Computer Organization and Architecture

Unit 1: Introduction
By Er. Dhirendra Kumar Yadav
Department of Computer Engineering
Mid-Western University
Nepal
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Introduction:

•The components from which computers are built, i.e., computer organization.
•In contrast, computer architecture is the science of integrating those components to
achieve a level of functionality and performance.
• It is as if computer organization examines the lumber, bricks, nails, and other building
material.
• While computer architecture looks at the design of the house.
Computer Organization and Architecture:

• Computer Architecture refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact on
the logical execution of a program. Examples:
o the instruction set
o the number of bits used to represent various data types
o I/O mechanisms
o memory addressing techniques
• Computer Organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that
realize the architectural specifications. Examples are things that are transparent to the
programmer:
o control signals
o interfaces between computer and peripherals
o the memory technology being used
• A family of computer –same architecture but with differences in organization.
1. SSI and MSI circuits

• 1947: invention of Transistor in bell laboratory this starts the new era in the
electronic industry and start being available in solid state against vacuum tube.
• Soon semiconductor material basically silicon and Germaniums were used to
realized electronic ckt. As it carries current and it’s current can be controlled by
the small amount of impurities.
• 1959- Invention of Integrated circuit by the fair child who developed planner
technology of transistor from where comes IC technology.

Integrated Circuits(ICs)
 Integrated ckt is one in which number of transistors or components can be
fabricated on a single chip (silicon chip)”

▪ Digital circuits are made with integrated circuits (IC’s)

▪ An IC is a small silicon semiconductor crystal, called a chip
▪ This chip contains all the electronic gates
Types of IC’s

▪ Different types of IC’s are categorized by the number of gates that are on it.
▪ Examples of IC’s are SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI, MOS, and CMOS
▪ Some IC’s are categorized based upon the number of gates they contain:

Small-Scale Integration:
1961-1965 SSI era 10 or 10-100 transmitters per IC, logical gates, flip-flop.
Medium-Scale Integration:
1966-1970 MSI era 100-1000 per IC, Multiplexer, decoders adders
Large-Scale Integration:
1971-1979 LSI 1000-20000 per IC, 8bit microprocessor, RAM, ROM
Very large-Scale Integration:
1980-1984 VLSI 20000-50000 per IC, DSPIC, RISC processor, 16/32
processor.
Ultra-Large-Scale Integration:
1985-Beyond ULSI >50000, 64bit microprocessor.
2. Mile stone in computer organization:
• Generation zero: 1623(?)–1945)
- Mechanical computers, Mechanical Devices,

Ex:
▪ Abacus (-300B.C), Napier’s Bones, Logarithm. Charles Babbage-
analytical engine_mathemetical calculation_punch card.

• The first generation: (1945–1955)

- Vacuum tubes (to control the flow of the electricity to design ALU&CU) used in
device, Enormous in size, use punch card and paper tap, gives output in printouts,
used machine language and assembly language for programming, Magnetic core
and magnetic tape and drum use as storage devices.
Ex: -
▪ ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator)-the first
computer used for scientific study, use 18000 vacuum tubes by John von
Neumann (store program concept)
▪ EDVC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic)
▪ IBM 700 series-IBM 701, IBM 704, IBM 709 (International Business
Machines corporation)
• The second generation: (1955–1965).
 - Transistor (solid state device to control the flow of electricity), replaced vacuum
tubes, Smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient then Ist generation computer,
HL (fortran) &ML(To convert high level language to low level ) are used,
- ferrite cores for main memory, and magnetic disks and tapes for secondary
memory.
- Separate I/O processor were developed to operate in parallel with CPU, thus
improving the performance.
- Handle an enormous amount of data.
Ex:
▪ IBM 1620,7090,7094I, 7094II (1964);
▪ CDC (Control Data Corporation’s) 1604;
▪ PDP 8 (1965). PDP (Programmed Data Processor)
• The third generation: (1965–1980)

- Used ICs (SSI and MSI) for CPU components

- Semiconductor memories (RAMs and ROMs) using LSI chip were used
- Magnetic disks, and tapes were used as secondary memories
- Cache and virtual memory concepts were used
- Microprogramming, parallel processing (pipelining, multiprocessor system, etc.),
multiprocessing, multiprogramming, multiuser system (time-share system), etc.
were introduced
- Drastically increased the speed and efficiency
- Uses keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system.
- Computers been able to run different application program.
- DOS allowed efficient and coordinate operation of computer
- system with multiple users

Ex
▪ IBM/370 series (1970)
▪ CDC 7600 (1969)
▪ PDP 11 (16-bit minicomputer, 1970)

• The fourth generation: (1980 – 1990).

- Microprocessors used as CPU use VLSI
- VLSI chips for CPU, memory and supporting chips.
- Up to 1.2 million transistors were placed on a single silicon chip.
- Microprocessor chips contain (cache m/m, MMU: -m/m management Unit) all such
units besides CPU on a single chip
- Interrupt controller, DMA controller, timer-counters, bus controller etc. in a single
IC
- 8,16 and 32-bit microprocessors were used.
- Main memory used fast semiconductor chips up to 4 Mbits size.
- Hard disks were used as secondary memory.
- Keyboard, CRT display (monitor), dot- matrix printers etc. were used
- PCs (Personal Computers), desktop, mainframe
- powerful and small in size.
 - operating systems MS-DOS, UNIX, Apple’s Macintosh with GUI

Ex:
▪ Intel’s 8088, 80286, 80386 and 80486 based computers
▪ Motorola’s 6800, 68020, 68030 and 68040 based computers
▪ IBM 3090, VAX 9000
▪ Supercomputers-Cray-1, Cray- 2, Cray X-MP, Cray Y-MP,
▪ Hitachi 828/80 etc.

• The fifth generation: (1990-Till date).

- Fifth-generation computer use ULSI (Ultra-Large Scale Integration) chips
- Millions of transistors are placed in a single IC in ULSI chips Pentium 4 160
million transistors, Itanium 2 processor contains more than 400 million transistors
- 64-bit microprocessors have been used
- Neumann architecture are still used in less powerful CPUs. RISC and CISC both
types of design are used in modern processors.
- Memory chips and flash memory up to 1Gbits, hard disk drives up to 600 Gbytes
- WINDOWS-95, 98, XP, 2000, 2003; Apple’s Mac OS- 8, 9, 10 and X; SUN’s
Solaris, LINUX etc.
▪ Pentium 4, Motorola’s Power PC, MIPS, Compaq’s Alpha, SUN’s Ultra
SPARC III, AMD’s Athlon, Athlon 64

• The sixth generation: (1990-Till date).

- Artificial intelligence
- Still in development
- Some applications are: voice recognition, hologram
- Goal: to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.

• The next generation?

Generation Approximate Dates Technology Typical Speed (operations per second)

1 1946–1957 Vacuum tube 400000

2 1958–1964 Transistor 200000
3 1965–1971 SSI and MSI 1000000
4 1972–1977 LSI 10000000
5 1978–1991 VLSI 100000000
1991– ULSI 100000000

3. Examples of computer families

• computer family
o A group of computers that are either successive generations of a particular
computer system or versions of a single generation that differ in cost,
speed, and/or optional features. They will tend to have similar but perhaps
not identical
o it is a category of computers with the same designs and microprocessors
that are compatible with each other. (intel or risc or sisc)
 o A family is a group of products that have similarities, are compatible, or
made by the same manufacturer.
▪ All Intel x86 family share the same basic architecture
▪ The IBM System/370 family share the same basic architecture

We have Two computer families: The Intel x86 and the ARM architecture.
▪ The Intel x86
o The current x86 is design on complex instruction set computers (CISCs) and found
only on mainframes, supercomputers and serves.
o For non-embedded.
o market share ranked as the number one maker of microprocessors.
o Intel used to develop microprocessors one after another in every four years.
▪ The ARM architecture (Advanced RISC Machines)

o The ARM architecture is used in a wide variety of embedded systems and is one of
the most powerful and best-designed RISC-based systems on the market.
o ARM makes 32-bit and 64-bit RISC multi-core processors.
Example:(intel)
Processor Introduced Clock speeds Bus Number of Addressable Virtual Cache
width transistors memory memory

4004/4040 1971 /74 108 kHz/740kHz 4 bits 2,300 640 Bytes

8008 1972 108 kHz 8 bits 3,500 16 KB
8080 1974 2 MHz 8 bits 29,000 16 KB
8085 1976 3MHz 8bits 65,000 64KB
8086 1978 5/8/10 MHz 16 bits 29,000 1 MB
8088 1979 5 MHz, 8 MHz 8 bits 134,000 1 MB
80286 1972 6/16 MHz–12.5/33 MHz 16 bits 275,000 16 MB 1 GB
80386 16 MHz–33 MHz 32/16 4 GB/16 MB 64 TB
1985/ 88 1.2 million
bits
80486 1989/91 16/25 MHz–50 MHz 32 bits 1.2/1.185 million 4 GB 64 TB 8 kB
Pentium 1993 60 MHz–166 MHz 32 bits 3.1 million 4 GB 64 TB 8 kB
Pentium Pro 150 MHz–200 MHz 32 bits 5.5 million 64 GB 64 TB 512 kB L1
l1995
and 1 MB L2
Pentium II 1997 200 MHz–300 MHz 32bits 7.5 million 64 GB 64 TB 512 kB L2
Pentium III 1999 450–660 MHz 32bits 9.5 million 64 GB 64 TB 512 kB L2
Pentium 4 2000 1.3–1.8 GHz 32 bits 42 million 64 GB 64 TB 256 kB L2
Core 2 Duo 2006 1.06–1.2 GHz 64 bits 167 million 64 GB 64 TB 2 MB L2
Core 2 Quad 2008 3 GHz 64 bits 820 million 64 GB 64 TB 6 MB L2
Core I7,I5,I3 2008/9/10 64bit

8080: The 8080 was used in the first personal computer

8086: IBM’s first personal computer, securing the success of Intel. The 8086 is the first appearance of the x86 architecture.
80386: Intel’s first32-bit architecture minicomputers and mainframes introduced support multitasking.
80486: powerful cache technology
Pentium: With the Pentium to execute in parallel.
Pentium Pro:, data flow analysis, and speculative execution.
Pentium II: to process video, audio, and graphics data efficiently.
Pentium III: The Pentium III incorporates additional floating-point instructions to support 3D graphics software.
Pentium 4: The Pentium 4 includes additional floating-point
Core: This is the first Intel x86 microprocessor with a dual core, referring to the implementation of two processors on a single chip.
Core 2: The Core 2 extends the architecture to 64 bits. The Core 2 Quad pro- vides four processors on a single chip.
4. Future trends in computer
▪ Computers will become powerful extensions of human beings designed to augment
intelligence, learning, communications, and productivity.
▪ Computers will become intuitive—they will “learn,” “recognize,” and “know” what
we want, who we are, and even what we desire.
▪ Computer chips will be everywhere, and they will become invisible-embedded in
everything from brains and hearts, to clothes and toys.
▪ Computers will manage essential global systems, such as transportation and food
production, better than humans will.
▪ Online computer resources will enable us to download applications on-demand via
wireless access anywhere and anytime.
▪ will become voice-activated, networked, video-enabled, and connected together over
the Net, linked with each other and humans.
▪ Computers will have digital senses-speech, sight, smell, hearing-enabling them to
communicate with humans and other machines.
▪ Neural networks and other forms of artificial intelligence will make computers both
as smart as humans, and smarter for certain jobs.
▪ Human and computer evolution will converge. Synthetic intelligence will greatly
enhance the next generations of humans.
▪ As computers surpass humans in intelligence, a new digital species and a new culture
will evolve that is parallel to ours.
5. Pentium and power PC evolution

▪ 4004, 4040, 8008: 4 bits processor

▪ 8080: first general purpose 8 bit microprocessor used in Altair PC.
▪ 8085: binary compatible with 8080, simpler and less expensive.

x86 series - 16 bit processors

▪ 8086: 16 bit powerful machine, support instruction cache that pre-fetch few
instructions before they executed.
▪ 8088: has 8 bit external bus, used in first IBM PC
▪ 80286: enabled addressing a 16 MB memory instead of 1MB.
▪ 80386: 32 bit, support for multitasking

x86 series - 32 bit processors

▪ 80486: introduced sophisticated powerful cache and instruction pipelining. Also

offered built in math co-processor, offloading complex math operations from the
main CPU.
▪ Pentium: introduced super-scalar technique which allows multiple instructions to
execute in parallel.
▪ Pentium Pro: Increased super-scalar organization with Aggressive register renaming,
branch prediction, data flow analysis and speculative execution.
▪ Pentium II: introduced the MMX technology which is designed specifically to
 process video, audio and graphics data efficiently.
▪ Pentium III: provides additional floating point instructions for 3D graphics s/w.
▪ Pentium 4: provides further floating point and multimedia enhancements.
▪ Core Series: the first x86 microprocessor with dual core, implementation of two
processors on a single chip.

x86 64 bit series: Pentium D, Pentium Extreme Edition (EE)

▪ Core 2 series: The Core 2 extends the architecture to 64 bits. The Core 2 Quad
processor provides 4 processors on a single chip.

Itanium series:

▪ 64 bit architecture, examples: Itanium I and Itanium II.

▪ Itanium II has hardware enhancements to increase the speed.

PowerPC Evolution

▪ In 1975, 801 minicomputer projects by IBM introduced the RISC.

▪ In 1986, IBM introduced the commercial RISC workstation product called RT PC
▪ In 1990, IBM introduced IBM RISC System/6000 which has RISC-like superscalar
machine.

POWER architecture.

▪ IBM alliance with Motorola (68000 microprocessors), and Apple, (used 68000 in
Macintosh) and produced PowerPC architecture which was Derived from the
POWER architecture.
▪ Superscalar RISC
▪ PowerPC Family is:
▪ 601: Quickly to market. 32-bit machine.
▪ 603: 32 bit low-end desktop and portable. Lower cost and more efficient
implementation
▪ 604: Desktop and low-end servers, 32-bit machine.Much more advanced superscalar
design. Greater performance
▪ 620: High-end servers, 64-bit architecture.
▪ 740/750: Also known as G3, two levels of cache on chip.
▪ G4: Increases parallelism and internal speed.
▪ G5: Improvements in parallelism and internal speed, 64-bit organization.
6. Designing for performance

Some of the driving factors behind the need to design for performance:
• Microprocessor Speed
- Pipelining
- On board cache, on board L1 & L2 cache
 - Branch prediction: The processor looks ahead in the instruction code fetched from
memory and predicts which branches, or group of instructions are likely to be
processed next.
- Data flow analysis: The processor analyzes which instructions are dependent on
each other’s results, or data, to create an optimized schedule of instructions to
prevent delay.
• Performance Mismatch
- Processor speed increased
- Memory capacity increased
- Memory speed lags behind processor speed

Speculative execution: Using branch prediction and data flow analysis, some processors
speculatively execute instructions ahead of their actual appearance in the program execution,
holding the results in temporary locations.

Fig: Evolution of DRAM and processor Characteristics

The effects of these trends are shown vividly in figure below. The amount of main
memory needed is going up, but DRAM density is going up faster (number of DRAM per
system is going down).
 Unit:2 Central Processing unit

The part of the computer that performs the bulk of data processing operations is called the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) and is the central component of a digital computer. Its purpose is to
interpret instruction cycles received from memory and perform arithmetic, logic and control
operations with data stored in internal register, memory words and I/O interface units. A CPU is
usually divided into two parts namely processor unit (Register Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit)
and control unit.

Fig: Components of CPU

Processor Unit:

The processor unit consists of arithmetic unit, logic unit, a number of registers and internal buses
that provides data path for transfer of information between register and arithmetic logic unit. The
block diagram of processor unit is shown in figure below where all registers are connected through
common buses. The registers communicate each other not only for direct data transfer but also
while performing various micro-operations.
Here two sets of multiplexers select register which perform input data for ALU. A decoder selects
destination register by enabling its load input. The function select in ALU determines the particular
operation that to be performed.

For an example to perform the operation: R3 R1 + R2

• MUX A selector (SELA): to place the content of R1 into bus A.
• MUX B selector (SELB): to place the content of R2 into bus B.
• ALU operation selector (OPR): to provide arithmetic addition A + B.
• Decoder destination selector (SELD): to transfer the content of the output bus
into R3.
 Fig: Processor Unit

CPU Structure and Function

Processor Organization
Things a CPU must do:
- Fetch Instructions
- Interpret Instructions
- Fetch Data
- Process Data
- Write Data
Components of the CPU
• Part of computer that performs bulk of data processing operations
• Consists of 3 major ports ALU,CU &Registers.
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): does the actual computation or processing of data
• Control Unit (CU): controls the movement of data and instructions into and out of the
CPU and controls the operation of the ALU.
• A small amount of internal memory, called the registers, is needed by the CPU to fulfill
these requirements

Fig: Detailed view of CPU

Introduction of Arithmetic:
• Arithmetic operation in digital computers- manipulate data to produce results necessary
for the solution of computational problem.
• 4 basic arithmetic operations – Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication & Division- it is
possible to formulate other arithmetic operations and solve scientific problems
• Arithmetic processor –part of processor that executes arithmetic operations
• Data type assumed to reside in registers – specified in the definition of instruction
• Instructions may specify –binary, decimal or octal and may be fixed-point and floating-
point form.
• Negative numbers can be represented in 3ways singed-magnitude, singed-complement
(1’s,and 2’s)
• Processor is simple if only a binary fixed-point add instruction is introduced.
• The designed must be thoroughly familiar with the sequence of step to be followed in
order to carry out the operation & achieve a correct result.
• Solution of a problem –a finite no.fo well –defined procedural steps- algorithm

Addition & Subtraction with signed-Magnitude Data:

Signed-Magnitude Representation: +14 =0 0001110
-14=1 0001110
Two numbers with magnitudes: A&B and when signed numbers are added or Subtracted, we
find that there are 8 different conditions to consider as show.