A. Taxonomy - science of classification including its bases, principles, rules and procedures.

B. Systematics = Study of diversity and differentiation of organisms and the relationships

that exist among them. Hence plant systematics concentrates only on the plant kingdom

Major objectives of plant systematics

I. Provide a convenient method of identifying, naming, and describing plant taxa.

II. Provide a classification scheme which attempts to express phylogenetic relationships.

This gives predictive value.
III. Provide an inventory of plant taxa, e.g. Floras.

IV. Provide an understanding of evolutionary processes and relationships.

PHASES OF PLANT SYSTEMATICS

I. Pioneer - discovery and collection phase, still going on in tropics.

II. Consolidation - synthesis, mostly based on morphology, of field and herbarium in

preparation of floras and form based classification systems.

III. Experimental or biosystematic - analysis of a wide variety of things such as

reproductive systems, variation patterns, chemical, cytological, genetic, fertility relationships,
or evolutionary patterns.

IV. Encyclopedic or holotaxonomic - analysis and synthesis of all information and types of
data to develop classification systems based on phylogenetic relationships.

A. Phases I and II are often called alpha taxonomy.

B. Phase IV is often called omega taxonomy.

NB. Systematics is a dynamic science, a "never ending synthesis". New technologies

constantly provide new data which causes constant re-evaluation of classification schemes.

I. Classification - arrangement of groups of plants with particular characteristics by rank or

position according to certain criteria.

A. Placing them within the taxonomic hierarchy, an information storage and retrieval system.

1. The taxonomic hierarchy

Kingdom
Phylum (Division)

Class

Order
Family

Genus

Species = genus + specific epithet

B. Three basic classification systems for plants:

1. Artificial - utilitarian, i.e. constructed for a specific purpose and based on one or a few
characters such as habit, color, form, or edible vs. poisonous.

2. Phenetic - based on overall similarity (numerical).

3. Phylogenetic - based on common evolutionary descent.

C. Classification includes the determination of position or rank for new taxa as well as old
taxa which have been remodeled, divided, united, transferred or altered in rank.

II. Identification - the assignment of additional unidentified plants to a correct rank once a
classification has been established. It is the determination of a name for a specimen. This also
implies its rank. Most widely used system of identification is the dichotomous key which
consists of successive contrasting statements.

III. Description - it is a statement of attributes for a taxon. Many types of characters are
recorded for the plants. This serves to distinguish them from other plants and taken together
the terms used provide a vocabulary for communication about plants.

IV. Nomenclature - a precise and universal system of rules used by all botanists of the world
for naming plants and it is governed by the ICN.

Plant Nomenclature

International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi and Plants (ICN) governs the naming
of plants. Six principles form the basis of the code:

1. It is independent of zoological nomenclature.

2. The application of names of taxonomic groups is determined by the means of

 nomenclatural types, a specimen.

3. Nomenclature of taxonomic groups is based on priority of publication.

4. Each taxonomic group can have only one correct name, the earliest that is in accordance
with the rules (some exceptions).

5. Scientific names are latinized.

6. The rules are retroactive (some exceptions).

Two purposes of the ICN:

I. Denote ranks of taxonomic groups, i.e. the hierarchy.

Kingdom
Phylum (Division) - phyta
Class - opsida, Subclass - idae
Order - ales
Family - aceae - except 8 conserved names
Genus
Species

II. Lay down the rules for naming plants within these groups.

One of the primary activities of taxonomy is the naming of new taxa as well as the
remodeling of old taxa. Frequently upon further study it is determined that some taxa must
be remodeled, i.e. divided, united, transferred, or changed in rank.

1. Divided - make two taxa out of one.

2. United - combine two or more taxa into one.

3. Transferred - decide that one taxon belongs in another, e.g. a species belongs in
another genus.

4. Changed in rank - e.g. make a subspecies a species or vice versa.

Type specimens:

Nomenclatural Type - specimen of specific rank to which the name of the taxon is
permanently attached

Types of types:
1. Holotype - the one specimen used or designated by the author as the nomenclatural
type. As long as it is extant it automatically fixes the application of the name.

2. Isotype - a duplicate (part of a single gathering made by a collector at one time) of the
holotype.

3. Lectotype - a specimen selected from the original material to serve as the type when no
holotype was designated or if it becomes missing.

4. Syntype - any one of two or more specimens cited by the original author when no holotype
was designated or any one of two or more specimens simultaneously designated as types.

5. Neotype - a specimen selected to serve as the type as long as all of the material on
which the name of the taxon was based is missing.

Nyms:
1. Synonym - a rejected name due to misapplication or difference in taxonomic judgment.

2. Basionym - a specific epithet or infraspecific epithet that has priority and is retained when
transferred to a new or different taxon, e.g. Arnica cordifolia Hook. if transferred to Senecio
by Smith becomes Senecio cordifolia (Hook.) Smith. The type specimen for Senecio
cordifolia is actually that of Arnica cordifolia.

3. Homonym - one of two or more identical names based on different types, only one of
which can be legitimate, e.g. if Senecio cordifolia Jones already exists and we still want to
transfer Arnica cordifolia Hook. to the genus Senecio, the resulting name Senecio cordifolia
(Hook.) Your Name Here would be a homonym. We would therefore have to come up with a
new name Senecio whateverii Your Name Here.

4. Tautonym - an illegitimate binomial in which the generic name and specific epithet are the
same, e.g. if transfer Arnica cordifolia Hook. to the genus Cordifolia would make Cordifolia
cordifolia (Hook.) Your Name Here an illegitimate tautonym.

5. Autonym - an automatically created name for infrageneric or infraspecific taxa, e.g.

Arnica subgenus Arnica or Arnica cordifolia Hook. subspecies cordifolia. Not genuina or
typicus.