Meteorology Notes for Private Pilot License (PPL)

1. Introduction to Meteorology

 Definition:
o Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and weather phenomena, which are
critical for safe and efficient flight operations.
 Importance for Pilots:
o Understanding weather patterns helps in preflight planning, in-flight decision-
making, and ensuring the safety of passengers and crew.

2. Atmospheric Composition and Structure

 Composition:
o Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), and other gases (1%), including water vapor.
 Structure of the Atmosphere:
o Troposphere:
 Layer closest to the Earth’s surface (up to ~36,000 feet).
 Weather occurs here.
 Temperature decreases with altitude (~2°C per 1,000 feet).
o Stratosphere:
 Above the troposphere, extends up to ~50 km.
 Stable layer; temperature increases with altitude due to ozone absorption.
o Mesosphere:
 Extends up to ~85 km; temperature decreases with altitude.
o Thermosphere:
 High temperatures due to solar radiation absorption.

3. Atmospheric Pressure

 Definition:
o The weight of the atmosphere exerting force on the Earth’s surface.
 Units of Measurement:
o Millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa).
o Standard atmospheric pressure: 1013.25 hPa (29.92 inHg).
 Pressure Variation with Altitude:
o Pressure decreases with an increase in altitude.
o Significant for altimeter settings.
 Pressure Systems:
o High Pressure (Anticyclone):
  Stable weather, clear skies.
 Air sinks and diverges outward.
o Low Pressure (Cyclone):
 Unstable weather, clouds, and precipitation.
 Air rises and converges inward.

4. Temperature and Heat Transfer

 Temperature:
o Measure of the atmosphere’s heat energy.
o Standard lapse rate: ~2°C per 1,000 feet.
 Heat Transfer Methods:
o Conduction: Direct transfer through contact.
o Convection: Vertical transfer through rising warm air.
o Radiation: Transfer through electromagnetic waves (e.g., solar energy).

5. Humidity and Dew Point

 Humidity:
o The amount of water vapor in the air.
o Relative Humidity: The percentage of moisture in the air compared to the
maximum it can hold at that temperature.
 Dew Point:
o The temperature at which air becomes saturated and water vapor condenses into
dew, fog, or clouds.
 Significance for Pilots:
o A small temperature-dew point spread indicates potential fog or cloud formation.

6. Cloud Formation and Types

 Cloud Formation:
o Occurs when air rises, cools, and condenses at the dew point.
 Cloud Classifications:
o Low-Level Clouds (surface to ~6,500 feet):
 Stratus, Stratocumulus, Nimbostratus.
o Mid-Level Clouds (~6,500 to ~20,000 feet):
 Altostratus, Altocumulus.
o High-Level Clouds (~20,000 feet and above):
 Cirrus, Cirrostratus, Cirrocumulus.
o Vertical Development Clouds:
  Cumulus, Cumulonimbus (associated with thunderstorms).

7. Wind and Turbulence

 Wind:
o Movement of air due to pressure differences.
o Measured in knots and described by direction (e.g., "Wind 270 at 10 knots").
 Types of Winds:
o Surface winds (affected by friction).
o Upper-level winds (geostrophic winds).
o Local winds (e.g., sea breezes, mountain winds).
 Turbulence:
o Irregular air motion causing bumpy flight.
o Types:
 Mechanical Turbulence: Caused by terrain or buildings.
 Thermal Turbulence: Caused by uneven surface heating.
 Clear Air Turbulence (CAT): Found at higher altitudes, often near jet
streams.

8. Precipitation

 Types of Precipitation:
o Rain, drizzle, snow, sleet, hail.
 Formation:
o Result of condensation and coalescence of water droplets or ice crystals.
 Hazards for Pilots:
o Reduced visibility.
o Potential icing conditions.

9. Visibility and Fog

 Visibility:
o The distance at which objects can be clearly seen.
o Reduced by precipitation, haze, smoke, or fog.
 Fog Types:
o Radiation Fog: Forms on clear nights due to ground cooling.
o Advection Fog: Warm, moist air moves over a cooler surface.
o Upslope Fog: Air is forced up a slope and cools.
o Ice Fog: Forms in extremely cold conditions.
10. Aviation Weather Hazards

 Thunderstorms:
o Contain turbulence, lightning, hail, and possible wind shear.
o Avoid by maintaining a safe distance (20+ nautical miles).
 Wind Shear:
o Sudden changes in wind speed or direction.
o Hazardous during takeoff and landing.
 Icing:
o Formation of ice on aircraft surfaces.
o Types: Clear, rime, and mixed icing.
o Prevent by using deicing/anti-icing systems or avoiding icing conditions.

11. Meteorological Codes and Reports

 METAR (Aviation Routine Weather Report):

o Provides current weather conditions.
o Example: METAR HKJK 121200Z 09010KT 9999 SCT020 27/14 Q1015 NOSIG
 Time: 121200Z (12:00 UTC).
 Wind: 090° at 10 knots.
 Visibility: 10 km or more (9999).
 Clouds: Scattered at 2,000 feet.
 Temperature/Dew Point: 27°C/14°C.
 Pressure: 1015 hPa.
 TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast):
o Provides weather forecasts for airports.
o Valid for 24-30 hours.

12. Flight Planning and Weather Briefings

 Preflight Weather Planning:

o Obtain METARs, TAFs, NOTAMs, and SIGMETs (Significant Meteorological
Information).
o Assess wind conditions, visibility, and cloud cover.
 In-flight Weather Awareness:
o Monitor ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service) and request updates
from ATC.
Conclusion

Meteorology is a critical aspect of aviation knowledge. Mastering these concepts will help you
make informed decisions and fly safely under various weather conditions. Ensure regular study
and practice interpreting weather reports for effective application in flight.