Net a widely used professional language −

• Modern, general purpose.

• Object oriented.
• Component oriented.
• Easy to learn.
• Structured language.
• It produces efficient programs.
• It can be compiled on a variety of computer platforms.
• Part of .Net Framework.

Setting environment for VB.net programming

The following tools are required to set up environment for writing and
running Visual basic programs

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 1. The .Net Framework

- The .Net framework is a revolutionary platform that helps you to write

the following types of applications

i. Windows applications
ii. Web applications
iii. Web services

2. Integrated Development Environment (IDE) For VB.Net

- Microsoft provides the following development tools for VB.Net

programming −

• Visual Studio 2010 (VS)

• Visual Basic 2010 Express (VBE)
• Visual Web Developer

NB : for you to start programming in VB, make sure one of the above IDE
is installed in your computer

Structure of VB program

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To understand structure of VB program, lets consider the following example
of simple program written in VB.net

VB.Net Hello World Example

A VB.Net program basically consists of the following parts −

• Namespace declaration
• A class or module
• One or more procedures
• Variables
• The Main procedure
• Statements & Expressions
• Comments

Let us look at a simple code that would print the words "Hello World" −

Imports System
Module Module1
'This program will display Hello World
Sub Main()
Console.WriteLine("Hello World")
Console.ReadKey()
End Sub

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End Module

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −

Hello, World!

Let us look various parts of the above program –

- The first line of the program Imports System is used to include the
System namespace in the program.
- The next line has a Module declaration, the module Module1. VB.Net
is completely object oriented, so every program must contain a module
of a class that contains the data and procedures that your program
uses.
- Classes or Modules generally would contain more than one procedure.
Procedures contain the executable code, or in other words, they define
the behavior of the class. A procedure could be any of the following −

o Function
o Sub
o Operator
o Get
o Set

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 o AddHandler
o RemoveHandler
o RaiseEvent

- The next line( 'This program) will be ignored by the compiler and it has
been put to add additional comments in the program.
- The next line defines the Main procedure, which is the entry point for
all VB.Net programs. The Main procedure states what the module or
class will do when executed.
- The Main procedure specifies its behavior with the statement

Console.WriteLine("Hello World") WriteLine is a method of the

Console class defined in the System namespace. This statement
causes the message "Hello, World!" to be displayed on the screen.

- The last line Console.ReadKey() is for the VS.NET Users. This will
prevent the screen from running and closing quickly when the program
is launched from Visual Studio .NET.

Compile & Execute VB.Net Program

If you are using Visual Studio.Net IDE, take the following steps −

• Start Visual Studio.

• On the menu bar, choose File → New → Project.
• Choose Visual Basic from templates
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 • Choose Console Application.
• Specify a name and location for your project using the Browse button,
and then choose the OK button.
• The new project appears in Solution Explorer.
• Write code in the Code Editor.
• Click the Run button or the F5 key to run the project. A Command
Prompt window appears that contains the line Hello World.

You can compile a VB.Net program by using the command line instead of the
Visual Studio IDE −

• Open a text editor and add the above mentioned code.

• Save the file as helloworld.vb
• Open the command prompt tool and go to the directory where you
saved the file.
• Type vbc helloworld.vb and press enter to compile your code.
• If there are no errors in your code the command prompt will take you
to the next line and would generate helloworld.exe executable file.
• Next, type helloworld to execute your program.
• You will be able to see "Hello World" printed on the screen.

.1 Creating Your First Application

- First of all, launch Microsoft Visual Basic 6 compiler that you have
installed earlier.
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- In the New Project Dialog , choose Standard EXE to enter Visual Basic
6 integrated development environment.
- In the VB6 IDE, a default form with the name Form1 will appear.
- Next, double click on Form1 to bring up the source code window for
Form1, as shown in Figure below

- The top of the source code window consists of a list of objects and
their associated events or procedures.

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- In the source code window, the object displayed is Form1 and the
associated procedure is Load.
- When you click on the object box, the drop-down list will display a list
of objects you have inserted into your form.
- Here, you can see a form with the name Form1, a command button
with the name Command1, a Label with the name Label1 and a Picture
Box with the name Picture1

- Some of the procedures associated with the object Form1 are Activate,
Click, DblClick (which means Double-Click) , DragDrop, keyPress and
more.

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- Each object has its own set of procedures.
- You can always select an object and write codes for any of its
procedure in order to perform certain tasks.

- You do not have to worry about the beginning and the end statements

(i.e. Private Sub Form_Load.......End Sub.);

- Just key in the lines in between the above two statements exactly as
are shown here.

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 - When you press F5 to run the program, you will be surprised that
nothing showed up
- .In order to display the output of the program, you have to add the
Form1.show statement or you can just use Form_Activate (
) event procedure
- The command Print does not mean printing using a printer but it
means displaying the output on the computer screen.
- Now, press F5 or click on the run button to run the program and you
will get the output as

Example 1

Private Sub Form_Load ( )

Form1.show

Print "Welcome to Visual Basic tutorial"

End Sub

Example 2

Private Sub Form_Activate ( )

Print 20 + 10
Print 20 - 10

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Print 20 * 10
Print 20 / 10

End Sub

Output for example 1

Output for example 2

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You can also use the + or the & operator to join two or more texts (string)
together

Example 3

Private Sub

A = "Tom"
B = "likes"
C = "to"
D = "eat"
E = "burger"
Print A + B + C + D + E

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End Sub

Example 4

Private Sub

A = "Tom"
B = "likes"
C = "to"
D = "eat"
E = "burger"
Print A & B & C & D & E

End Sub

OUTPUT for example 3 and 4

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Steps in Building a Visual Basic Application

Step 1: Design the interface by adding controls to the form and set their
properties

Step 2: Write code for the event procedures

Example 5 Changing Background and Foreground Color at Random

- In this example, we want to show you how to write code to change

the background and the foreground color randomly.
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- We will place two command buttons and a label on the form. One of
the command buttons will be used to change the background color
while the other one will be used to change the foreground color.
- The Label is for displaying the foreground color. There are two events
here, change background color and change foreground color.
Therefore, we need to write code for the two event procedures.

• To make the program more interesting, we will use the Rnd() function,
the Int() function and the RGB codes to change the color randomly.

- The Rnd() function creates a random number between 0 and 1 and the
RGB code uses a combination of three integers to form a certain color.
- The Int() is a function that converts a number into an integer by
truncating its decimal part and the resulting integer is the largest
integer that is smaller than the number. For example, Int(0.2)=0,
Int(2.4)=2, Int(4.8)=4.
- Therefore, Int(Rnd()*256) returns the smallest integer 0 and the
biggest integer 255.
- The format of RGB code is RGB(a,b,c), where a, b, c range from 0 to
255. For example, RGB(255,0,0) is red, RGB(255,255,255) is white and
(0,0,0) is black. Do not worry about the jargons, you will learn them in
later.

1. Now, rename the controls as follows:

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 • Form1-MyForm
• Label1-LblMessage
• Command1-cmd_bgColor
• Command2-cmd_fgColor

2. Next, change the caption of the Label to "Please Change My Color".

- In addition, change the caption of Command1 button to "Change

Background Color" and change the caption of Command2 button to
"Change Foreground Color"

3. Now, enter the following code

Private Sub cmd_bgColor_Click()

Dim r, g, b As Integer
r = Int(Rnd() * 256)
g = Int(Rnd() * 256)
b = Int(Rnd() * 256)
MyForm.BackColor = RGB(r, g, b)
End Sub

Private Sub Cmd_fgColor_Click()

Dim r, g, b As Integer
r = Int(Rnd() * 256)
g = Int(Rnd() * 256)
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b = Int(Rnd() * 256)
Lbl_Msg.ForeColor = RGB(r, g, b)
End Sub

- When you run the program, each time you press on the 'Change
Background Color' button, you will see different background color.
- Similarly, each time you press on the 'Change Foreground Color', you
will see the message on the Label changes color. The output is shown
below

The Control Properties

- Before writing an event procedure for the control to response to an

event, you have to set certain properties for the control to determine
its appearance and how will it work with the event procedure.
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- You can set the properties of the controls in the properties window or
at runtime.
- In the properties window, the item appears at the top part is the
object currently selected.
- At the bottom part, the items listed in the left column represent the
names of various properties associated with the selected object while
the items listed in the right column represent the states of the
properties.
- Properties can be set by highlighting the items in the right column then
change them by typing or selecting the options available.

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- For example, in order to change the caption, just highlight Form1
under the name Caption and change it to other names.
- You may also alter the appearance of the form by setting it to 3D or
flat, change its foreground and background color, change the font type
and font size, enable or disable, minimize and maximize buttons and
more.
- You can also change the properties at runtime to give special effects
such as change of color, shape, animation effect and so on.

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Example 6 Program to change background color

This example changes the background colour of the form using the
BackColor property.

Private Sub Form_Load()

Form1.Show
Form1.BackColor = &H000000FF&
End Sub

Example 7: Program to change shape

- This example is to change the control's Shape using the Shape

property. This code will change the shape to a circle at runtime.

Private Sub Form_Load()

Shape1.Shape = 3
End Sub

Handling some of the common Controls

Below is the VB6 toolbox that shows the basic controls.

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The TextBox

- The text box is the standard control for accepting input from the user
as well as to display the output.
- It can handle string (text) and numeric data but not images or
pictures.
- A string entered into a text box can be converted to a numeric data
by using the function Val(text).
- The following example illustrates a simple program that processes the
input from the user.

Example 8

- In this program, two text boxes are inserted into the form together
with a few labels.

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 - The two text boxes are used to accept inputs from the user and one of
the labels will be used to display the sum of two numbers that are
entered into the two text boxes.
- Besides, a command button is also programmed to calculate the sum
of the two numbers using the plus operator.
- The program use creates a variable sum to accept the summation of
values from text box 1 and text box 2.
- The procedure to calculate and to display the output on the label is
shown below.

Private Sub Command1_Click()

'To add the values in TextBox1 and TextBox2
Sum = Val(Text1.Text) +Val(Text2.Text)
'To display the answer on label 1
Label1.Caption = Sum
End Sub

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The Label

- The label is a very useful control for Visual Basic, as it is not only used
to provide instructions and guides to the users, it can also be used to
display outputs.

- One of its most important properties is Caption. Using the syntax

Label.

- Caption, it can display text and numeric data. You can change its
caption in the properties window and also at runtime.

The Command Button

- The command button is one of the most important controls as it is

used to execute commands.
- It displays an illusion that the button is pressed when the user click on
it.

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 - The most common event associated with the command button is the
Click event, and the syntax for the procedure is

Private Sub Command1_Click ()

Statements
End Sub

Example 9 A Simple Password Cracker

- In this program, we want to crack a secret passoword entered by the

user.
- In the design phase, insert a command button and change its name to
cmd_ShowPass.
- Next, insert a TextBox and rename it as TxtPassword and delete Text1
from the Text property.
- Besides that, set its PasswordChr to *. Now, enter the following code
in the code window.

Private Sub cmd_ShowPass_Click()

Dim yourpassword As String
yourpassword = Txt_Password.Text
MsgBox ("Your password is: " & yourpassword)
End Sub

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Run the program and enter a password, then click on the Show Password
button to reveal the password, as shown below.

- You can also reveal the password by setting the PasswordChr property
back to normal mode, as follows:

Private Sub cmd_ShowPass_Click()

Dim yourpassword As String
Txt_Password.PasswordChar = ""
End Sub

The PictureBox

- The Picture Box is one of the controls that is used to handle graphics.
- You can load a picture at design phase by clicking on the picture item
in the properties window and select the picture from the selected
folder.

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 - You can also load the picture at runtime using the LoadPicture
method.
- For example, the statement will load the picture grape.gif into the
picture box.

Picture1.Picture=LoadPicture ("C:\VBprogram\Images\grape.gif")

Example : Loading Picture

In this program, insert a command button and a picture box. Enter the
following code:

Private Sub cmd_LoadPic_Click()

MyPicture.Picture = LoadPicture("C:\Users\admin.DESKTOP-
G1G4HEK\Documents\My Websites\vbtutor\vb6\images\uranus.jpg")
End Sub

* You must ensure the path to access the picture is correct. Besides that,
the image in the picture box is not resizable. The output is shown below

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The Image Control

- The Image Control is another control that handles images and

pictures.
- It functions almost identically to the pictureBox. However, there is one
major difference, the image in an Image Box is stretchable, which
means it can be resized.
- This feature is not available in the PictureBox. Similar to the Picture
Box, it can also use the LoadPicture method to load the picture.
- For example, the statement loads the picture grape.gif into the image
box.

Image1.Picture=LoadPicture ("C:\VBprogram\Images\grape.gif")

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Example :: Loading Image

- In this program, we insert a command button and an image control

into the form. Besides that, we set the image Strech property to true.
- Next, enter te following code:

Private Sub cmd_LoadImg_Click()

MyImage.Picture = LoadPicture("C:\Users\admin.DESKTOP-
G1G4HEK\Documents\My Websites\vbtutor\vb6\images\uranus.jpg")
End Sub

* Note the difference between the image in Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6.

The ListBox

- The function of the ListBox is to present a list of items where the user
can click and select the items from the list.

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 - In order to add items to the list, we can use the AddItem method.
For example, if you wish to add a number of items to list box 1, you
can key in the following statements

Example
Private Sub Form_Load ( )
List1.AddItem “Lesson1”
List1.AddItem “Lesson2”
List1.AddItem “Lesson3”
List1.AddItem “Lesson4”
End Sub

The Output

- The items in the list box can be identified by the ListIndex property, the
value of the ListIndex for the first item is 0, the second item has a ListIndex
1, and the third item has a ListIndex 2 and so on
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The ComboBox

- The function of the Combo Box is also to present a list of items where
the user can click and select the items from the list.
- However, the user needs to click on the small arrowhead on the right
of the combo box to see the items which are presented in a drop-down
list.
- In order to add items to the list, you can also use the AddItem
method.
- For example, if you wish to add a number of items to Combo box 1,
you can key in the following statements

Example
Private Sub Form_Load ( )
Combo1.AddItem "Item1"
Combo1.AddItem "Item2"
Combo1.AddItem "Item3"
Combo1.AddItem "Item4"
End Sub

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The Output

The CheckBox

- The Check Box control lets the user selects or unselects an option.
- When the Check Box is checked, its value is set to 1 and when it is
unchecked, the value is set to 0.
- You can include the statements Check1.Value=1 to mark the Check
Box and Check1. Value=0 to unmark the Check Box, as well as use
them to initiate certain actions.
- For example, the program in Example below will show which items are
selected in a message box.

Example
Private Sub Cmd_OK_Click()
If Check1.Value = 1 And Check2.Value = 0 And Check3.Value = 0 Then
MsgBox "Apple is selected"
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ElseIf Check2.Value = 1 And Check1.Value = 0 And Check3.Value = 0 Then
MsgBox "Orange is selected"
ElseIf Check3.Value = 1 And Check1.Value = 0 And Check2.Value = 0
Then
MsgBox "Orange is selected"
ElseIf Check2.Value = 1 And Check1.Value = 1 And Check3.Value = 0 Then
MsgBox "Apple and Orange are selected"
ElseIf Check3.Value = 1 And Check1.Value = 1 And Check2.Value = 0 Then
MsgBox "Apple and Pear are selected"
ElseIf Check2.Value = 1 And Check3.Value = 1 And Check1.Value = 0 Then
MsgBox "Orange and Pear are selected"
Else
MsgBox "All are selected"
End If
End Sub

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The Output

The OptionButton

- The OptionButton control also lets the user selects one of the choices.
However, two or more Option buttons must work together because as
one of the option buttons is selected, the other Option button will be
unselected
- In fact, only one Option Box can be selected at one time.
- When an option box is selected, its value is set to “True” and when it
is unselected; its value is set to “False”.

Example

- In this example, we want to change the background color of the form

according to the selected option.

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 - We insert three option buttons and change their captions to "Red
Background","Blue Background" and "Green Background" respectively.
- Next, insert a command button and change its name to cmd_SetColor
and its caption to "Set Background Color". Now, click on the command
button and enter the following code in the code window:

Private Sub cmd_SetColor_Click()

If Option1.Value = True Then
Form1.BackColor = vbRed
ElseIf Option2.Value = True Then
Form1.BackColor = vbBlue
Else
Form1.BackColor = vbGreen
End If
End Sub

Run the program, select an option and click the "Set Background Color"
produces the output, as shown below

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The Shape Control
- In the following example, the shape control is placed in the form
together with six OptionButtons.
- To determine the shape of the shape control, we use the shape
property.
- The property values of the shape control are 0, 1, and 2,3,4,5 which
will make it appear as a rectangle, a square, an oval shape, a circle, a
rounded rectangle and a rounded square respectively.

Example

- In this example, we insert six option buttons.

- It is better to make the option buttons into a control array as they
perform similar action, i.e to change shape.
- In order to create a control array, click on the first option button,
rename it as MyOption. Next, click on the option button and select
copy then paste.
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 - clicking the paste button, a popup dialog will ask you whether you
wish to create a control array, select yes.
- The control array can be accessed via its index value, MyOtion(Index.
In addition, we also insert a shape control.

- Now, enter the code in the code window. We use the If..Then..Else
program structure to determine which option button is selected by the
user. Private Sub MyOption_Click(Index As Integer)

If Index = 0 Then
MyShape.Shape = 0
ElseIf Index = 1 Then
MyShape.Shape = 1
ElseIf Index = 2 Then
MyShape.Shape = 2
ElseIf Index = 3 Then
MyShape.Shape = 3
ElseIf Index = 4 Then

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MyShape.Shape = 4
ElseIf Index = 5 Then
MyShape.Shape = 5

End If

End Sub

- Run the program and you can change the shape of the shape control
by clicking one of the option buttons.
- The output is shown in Figure below.

Figure 3.

The DriveListBox

- The DriveListBox is for displaying a list of drives available in your

computer.
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 - When you place this control into the form and run the program, you
will be able to select different drives from your computer as shown
below

The DirListBox

- The DirListBox means the Directory List Box.

- It is for displaying a list of directories or folders in a selected drive.
- When you place this control into the form and run the program, you
will be able to select different directories from a selected drive in your
computer as shown below

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DirListBox

The FileListBox

- You can coordinate the Drive List Box, the Directory List Box and the
File List Box to search for the files you want.

Event Procedure
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 - For each event, you need to write an event procedure so that it can
perform an action or a series of actions.
- To start writing code for an event procedure, you need to double-click
an object to enter the VB code window.
- For example, if you want to write code for the event of clicking a
command button, you double-click the command button and enter the
codes in the event procedure that appears in the code window, as
shown below

Figure 4.1

The structure of an event procedure is as follows:

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Private Sub Command1_Click

VB Statements

End Sub

- You enter the codes in the space between Private Sub

Command1_Click............. End Sub.
- The keyword Sub actually stands for a sub procedure that made up a
part of all the procedures in a program or a module.
- The program code is made up of a number of VB statements that set
certain properties or trigger some actions.
- The syntax of the Visual Basic’s program code is almost like the normal
English language, though not exactly the same, so it is fairly easy to
learn.
- The syntax to set the property of an object or to pass a certain value
to it is :

Object.Property

where Object and Property are separated by a period (or dot).

- For example, the statement Form1.Show means to show the form

with the name Form1, Iabel1.Visible=true means label1 is set to be
visible, Text1.text=”VB” is to assign the text VB to the text box with
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 the name Text1, Text2.text=100 is to pass a value of 100 to the text
box with the name text2, Timer1.Enabled=False is to disable the
timer with the name Timer1 and so on.
- Let’s examine a few examples below:

Example
Private Sub Command1_click()
Label1.Visible=false
Label2.Visible=True
Text1.Text="You are correct!"

End sub

Example
Private Sub Command1_click()
Label1.Caption="Welcome"
Image1.visible=true
End sub

Example
Private Sub Command1_click()
Pictuire1.Show=true
Timer1.Enabled=True
Lable1.Caption="Start Counting"
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End sub

Example : A Counter

- This is a counter which start counting after the user click on a

command button. In this program, we insert a label, two command
buttons and a Timer control.
- The label acts as a counter, one of the command buttons is to start
the counter and the other one is to stop the counter.
- The Timer control is a control that is only used by the developer, it is
invisible during runtime and it does not allow the user to interact with
it.
- The Timer's Interval property determine how frequent the timer
changes. A value of 1 is 1 milliseconds which means a value of 1000
represents 1 second.
- In this example, we set the interval to 100, which represents 0.1
second interval. In addition, the Timer's Enabled property is set to
false at design time as we do not want the program to start counting
immediately, the program only start counting after the the user clicks
on te "Start Counting" button. You can also reset the counter using
another command button.

The Code
Dim n As Integer
Private Sub cmd_StartCount_Click()
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Timer1.Enabled = True
End Sub

Private Sub cmd_Stop_Click()

Timer1.Enabled = False
End Sub

Private Sub Command1_Click()

Lbl_Display.Caption = 0
End Sub

Private Sub Timer1_Timer()

n=n+1
Lbl_Display.Caption = n
End Sub

- We declare the variable n in the general area. After the Timer1 is

enabled, it will add 1 to the preceding number using n=n+1 after
every interval untill the user click on the "Stop Counting" button.

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The Output

Example Click and Double Click

- This program display a message whether the label is being click once
or click twice.
- In this program, insert a label and rename it as MyLabel and change
its caption to "CLICK ME". Next, key in the following codes:

Private Sub MyLabel_Click()

MyLabel.Caption = "You Click Me Once"
End Sub
Private Sub MyLabel_DblClick()
MyLabel.Caption = "You Click Me Twice!"
End Sub
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The out

- Running the program and click the label once, the "CLICK ME" caption
will change to "You Click Me Once". If you click the label twice, the
"CLICK ME" caption will change to "You Click Me Twice!".

NB: In Visual Basic, most of the syntaxes resemble the English language.
Among the syntaxes are Print, If…Then….Else….End If, For…Next,
Select Case…..End Select , End and Exit Sub. For example, Print “
Visual Basic” is to display the text Visual Basic on screen and End is to end
the program.

- Program code that involves calculations is fairly easy to write, just like
what you do in mathematics. However, in order to write an event

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66
 procedure that involves calculations, you need to know the basic
arithmetic operators in VB as they are not exactly the same as the
normal operators , except for + and - .

i. For multiplication, we use *,

ii. for division we use /,
iii. for raising a number x to the power of n, we use x ^n and
iv. for square root, we use Sqr(x).

- VB offers many more advanced mathematical functions such as Sin,

Cos, Tan and Log,.
- There are also two important functions that are related to arithmetic
operations, i.e. the functions Val and Str$ where Val is to convert text
to a numerical value and Str$ is to convert numerical to a string
(text).
- While the function Str$ is as important as VB can display a numeric
value as string implicitly, failure to use Val will result in the wrong
calculation.

Example
Private Sub Form_Activate()
Text3.text=text1.text+text2.text
End Sub

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 - When you run the program above and enter 12 in textbox1 and 3 in
textbox2 will give you a result of 123, which is wrong.
- It is because VB treat the numbers as string and so it just joins up the
two strings. On the other hand,

Example
Private Sub Form_Activate()
Text3.text=val(text1.text)+val(text2.text)
End Sub

- Running the above program code will give you the correct result, i.e.,
15.

Visual Basic Data Types

- VB6 classifies the information into two major data types, they are the

i. Numeric data types and the

ii. Non-numeric data types.

Numeric Data Types

- Numeric data types are types of data that consist of numbers that can
be computed mathematically with standard operators.
- Examples of numeric data types are

o height,
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 o weight,
o share values,
o the price of goods,
o monthly bills,
o fees and others.

- In Visual Basic, numeric data are divided into 7 types, depending on

the range of values they can store.
- Calculations that only involve round figures can use Integer or Long
integer in the computation.
- Programs that require high precision calculation need to use Single
and Double decision data types, they are also called floating point
numbers.
- For currency calculation , you can use the currency data types.
- Lastly, if even more precision is required to perform calculations that
involve many decimal points, we can use the decimal data types.
- These data types summarized below

Numeric Data Types

Type Storage Range of Values

Byte 1 byte 0 to 255

Integer 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767

Long 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648

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 -3.402823E+38 to -1.401298E-45 for negative
Single 4 bytes values 1.401298E-45 to 3.402823E+38 for
positive values.

-1.79769313486232e+308 to -
4.94065645841247E-324 for negative values
Double 8 bytes
4.94065645841247E-324 to
1.79769313486232e+308 for positive values.

-922,337,203,685,477.5808 to
Currency 8 bytes
922,337,203,685,477.5807

+/- 79,228,162,514,264,337,593,543,950,335
if no decimal is use +/-
Decimal 12 bytes
7.9228162514264337593543950335 (28
decimal places).

Non-numeric Data Types

- Nonnumeric data types are data that cannot be manipulated

mathematically.
- Non-numeric data comprises string data types, date data types,
boolean data types that store only two values (true or false), object
data type and Variant data type .
- They are summarized in Table below

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 Nonnumeric Data Types

Data Type Storage Range

Length of
String(fixed length) 1 to 65,400 characters
string

String(variable Length + 10
0 to 2 billion characters
length) bytes

January 1, 100 to
Date 8 bytes
December 31, 9999

Boolean 2 bytes True or False

Object 4 bytes Any embedded object

Any value as large as

Variant(numeric) 16 bytes
Double

Length+22 Same as variable-length

Variant(text)
bytes string

Suffixes for Literals

- Literals are values that you assign to data. In some cases, we need to
add a suffix behind a literal so that VB can handle the calculation more
accurately.
- For example, we can use num=1.3089# for a Double type data. Some
of the suffixes are displayed in Table below

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 Suffixes for Literals

Suffix Data Type

& Long

! Single

# Double

@ Currency

- In addition, we need to enclose string literals within two quotations

and date and time literals within two # sign. Strings can contain any
characters, including numbers.
- The following are few examples:

memberName="Turban, John."
TelNumber="1800-900-888-777"
LastDay=#31-Dec-00#
ExpTime=#12:00 am#

Managing Variables

- Variables are named locations in a computer program

- Variables are like mail boxes in the post office. The contents of the
variables changes every now and then, just like the mail boxes.

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 - In term of VB, variables are areas allocated by the computer memory
to hold data. Like the mail boxes, each variable must be given a name.
- To name a variable in Visual Basic, you have to follow a set of rules.

i. Variable Names

- The following are the rules when naming the variables in Visual Basic

• It must be less than 255 characters

• No spacing is allowed
• It must not begin with a number
• Period is not permitted
• Cannot use exclamation mark (!), or the characters @, &, $, #
• Cannot repeat names within the same level of scope.

Examples of valid and invalid variable names are displayed in Table below

Examples of Valid and Invalid Variable Names

Valid Name Invalid Name

My_Car My.Car

this year 1NewBoy

Long_Name_Can_beUSE He&HisFather *& is not acceptable

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Declaring Variables Explicitly

- In Visual Basic, it is a good practice to declare the variables before

using them by assigning names and data types.
- They are normally declared in the general section of the codes'
windows using the Dim statement.
- You can use any variable to hold any data , but different types of
variables are designed to work efficiently with different data types .
The syantax is as follows:

Dim VariableName As DataType

- If you want to declare more variables, you can declare them in

separate lines or you may also combine more in one line , separating
each variable with a comma, as follows:

Dim VariableName1 As DataType1, VariableName2 As

DataType2,VariableName3 As DataType3

Example
Dim password As String
Dim yourName As String
Dim firstnum As Integer
Dim secondnum As Integer
Dim total As Integer

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Dim doDate As Date
Dim password As String, yourName As String, firstnum As Integer

- Unlike other programming languages, Visual Basic actually doesn't

require you to specifically declare a variable before it's used. If a
variable isn't declared, VB will automatically declare the variable as a
Variant.
- A variant is data type that can hold any type of data.
- For string declaration, there are two possible types, one for the
variable-length string and another for the fixed-length string.
- For the variable-length string, just use the same format as example
above. However, for the fixed-length string, you have to use the
syntax as shown below:

Dim VariableName as String * n

- where n defines the number of characters the string can hold.

For example,

Dim yourName as String * 10

*yourName can holds no more than 10 Characters.

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Scope of Declaration

- Other than using the Dim keyword to declare the data, you can also
use other keywords to declare the data.
- Three other keywords are

i. private ,
ii. static and
iii. public.

The forms are as shown below:

Private VariableName as Datatype

Static VariableName as Datatype
Public VariableName as Datatype

- The above keywords indicate the scope of the declaration.

- Private declares a local variable or a variable that is local to a
procedure or module. However, Private is rarely used, we normally use
Dim to declare a local variable.
- The Static keyword declares a variable that is being used multiple
times, even after a procedure has been terminated.
- Most variables created inside a procedure are discarded by Visual
Basic when the procedure is finished, static keyword preserves the
value of a variable even after the procedure is terminated.

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 - Public is the keyword that declares a global variable, which means it
can be used by all the procedures and modules of the whole program.

Constants

- Constants are different from variables in the sense that their values do
not change during the running of the program.

Declaring a Constant

The syntax to declare a constant is

Constant Name As Data Type = Value

Example

- In this example, we insert a Shape control and two command buttons.

Set the shape value of the Shape control to 3 so that it becomes a
circle.
- Rename one of the command buttons to CmdResize for changing the
size of the circle. Rename the other command button as CmdArea for
calculation of the area of the circle.
- In this program, we declare four variables and a constant in the
General section.
- The varaible h is to store the value of height of the circle and the
variable r is to store the value of the radius which is half of the height.

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 - In addtion, the variable a is to store the value of area in twip using the
formula area of circle=πr2. Besides that, the constant Pi represents π
which we fixed at 3.142. Finally, the variable area is to store the value
in cm by multiplying a with 0.001763889. (1 twip =0.001763889 cm)

The Code
Dim h, r, a, rad, area As Single
Const Pi As Single = 3.142

Private Sub CmdArea_Click()

r=h/2
rad = r * 0.001763889
a = Pi * rad ^ 2
area = Round(a, 2)
MsgBox ("The Area of the circle is " & area)
End Sub

Private Sub CmdResize_Click()

h = InputBox("Enter the value of height")
MyShape.Height = h

End Sub

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The Output

Assigning Values to Variables

- After declaring various variables using the Dim statements, we can

assign values to those variables. The syntax of an assignment is

Variable=Expression

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 - The variable can be a declared variable or a control property value.
- The expression could be a mathematical expression, a number, a
string, a Boolean value (true or false) and more.
- The following are some examples variable assignment:

firstNumber=100
secondNumber=firstNumber-99
userName="John Lyan"
userpass.Text = password
Label1.Visible = True
Command1.Visible = false
Label4.Caption = textbox1.Text
ThirdNumber = Val(usernum1.Text)
X = (3.14159 / 180) * A

Operators in Visual Basic

- Operators are symbols that are used to manipulate inputs from users
and to generate results,
- We need to use various mathematical operators

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 - . In Visual Basic, except for + and -, the symbols for the operators are
different from normal mathematical operators, as shown in Table
below

Arithmetic Operators

Operator Mathematical function Example>

^ Exponential 2^4=16

* Multiplication 4*3=12,

/ Division 12/4=3

Modulus (returns the remainder from

Mod 15 Mod 4=3
an integer division)

Integer Division(discards the decimal

\ 19\4=4
places)

"Visual"&"Basic"="Visual
+ or & String concatenation
Basic"

Example
Private Sub Command1_Click()

Dim firstName As String

Dim secondName As String
Dim yourName As String

firstName = Text1.Text
secondName = Text2.Text
yourName = secondName +"" + firstName
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Label1.Caption = yourName
End Sub

- In above Example, three variables are declared as string.

- For variables firstName and secondName will receive their data from
the user’s input into textbox1 and textbox2,
- the variable yourName will be assigned the data by combining the first
two variables.
- Finally, yourName is displayed on Label1.

Example
Dim number1, number2,number3 as Integer
Dim total, average as variant
Private sub Form_Click()

number1=val(Text1.Text)
number2=val(Text2.Text)
number3= val(Text3.Text)
Total=number1+number2+number3
Average=Total/5
Label1.Caption=Total
Label2.Caption=Average
End Sub

- In the above example , three variables are declared as integer and two
variables are declared as variant.
- Variant means the variable can hold any data type. The program
computes the total and average of the three numbers that are entered
into three text boxes.

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Example : Easy Math

- This is a simple math drill program where the user enter two numbers
and calculate its sum. The program will tell him whether the answer is
right or wrong.
- To add some gist to the program, the user needs to enter the
password before he or she can proceed.

The Code
Dim password As String
Dim yourName As String
Dim firstnum As Integer
Dim secondnum As Integer
Dim total As Integer
Dim doDate As Date

Private Sub Command1_Click()

If userpass.Text = password Then
Label2.Visible = True
number1.Visible = True
number2.Visible = True
sum.Visible = True
Label3.Visible = True
Command3.Visible = True
usernum1.Visible = True
usernum2.Visible = True
OK.Visible = True
Label4.Visible = True
Label4.Caption = textbox1.Text
textbox1.Visible = False
userpass.Visible = False
username.Visible = False
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Label1.Visible = False
Command1.Visible = False
Else
userpass.Text = ""
userpass.SetFocus
End If

End Sub

3.'
Private Sub Form_Load()
password = "liewxun"
End Sub

Private Sub OK_Click()

firstnum = usernum1.Text
secondnum = usernum2.Text
total = sum.Text
If total = firstnum + secondnum And Val(sum.Text) <> 0 Then
correct.Visible = True
wrong.Visible = False
Else
correct.Visible = False
wrong.Visible = True
End If

End Sub

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84
The Output

Figure 6.1 The Login dialog

Conditional Operators(Relational Operators)

- To control the VB program flow, we can use various conditional

operators.

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85
 - Basically, they resemble mathematical operators.
- Conditional operators are very powerful tools, they let the VB program
compare data values and then decide what action to take, whether to
execute a program or terminate the program and more.
- These operators are shown in Table below

Conditional Operators
Operator Meaning

= Equal to

> More than

< Less Than

> More than or equal

<= Less than or equal

<> Not Equal to

Logical Operators

- In addition to conditional operators, there are a few logical operators

that offer added power to the VB programs. They are shown in Table
below

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86
 Logical Operators
Operator Description

And Both sides must be true

Or One side or other must be true

Xor One side or other must be true but not both

Not Negates true

- You can also compare strings with the operators. However, there are
certain rules to follow where upper case letters are less than lowercase
letters, and number are less than letters.

CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

Using If.....Then.....Else Statements with Operators

- To effectively control the VB program flow, we shall use

If...Then...Else statement together with the conditional operators and
logical operators.

If conditions Then

VB expressions

Else

VB expressions

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87
End If
Example

- This program simulates a sign in process.

- If the username and password are correct, sign in is successful else
sign in failed.
- Start VB6 and insert two textboxes on the form, rename them UsrTxt
and pwTxt, the first textbox is to accept username input and the
second one for password input.
- For pwTxt, set the PasswordChr(password characters) property to *
so that the password will appear as * instead of the actual character.
- We have written the code so that both username and password must
be correct to enable sign in if either one of them incorrect sign in will
fail.

The Code
Private Sub OK_Click()
Dim username, password As String
username = "John123"
password = "qwertyupi#@"

If UsrTxt.Text = username And pwTxt.Text = password Then

MsgBox ("Sign in sucessful")
ElseIf UsrTxt.Text <> username Or pwTxt.Text <> password Then

MsgBox ("Sign in failed")

End If
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88
End Sub
The Output

Example

- This example calculate the commission based on sales volume

attained. Let's say the commission structure is laid out as in the table
below:

Sale Volume($) Commission(%)

<5000 0
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89
5000-9999 5

1000-14999 10

15000-19999 15

20000 and above 20

- In this example, we insert a textbox to accept sale volume input and a

label to display commission. Insert a command button to trigger the
calculation

The Code

Private Sub cmdCalComm_Click()

Dim salevol, comm As Currency
salevol = Val(TxtSaleVol.Text)
If salevol >= 5000 And salevol < 10000 Then
comm = salevol * 0.05
ElseIf salevol >= 10000 And salevol < 15000 Then
comm = salevol * 0.1
ElseIf salevol >= 15000 And salevol < 20000 Then
comm = salevol * 0.15
ElseIf salevol >= 20000 Then
comm = salevol * 0.2
Else

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90
comm = 0
End If
LblComm.Caption = Format(comm, "$#,##0.00")
End Sub

The Output

Example : Guess a Number Game

- This is a guess a number game where the user key in a number and
see check whether the answer is correct.
- This program will provide a hint whether the number is too small or
too big.
- After a number of trial, the user should get the right answer.
- The program employ the If..Then..Else technique to check whether the
entry is correct.

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The Code
'Guess a Number
Const realNumber = 99
Dim userNumber As Integer

Private Sub EXit_Click()

End
End Sub

Private Sub OK_Click()

userNumber = entry.Text
If userNumber > realNumber Then

hint.Caption = "Your number is too big"

ElseIf userNumber < realNumber Then

hint.Caption = "Your number is too small"

entry.Text = ""
entry.SetFocus
Else

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92
hint.Caption = "Congratulation, your number is correct"

End If

End Sub

The IIf() Function

- The IIf function denotes immediate decision function. It provides a

simple decision making process based on three arguments, as follows:

IIf(x, y, z)

x represents a logical expression while y and z represent a numeric or a

string expression.

For example, the IIF(x>y, expression 1, expression 2) function evaluates the

values of x and y, if x>y. then expression 1 is true, otherwise the expression
2 is true.

Example
Private Sub CmdNumeric_Click()
Dim x, y, a, b, ans As Double
x = InputBox("Enter a number")
y = InputBox("Enter another number")
a = Val(x)
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b = Val(y)

ans = IIf(a < b, b - a, a * b)

MsgBox ans
End Sub

Private Sub CmdString_Click()

Dim A, B, C As String
A = InputBox("Enter a word")
B = InputBox("Enter another word")
C = IIf(A < B, A, B)
MsgBox C
End Sub

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94
The Interface

- If you click test string and enter the first word long and the second
word short, the logical condition is true, hence the word long will be
displayed, as shown in Figure 7.5.

- If you click test numeric and enter the first number 200 and the
second number 40, the logical condition is false, hence the second
expression will be executed, which is 20x40=800, as shown below

Select Cases

- The Select Case control structure is slightly different from the

If....ElseIf control structure .The difference is that the Select Case

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95
 control structure can handle conditions with multiple outcomes in an
easier manner than the If...Then...ElseIf control structure.
- The syntax of the Select Case control structure is shown below:

Select Case expression

Case value1
Block of one or more VB statements

Case value2
Block of one or more VB Statements

Case Else
Block of one or more VB Statements
End Select
Example
Dim grade As String
Private Sub Compute_Click( )
grade=txtgrade.Text
Select Case grade
Case "A"
result.Caption="High Distinction"
Case "A-"
result.Caption="Distinction"
Case "B"
result.Caption="Credit"
Case "C"
result.Caption="Pass"
Case Else
result.Caption="Fail"
End Select
End Sub

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96
Example
Dim mark As Single
Private Sub Compute_Click()
'Examination Marks
mark = mrk.Text
Select Case mark
Case Is >= 85
comment.Caption = "Excellence"
Case Is >= 70
comment.Caption = "Good"
Case Is >= 60
comment.Caption = "Above Average"
Case Is >= 50
comment.Caption = "Average"
Case Else
comment.Caption = "Need to work harder"
End Select
End Sub
Example

Example above can be rewritten as follows:

Dim mark As Single

Private Sub Compute_Click()

'Examination Marks
mark = mrk.Text
Select Case mark
Case 0 to 49
comment.Caption ="Need to work harder"
Case 50 to 59
comment.Caption = "Average"
Case 60 to 69
comment.Caption = "Above Average"
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Case 70 to 84
comment.Caption = "Good"
Case Else
comment.Caption ="Excellence"

End Select
End Sub

Example : Guess a Number

- In this example, we use the Select Case statement to guess a number

generated randomly. The syntax 1 + Int(6 * Rnd) generates a random
number from 1 to 6 inclusive

The Code
Dim Secret_Number As Integer

Private Sub Command1_Click()

Dim Your_Number As Integer

Your_Number = InputBox("Enter a number between 1 and 6 includisve")
Select Case Your_Number
Case Is < Secret_Number
MsgBox ("Your number is smaller than the secret number, try again!")
Case Is > Secret_Number
MsgBox ("Your number is greater than the secret number, try again!")

Case Else
Beep
MsgBox ("Your number is correct, congratulation!")
End Select

End Sub
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Private Sub Form_Load()
Secret_Number = 1 + Int(6 * Rnd)

End Sub

Looping
- These are control structures that are used to write a Visual Basic
procedure that allows the program to run repeatedly until a condition
or a set of conditions is met
- Looping is a very useful feature of Visual Basic because it makes
repetitive works easier.
- There are three kinds of loops in Visual Basic,
i. Do...Loop ,
ii. For.......Next loop
iii. While.....Wend Loop

The Do Loop

The Do Loop statements have four different forms, as shown below:

a)
Do While condition
Block of one or more VB statements
Loop
b)
Do
Block of one or more VB statements
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Loop While condition
c)
Do Until condition
Block of one or more VB statements
Loop
d)
Do
Block of one or more VB statements
Loop Until condition
Example
Do while
counter <=1000
num.Text=counter
counter =counter+1
Loop

* The above example will keep on adding until counter > 1000

The above example can be rewritten as

Do
counter=counter+1
Loop until counter>1000

Exiting the Loop

Sometime we need exit to exit a loop earlier when a certain condition is

fulfilled. The keyword to use is Exit Do.

Example
Dim sum, n as Integer
Private Sub Form_Activate()
List1.AddItem "n" & vbTab & "sum"
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100
Do
n=n+1
sum=sum+n-resize
List1.AddItem n & vbTab & sum
If n=100 Then
Exit Do
End If
Loop
End Sub

Explanation

In the above example, we compute the summation of

1+2+3+4+……+100. In the design stage, you need to insert a ListBox into
the form for displaying the output, named List1. The program uses the
AddItem method to populate the ListBox. The statement List1.AddItem "n"
& vbTab & "sum" will display the headings in the ListBox, where it uses the
vbTab function to create a space between the headings n and sum.

The For....Next Loop

The For....Next Loop event procedure is written as follows:

For counter=startNumber to endNumber (Step increment)

One or more VB statements

Next

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Example

Private Sub Command1_Click()

Dim counter As Integer
For counter = 1 To 10
List1.AddItem counter
Next
End Sub
Example
Private Sub Command1_Click()

Dim counter As Integer

For counter = 1 To 1000 Step 10
counter = counter + 1
Print counter
Next
End Sub

Example
For counter=1000 to 5 step -5
counter=counter-10
If counter<50 then
Exit For
Else
Print "Keep Counting"
End If
Next
Example
Private Sub Form_Activate( )
For n=1 to 10
If n>6 then
Exit For
Else
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Print n
Enf If
Next
End Sub

- Sometimes the user might want to get out from the loop before the
whole repetitive process is executed, the command to use is Exit For.
To exit a For….Next Loop, you can place the Exit For statement within
the loop; and it is normally used together with the If…..Then…
statement.

The While….Wend Loop

The structure of a While….Wend Loop is very similar to the Do Loop. it takes

the following form:

While condition
Statements
Wend

The above loop means that while the condition is not met, the loop will go
on. The loop will end when the condition is met. Let’s examine the program
listed in example below

Example
Dim sum, n As Integer
Private Sub Form_Activate()
List1.AddItem "n" & vbTab & "sum"
While n <> 100
n=n+1
Sum = Sum + n
List1.AddItem n & vbTab & Sum
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Wend
End Sub

REFERENCES

Birbal, R Taylor, M (2010). Log on to IT for CSEC. England: Carlong

Publishers Limited.

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104
Fishpool, B Information technology level 1: foundation diploma. Pearson
Company.

Gay, G Blades, R (2009). Oxford information technology for CSEC. New York:
Oxford University
Press.

Langat, J Musonye, D Wanjohi, A (2006). Foundatudiesudent’k f 2 .

Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.

Internet

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105
Using spreadsheets

• Sorting data
• Using the filter function
• Charts and graphs
• Creating charts and graphs in a worksheet
o Formatting charts
o setting up a page to print
o selecting print area
o setting up printing margins
o setting header and footer
o setting up page orientation
o selecting titles to print
• importing files into a spreadsheet
• linking files

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Using database

• Database
o Definition
o Types of databases,
▪ computerized,
▪ manual
• Database models,
• Database features,
• Benefits of databases
• Database management software (examples)
• Working with databases (create a database)
o creating tables, forms, queries, reports in a database
o setting primary and secondary keys in tables
o setting field properties and data types
o printing reports, forms, queries
o sorting tables or forms
o filtering tables or forms

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Introduction to computer networks

• Types of computer networks

o (PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN)
• Network topologies
o (eg bus, star, ring, mesh)
• Network reference models
o (OSI, TCP/IP)
o network protocols at each layer of the reference model
▪ (eg HTTP, DNS, FTP, TCP, UDP, IP, Ethernet, 802.11)
• The internet
o Comparing internet with intranet
o Methods of internet access
▪ dial-up
▪ leased line
▪ broadband
▪ wifi
▪ wimax
o Addressing systems in computer networks
▪ port numbers
▪ IP addresses
• classful and classless
• MAC addresses
o internet protocols
▪ Differences between ipv4 and ipv6
▪ configuring ip settings on computers

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Network Applications

• The world wide web (search engines)

o web
o website
o search engine and
o web browsers
• Identifying web browsers
• Using web browsers
• Listing examples of distributed applications
• Social networks (advantages and disadvantages)
• Advantages of social networks
o Disadvantages of social networks
• Electronic mail (e- mail accounts, webmail, e-mail clients)
o creating e-mail accounts
• Distributed applications
o Examples of distributed applications
▪ banking
▪ utility bill

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