Waves

Waves, Sound and Physical Optics 1

Waves
Last year we learned about many different types of waves. This
year in AP Physics, we put all of that together in one chapter.

▪ A wave is a disturbance that travels through matter or space

transferring energy. Waves transfer energy without
transferring matter. Periodic Wave

▪ The disturbance may occur over and over, so we would call it

a periodic wave.

▪ The disturbance may only happen once, so we would call it a Wave Pulse
wave pulse.

▪ The term wave by itself typically refers to a periodic wave.

2
Waves – just some vocabulary
Medium – The material that a wave moves through.

Oscillation – back and forth movement

Propagate – to move through, each small section of the wave causes the next
section to move

Sound waves oscillate so that they propagate through a medium. The medium
for sound waves is typically air, but it could be some other material. For instance
when you yell in a room with a closed door the oscillations can propagate
through a wall or door.

3
Waves
Waves can be divided into two categories:

▪ Mechanical waves travel through a medium (must travel through a substance)

▪ Electromagnetic waves are oscillations in electric and magnetic fields and do

not need a medium, they can travel through space.
▪ EM waves don’t need a medium, but they can travel through one if it is
present.

Keep in mind that the wave is the disturbance, not the medium

4
Mechanical Waves
Mechanical waves can be divided into two main categories.
Transverse waves have wave vibrations that oscillate perpendicular to the
direction of wave motion.
▪ Transverse waves have crests and troughs. A crest is the highest point of the
wave and a trough is the lowest point of the wave.
Longitudinal waves have wave vibrations that oscillate parallel to the direction
of wave motion.
▪ Longitudinal waves have compressions and rarefactions. A compression is
where the particles of the medium are bunched up or compressed and a
rarefaction where the particles of the medium are spread our or extended.
Physics Classroom Waves Simulation
5
Mechanical Waves
Compression

Rarefaction

Crest

Trough 6
Parts of a Wave
▪ Wavelength, 𝜆, is the distance between
successive corresponding parts of a
wave.
▪ It is easiest to measure from crest to
crest or trough to trough on a
transverse wave. Rarefaction

▪ It is easiest to measure from the

centers of two compressions or
rarefactions on a longitudinal wave.

Amplitude

7
Parts of a Wave
▪ Amplitude, 𝐴, is the maximum
displacement from equilibrium
position.
▪ For a transverse wave, the amplitude
is the maximum height above the
center line. Rarefaction
▪ For a longitudinal wave the
amplitude is the maximum distance a
particle has moved from its resting
point.
▪ The greater the amplitude, the more
energy a wave carries.
Amplitude

8
Modeling Sound Waves
C = Compression HP = High Pressure
Sound waves can be modeled as R = Rarefaction LP = Low Pressure
sinusoidal waves.

▪ There are regions of high and low

pressure in a sound wave
corresponding to the wave’s
compressions and rarefactions.
▪ Compressions create higher pressure. C R C R C
▪ Rarefactions create lower pressure.

▪ The pressure amplitude is the

maximum variation in the pressure
from the equilibrium position.
9
Modeling Sound Waves
C = Compression HP = High Pressure
When the difference in pressure is R = Rarefaction LP = Low Pressure
plotted as the wave progresses, the
result is sinusoidal.

We stated that the greater the

amplitude, the more energy a wave
carries. For sound waves, this is
perceived as loudness.
C R C R C
Sound waves with greater amplitude
are perceived as being louder.

10
Extra
This slide is only
necessary if students
would like to have a
discussion on particle
displacement and
pressure variation.

11
Mechanical Waves
Things to note:

▪ There are other types of mechanical waves, for instance ocean waves and S-
and P- earthquake waves. These waves behave differently than transverse and
longitudinal waves, but are not part of the AP Physics 2 curriculum.

▪ Transverse waves look sinusoidal, they look like the graph of sin 𝜃 . Mostly
anything that vibrates up and down will be called transverse.

▪ The only longitudinal waves we will discuss are sound waves. Even though
sound waves are longitudinal, we can model them as transverse. Remember
that sound waves are longitudinal.

12
Wave Speed
▪ Electromagnetic and mechanical waves will have different wave speeds.

▪ Furthermore, the speed of mechanical waves depends on the type of medium

and the type of wave. There are a few speeds and speed calculations that we
should be aware of.

13
Wave Speed
𝑚
In a vacuum, electromagnetic waves have a speed of 𝑐 = 3 × 108 .
𝑠

When traveling through other material, the speed is lower.

𝑐
▪ Recall from last chapter, 𝑛 = .
𝑣

▪ We can manipulate this equation to find light’s speed in any other material:
𝑐
𝑣=𝑛

▪ 𝑛 is the index of refraction of the material

▪ 𝑣 is the speed of light in that particular material.

14
Speed of Sound
The speed of sound depends on the physical properties of the medium and
its temperature
▪ Sound waves tend to travel faster in denser material (the speed of sound in
solids is greater than in liquids and the speed of sound in liquids is greater
than in gasses)
▪ Sound waves travel faster when the temperature of the medium is greater.
𝑚
▪ Sound waves in air have a speed of roughly 340 . This value can vary
𝑠
greatly depending on atmospheric conditions.

15
Speed of Waves on a String
The speed of a wave on a string depends on the tension of the string and the
mass per length of the string.
𝐹𝑇
𝑣𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑚ൗ
ℓ
𝐹𝑇 is the string tension (it’s a force, measured in Newtons), often it is equal to
the weight of the mass hanging from the string.
𝑚 is the mass of the string in kilograms
ℓ is the length of the string in meters
𝑚
is sometimes called the linear density of the string
ℓ

16
 A string with a linear density of 8.0 g/m (0.008 kg/m) is under
Practice
1.
tension of 200 N. What is the speed of the wave?
Problems
1. 158 m/s
2. A wave speed in a piano string of linear density 5.0 g/m
(0.005 kg/m) is 140 m/s. What is the tension in the string?
2. 98 N

3. 194 m/s
3. A string with a linear density of 4.0 g/m (0.004 kg/m) is under
tension of 150 N. What is the speed of the wave?
4. 230 N

4. A wave speed in a guitar string of linear density 9.0 g/m

(0.009 kg/m) is 160 m/s. What is the tension in the string?

17
Homework AP Classroom Topic Questions:
▪ 14.1 Properties of Wave Pulses and Waves Quiz

18
AP CED 14.1
Describe the physical properties of waves and wave pulses

▪ Waves transfer energy between two locations without transferring matter between those locations.

▪ A wave pulse is a single disturbance that transfers energy without transferring matter between two
locations.

▪ A wave is modeled as a continuous, periodic disturbance with well-defined wavelength and

frequency.

▪ Mechanical waves or wave pulses require a medium in which to propagate. Electromagnetic waves or
wave pulses do not require a medium in which to propagate.

▪ The speed at which a wave or wave pulse propagates through a medium depends on the type of wave
and the properties of the medium.
𝑚
▪ The speed of all electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is a universal physical constant, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 .
𝑠

19
AP CED 14.1
Describe the physical properties of waves and wave pulses
▪ The speed at which a wave pulse or wave propagates along a string is dependent
upon the tension in the string, 𝐹𝑇, and the mass per length of the string.

▪ In a given medium, the speed of sound waves increases with the temperature of
the medium.
▪ In a transverse wave, the direction of the disturbance is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
▪ In a longitudinal wave, the direction of the disturbance is parallel to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
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AP CED 14.1
Describe the physical properties of waves and wave pulses

▪ Sound waves are modeled as mechanical longitudinal waves.

▪ The regions of high and low pressure in a sound wave are called compressions and
rarefactions, respectively.

▪ Amplitude is the maximum displacement of a wave from its equilibrium position.

▪ The amplitude of a longitudinal pressure wave may be determined by the maximum

increase or decrease in pressure from equilibrium pressure.

▪ The loudness of a sound increases with increasing amplitude.

▪ The energy carried by a wave increases with increasing amplitude.

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Wave Characteristics
▪ The period (𝑇) of a wave is the amount of time it takes for one oscillation to
occur. Remember that one oscillation is one full up and down motion of the
wave. The units for period are seconds (𝑠).

▪ The frequency (𝑓) of the wave is the number of oscillations that occur per
second. The units for frequency are hertz (𝐻𝑧).

▪ Period and frequency are mathematical inverses of each other:

1 1
𝑇= and 𝑓 =
𝑓 𝑇

For sound waves, we perceive frequency as pitch. The higher pitch means
greater frequency. Lower pitch means lower frequency.

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Wave Characteristics
▪ Angular frequency (𝜔) is the rate of change of a cyclical process. Many waves
are sinusoidal and sinusoidal functions repeat at increments of 2𝜋.
2𝜋 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝜔= =
𝑇 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

▪ 𝜔 is related to frequency using:

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑟𝑎𝑑
▪ The units for angular frequency are , radians per second. The 2𝜋 is called
𝑠
radians

23
Wave Characteristics
Wave speed (𝑣) is the rate at which the wave propagates through the medium.

Last year we learned:

𝜆
𝑣= and 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓
𝑇

AP prefers to write the equation as:

𝑣
𝜆=
𝑓
If you are working with electromagnetic waves in air or a vacuum, substitute 𝑐
for 𝑣.

24
Wave Characteristics
It is important to know how all the different variables relating to waves work together.

For frequency and wavelength:

The medium sets the wave speed. As long as you stay in the same medium the wave
speed will remain constant.
▪ Any changes to frequency or wavelength will inversely affect the other.

▪ If a frequency doubles, the wavelength halves.

If you change medium then the wave speed changes. Frequency remains constant.
▪ Wavelength and wave speed are proportional.

▪ Doubling wave speed results in doubling the wavelength.

25
Wave Characteristics
Increasing the amplitude of the wave increases the energy it can carry.

For sound waves specifically, amplitude is perceived as loudness. Louder waves

have a greater amplitude.

Amplitude is independent of frequency and wavelength. Changing either 𝑓 or 𝑇

will not change the amplitude.

Increasing the frequency of a wave increases the energy it carries.

26
Wave Function
▪ The wave function is a mathematical function that describes the motion of a
sinusoidal wave.

▪ We can imagine how the wave propagates forward in time based on time 𝑡:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡

▪ We could also imagine how a point on the wave moves vertically in time
based on its position 𝑥:
𝑥
𝑦 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋
𝜆

27
Wave Functions
𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑥)
▪ The height of a point on the wave
varies with time.
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)

If we plot 𝑥 as function of 𝑡, the graph 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)

shows the displacement of the
particles in the wave as a function of
time.

NOTE: measuring along the time axis

between two crests gives you the
period of the wave.

28
Wave Functions
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑦)
▪ If we freeze the wave in time, the
distance along the x-axis can tell us
the wave height.
𝑥
𝑦 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋
𝜆
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑥)
If we plot 𝑦 as function of 𝑥, the
graph shows the shape of the wave at
the moment in time the wave was
frozen.
NOTE: measuring along the
displacement axis between two crests
gives you the wavelength of the
wave.
29
Phase and Sin/Cos
▪ Sine and cosine functions repeat
themselves over time.
▪ The difference between sine and
cosine is that they are shifted a
bit from each other
▪ This shift is call a phase shift, we
𝜋
can say that there is a 90𝑜 (or )
2
phase shift between sine and
cosine.
▪ You should recognize these four
functions.

30
Wave Equation
▪ When given a graph you should be able
to formulate a wave equation based on
the graph you are given.

31
Wave Equation
▪ Determine the wave equation for the wave shown below.

32
Wave Equation
▪ Determine the wave equation for the wave shown below.

33
AP CED 14.2
Describe the physical properties of a periodic wave.

▪ Periodic waves have regular repetitions that can be described using period and frequency.

▪ The period is the time for one complete oscillation of the wave.

▪ The frequency is the rate at which the wave repeats.

▪ The amplitude of a wave is independent of the period and the frequency of that wave.

▪ The energy of a wave increases with increasing frequency.

▪ The frequency of a sound wave is related to its pitch.

▪ Wavelength is the distance between successive corresponding positions (such as peaks or troughs) on a wave.

34
AP CED 14.2
Describe the physical properties of a periodic wave.

▪ A sinusoidal wave can be described by equations for the displacement from

equilibrium at a specific location as a function of time. A wave can also be
described by an equation for the displacement from equilibrium at a specific
time as a function of position.

▪ For a periodic wave, the wavelength is proportional to the wave’s speed and
inversely proportional to the wave’s frequency.

35
Wave Reflection and Transmission
▪ We learned last chapter that when a wave encounters a boundary, part of the
wave is reflected and part of the wave is transmitted.

▪ When a wave moves into a new material, the frequency remains unchanged.
The speed will most likely change and therefore the wavelength will also
change.

36
Reflection and Transmission of Waves
▪ A wave hitting an obstacle will be
reflected (a), and its reflection will be
inverted.

▪ A wave reaching the end of its

medium, but where the medium is
still free to move, will be reflected
(b), and its reflection will be upright.

37
Reflection and Transmission of Waves
▪ A wave encountering a denser
medium will be partly
reflected and partly transmitted.

▪ The transmitted wave speed will be

less than the reflected wave, so its
wavelength will be shorter
(frequency remains the same).

▪ The partially reflected pulse will

invert because the new segment is
denser.

38
Reflection and Transmission of Waves
▪ A wave encountering a lighter
medium will be partly
reflected and partly transmitted.

▪ The transmitted wave speed will be

greater than the reflected wave
speed, so its wavelength will be
longer (frequency remains the same).

▪ The partially reflected pulse will

remain upright because the new
segment is less dense.

39
Transmission of Waves
A wave being transmitted from one medium to another will always transmit
upright.

▪ The wave velocity in the new material will most likely be different because the
medium is changing.

▪ If the velocity increases, the wavelength increases if the velocity decreases,

the wavelength decreases because velocity and wavelength are proportional.

▪ The frequency remains constant between the two materials.

40
Reflection of Waves
A wave being reflected from a boundary between media may reflect upright
or inverted.

▪ If the new medium is thinner/less dense/softer/looser/has a lower index of

refraction, (the wave speed in the new material would increase)…
▪ The wave reflects upright.

▪ If the new medium is thicker/more dense/harder/firmer/has a higher index of

refraction, (the wave speed in the new material would decrease)…
▪ The wave reflects inverted

41
Wave Power
▪ Shown is the instantaneous power in a sinusoidal
wave.

▪ The power is related to the amplitude of the

wave, the greater the amplitude, the greater the
maximum power.

▪ The power is also related to the frequency. The

greater the frequency, the more powerful the
wave.

▪ Power is a scalar so it is never negative.

▪ The wave’s power varies sinusoidally. It is typically

most helpful to consider the average power.
42
Wave Intensity
▪ In general, we can say that the energy carried
by a wave is conserved. However, as the wave
expands from the source, the energy is spread
over a greater area.

▪ Intensity is the average power a wave carries

per unit area.
𝑃
𝐼=
𝑆𝐴
𝑃 is the average wave power (in Watts)

𝑆𝐴 is the surface area of the wave (in m2)

43
Wave Intensity
▪ If the wave spreads uniformly in all directions
and no energy is absorbed/lost then the
intensity is inversely proportional to 𝑟2.
𝑃 𝑃
𝐼= =
𝑆𝐴𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 4𝜋𝑟 2

For light waves, intensity is related to

brightness. For sound waves, intensity is related
to loudness.
(because both brightness and loudness are
related to energy)

44
Polarization
▪ A transverse wave can be linearly polarized
if the wave oscillations exist only along one
plane.

▪ Light from most sources is a random mixture

of waves oscillating in all directions, we call
this unpolarized.

▪ A polarizing filter blocks all oscillation

directions except one and can convert
unpolarized waves to linearly polarized
waves.

▪ Typically we think of light waves as

polarizable, but any transverse wave can be
polarized. Sound waves can not be polarized.

45
Polarization
▪ Light can be polarized when reflecting from a surface.

▪ When light is incident at a certain, specific angle, the polarizing angle, the
reflected light is polarized perpendicular to the plane of incidence.

▪ The light that is refracted

is partially polarized as
well.

46
Polarization
▪ Since the polarizing filter prevents some of the wave from passing through, the
intensity of the wave decreases after passing through the polarizer.

▪ When unpolarized light

passes through a single
polarizer, the intensity
decreases by 1/2.
47
Polarization
▪ Light is made of oscillating electric and magnetic fields, they are vectors.

▪ Polarized light can pass through a second polarizer, due to light’s vector nature.

▪ If the second polarizer is

oriented 90o to the first,
then the light will be
blocked entirely.

The second polarizer is

called an analyzer, you
don’t need to know this.

48
AP CED 14.3
Describe the interaction between a wave and a boundary.
▪ A wave that travels from one medium to another can be transmitted or reflected,
depending on the properties of the boundary separating the two media.
▪ A wave traveling from one medium to another (for example, a wave traveling
between low-mass and high-mass strings) will result in reflected and transmitted
waves.
▪ A reflected wave is inverted if the transmitted wave travels into a medium in which
the speed of the wave decreases.
▪ A reflected wave is not inverted if the transmitted wave travels into a medium in
which the speed of the wave increases.
▪ The frequency of a wave does not change when it travels from one medium to
another.

49
AP CED 14.3
Describe the interaction between a wave and a boundary.
▪ Transverse waves that are reflected from a surface, refracted through a
medium, or pass through specific openings may be polarized.
▪ Transverse waves can be polarized and oscillate in a single plane.

▪ Longitudinal waves cannot be polarized.

▪ Polarization of a wave may result in a reduction of the wave’s intensity.

▪ Intensity is a measure of the amount of power transferred per unit area.

▪ The intensity of a wave is the average power per unit area over one period of
the wave.
50
Electromagnetic Waves
Thus far we have modeled various observed phenomena of light. Now lets consider the
fundamental nature of light.

We already know that:

▪ Ampere's Law states that a current (caused by an Electric Field) generates a Magnetic
Field.

▪ Faraday's Law states that a changing Magnetic Field generates an Electric Field.

Together these laws tell us that a changing Electric Field would create a changing
Magnetic Field, which in turn would create a changing Electric Field which would
create a changing Magnetic Field and so on. These time-varying fields travel as
Electromagnetic Waves.

51
Electromagnetic Waves
An electromagnetic wave consists of
perpendicular, oscillating electric and
magnetic fields.

Electromagnetic waves can travel through

a variety of media, but they do not need a
medium to travel through.

Electromagnetic waves are transverse

waves because they oscillate
perpendicular to the direction of motion.

52
Electromagnetic Waves
As we have done in the past, we can
continue modeling electromagnetic waves
with either wavefronts or rays.
▪ Rays show the direction of motion of the
electromagnetic wave.
▪ Wave fronts show the location of the
crests of the electromagnetic waves.
Typically we will assume the waves come
from far away and are travelling in a
straight ling, like the planar waves shown
in (b).

53
Electromagnetic Waves
▪ Electromagnetic waves are classified by their wavelengths.

▪ You should be familiar with all of the types of electromagnetic waves, but you do
not need to know the exact boundaries. There are a few points that may be
helpful to know, listed on the next page

54
Electromagnetic Waves
Radio/TV Waves Longest wavelength, lowest frequency, carry the least
energy, on the order of meters to kilometers long
Microwaves On the order of centimeters long

Infrared wave Our bodies detect IR waves as heat

Starts with wavelengths of 750 nm and increases
Visible light Ranges from 750 nm (red) to 400 nm (violet)
Know the rainbow order, but not the exact wavelengths
Ultraviolet Waves Starts with wavelengths of 400 nm and decreases
X-rays
Gamma Rays Shortest wavelength, highest frequency, carry the most
energy
55
Light
▪ The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see is called visible
light.

▪ The term light can be loosely used to refer to the entire electromagnetic
spectrum.

▪ Because light travels by radiation (remember from our Thermodynamics unit).

Sometimes light is is called electromagnetic radiation.

56
AP CED 14.4
Describe the properties of an electromagnetic wave.

▪ Electromagnetic waves consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that

are mutually perpendicular.

▪ Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves because the oscillations of the

electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

▪ Electromagnetic waves are commonly assumed to be plane waves, which are

characterized by planar wave fronts.

▪ Electromagnetic waves do not need a medium through which to propagate.

▪ Categories of electromagnetic waves are characterized by their wavelengths.

57
AP CED 14.4
Describe the properties of an electromagnetic wave.

▪ Categories of electromagnetic waves include (in order of decreasing

wavelength, spanning a range from kilometers to picometers) radio waves,
microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.

▪ Visible electromagnetic waves are further broken into categories of color,

including (in order of decreasing wavelength) red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
and violet.

▪ Visible electromagnetic waves are also called light. Sometimes,

electromagnetic waves of all wavelengths are collectively referred to as light
or electromagnetic radiation.

58
Doppler Effect
▪ The Doppler Effect refers to the change in frequency (or wavelength) of a wave
concerning an observer who is moving relative to the source of the wave. It's a
phenomenon observed with all types of waves, including sound, light, and radio
waves.

59
Doppler Effect
▪ When the source of a wave is
moving towards the observer, the
waves get "compressed", leading to
a higher frequency (shorter
wavelength).

▪ Conversely, if the source is moving

away from the observer, the waves
get "stretched", resulting in a lower
frequency (longer wavelength). For sound waves, a higher frequency
is perceived as a higher pitch, while a
lower frequency sounds like a lower
pitch.

60
Doppler Effect
▪ The Doppler Effect occurs whether it is the
source or listener that is moving.

▪ Student Y is running towards the car, the

waves are "compressed", leading to a
higher frequency (shorter wavelength).

▪ Student X is running away from the car,

the waves get "stretched", resulting in a
lower frequency (longer wavelength).

61
Doppler Effect
The Doppler Effect can occur for any type of
wave.

▪ Shown here is the Doppler effect for a star

that is moving away from the observer on
the right and toward the observer on the
left.
𝑣𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟
▪ The star is moving to the left so the
observer on the left sees a shorter
wavelength wave at a higher frequency
(called a blue-shift).

▪ The observer on the right sees a longer

wavelength wave at a lower frequency
(called a red-shift).

62
Doppler Effect Summary
▪ When the relative motion is away from the observer, the observed
wavelength increases and the observed frequency decreases.

▪ When the relative motion is toward the observer, the observed wavelength
decreases and the observed frequency increases.

▪ A greater difference in the relative velocity results in a greater measured

difference between the observed and transmitted frequencies.

63
AP CED 14.5
▪ Describe the properties of a wave based on the relative motion between the source of the
wave and the observer of the wave.

▪ The Doppler effect describes the relationship between the rest frequency of a wave source,
the observed frequency of the source, and the relative velocity of the source and the
observer.

▪ A greater relative velocity results in a greater measured difference between the observed and
rest frequencies.

▪ For a wave source moving at the same velocity as the observer, the observed frequency is
equal to the rest frequency.

▪ For a wave source moving toward an observer, the observed frequency is greater than the
rest frequency.
▪ For a wave source moving away from an observer, the observed frequency is less than the
rest frequency.

64
Interference
▪ Wave interference is the interaction of two or
more waves or wave pulses.

▪ When two or more waves or wave pulses

interact with each other, they trave through
each other and overlap rather than bouncing off
each other.

▪ When two or more waves or wave pulses

overlap, the resulting displacement can be
determined by adding the individual
displacements, this is called superposition.

65
Sample Problems

66
67
68
69
Interference
▪ Keep in mind that the shape you see changes as the
waves pass through each other. The previous examples
were drawn for when the wave pulses were centered on
top of each other.
▪ Wave pulses can add to create a momentary larger pulse,
we call this constructive interference.
▪ Two upward pulses or two downward pulses will
constructively interfere.
▪ Wave pulses can have opposite amplitudes so that they
add to create a momentarily canceled pulse, we call this
destructive interference.
▪ An upward pulse and a downward pulse will
destructively interfere.

70
Beat Frequency
▪ Often (but not always) we
superimpose waves with the same
frequency, as shown on the
previous slide. We can also
superimpose waves of differing
frequency.

▪ When waves of different

frequency overlap, the waves go in
and out of phase.

▪ Waves are in phase when their

crests or troughs align.

▪ Waves are out of phase when

crests align with troughs.

71
Beat Frequency
▪ The bottom graph (b) shows the
superposition of the two waves in
(a).

▪ Their appears to be a third wave

created by the super position of
the two.

▪ The frequency of this third wave is

called the beat frequency.
𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑓1 − 𝑓2

▪ Keep in mind that frequencies are

NEVER negative.

72
Tuning Forks
▪ Tuning forks are devices, often found in labs
that vibrate at certain specific frequencies
when hit with a mallet.

▪ In our classes we tend to generate

frequencies digitally, but tuning forks can
also be used.

▪ Each different tuning fork correlates to a

specific frequency

73
Standing Waves
▪ Standing waves occur when the number of wavelengths oscillating in the
medium correlates with the length of the medium. The wave appears to
vibrate in place or stand still.

▪ On the next page, standing waves on a string are show. The pictures are taken
with time lapse photography. The string vibrates up and down, but the waves
remain in place.

▪ The locations where the wave appears not to oscillate up and down are called
nodes.

▪ The locations where the wave appears to have maximum oscillate up and
down are called antinodes.

74
Standing Waves

75
Standing Waves
Each loop of a standing wave is equivalent to a half
wavelength.
𝑛 refers to the number of half wavelengths
▪ In (a) one half wavelength is equal to the string
length 𝐿.
▪ In (b) two half wavelengths is equal to the string
length 𝐿.
▪ In (c) three half wavelengths is equal to the string
length 𝐿.
𝜆
𝐿 = 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 1,2, 3 …
2
This equation is not given to you. You must be able
to come up with it on your own.
76
Standing Waves
▪ The frequencies of the standing waves are
called harmonics. The first harmonic is called
the fundamental frequency.

▪ The number of the harmonic is the same as 𝑛

the number of half wavelengths.

▪ The harmonics are all 𝑛 multiples of the

fundamental frequency.
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 , 𝑛 = 1,2, 3 …

This equation is not given to you. You must be

able to come up with it on your own.

77
Standing Waves
Keep in mind that for a string, the velocity of the
wave is
𝐹𝑇
𝑣𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑚ൗ
ℓ

and the relationship between wavelength and

frequency is
𝑣
𝜆=
𝑓
NOTE: The equations that we used last year in Honors
2𝐿
Physics 𝜆 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 is not given to you by
𝑛
AP, you must be able to derive the relation between 𝜆
and 𝐿 on your own.
78
Standing Waves - Tubes
Standing sound waves can also occur.

These images show the variations in particle

displacement. Similar images can be drawn using
pressure variations, the difference would be a
phase shift of 90o (the wave would be drawn
starting at the center point).

For an open tube, the wavelength is found the same

way as for a wave on a string. The number of half
wavelengths pictured equals the tube length, 𝐿.
𝜆
𝐿 = 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 1,2, 3 …
2
79
Standing Waves - Tubes
The frequencies of the higher harmonics are always
multiples of the fundamental frequency as well.

One difference is the velocity of sound in air is

approximately 340 m/s. It will likely be constant
through out the problem, but it could change if the
gas in the tube changes (for example, the tube is
filled with helium).
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 , 𝑛 = 1,2, 3 …

80
Standing Waves - Tubes
If the tube is a closed tube, the end of the tube acts
like a hard surface. When the wave reflects off of it,
the reflected wave inverts (look back to the slides
on Reflection and Transmission of Waves).

This can only occur if there is a displacement node

at the closed end of the tube.

Open ends of tubes will always have displacement

antinodes.

81
Standing Waves - Tubes
Looking at the images, we can see 1Τ4, 3Τ4 and 5Τ4 of a
wavelength in the closed tube.

In this case 𝑛 will equal the number of quarter

wavelengths in the closed tube.

Since two quarter wavelengths is a half wavelength, and

a half wavelength cannot have a node at one end and an
antinode at the other, there are NO even multiple
harmonics in closed tubes.
𝜆
𝐿 = 𝑛 , 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5 …
4
When working with closed tubes, 𝒏 counts quarter
wavelengths.

82
Standing Waves - Tubes
The frequencies of the higher harmonics are are still
multiples of the fundamental frequency, keep in
mind that there are no even harmonics.

𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 , 𝑛 = 1,3, 5 …

83
AP CED 14.6
Describe the net disturbance that occurs when two or more wave pulses or
waves overlap.

▪ Wave interference is the interaction of two or more wave pulses or waves.

▪ When two or more wave pulses or waves interact with each other, they travel
through each other and overlap rather than bouncing off each other.

▪ When two or more wave pulses or waves overlap, the resulting displacement
can be determined by adding the individual displacements. This is called
superposition.

▪ Wave interference may be constructive or destructive.

84
AP CED 14.6
Describe the net disturbance that occurs when two or more wave pulses or
waves overlap.

▪ When the displacements of the superposed wave pulses or waves are in the
same direction, the interaction is called constructive interference.

▪ When the displacements of the superposed wave pulses or waves are in

opposite directions, the interaction is called destructive interference.

▪ Two or more traveling wave pulses or waves can interact in such a way as to
produce amplitude variations in the resultant wave pulse or wave.

85
AP CED 14.6
Describe the net disturbance that occurs when two or more wave pulses or waves overlap.

▪ Visual representations of wave pulses or waves are useful in determining the result of two
interacting wave pulses or waves.

▪ Beats arise from the addition of two waves of slightly different frequency.

▪ Waves with different frequencies are sometimes in phase and sometimes out of phase at
locations along the waves, causing periodic amplitude changes in the resultant wave.

▪ The beat frequency is the difference in the frequencies of the two waves.

▪ Tuning forks are devices that are commonly used to demonstrate beat frequencies.

86
AP CED 14.6
Describe the properties of a standing wave.
▪ Standing waves can result from interference between two waves that are
confined to a region and traveling in opposite directions.
▪ Standing waves have nodes and antinodes. A node is a point on the standing
wave where the amplitude is always zero. An antinode is a point on the
standing wave where the amplitude is always at maximum.
▪ The possible wavelengths of a standing wave are determined by the size and
boundary conditions of the region to which it is confined.
▪ Common regions where standing waves can form include pipes with open or
closed ends, as well as strings with fixed or loose ends.

87
AP CED 14.6
Describe the properties of a standing wave.

▪ A standing wave with the longest possible wavelength is called the

fundamental or first harmonic. The second-longest wavelength is typically
called the second harmonic, the third-longest wavelength is called the third
harmonic, and so on. However, for a standing wave with a node at one end
and an antinode at the other end, only odd harmonics can be established.

▪ Visual representations of standing waves are useful in determining the

relationships between length of the region, wavelength, frequency, wave
speed, and harmonic.

88
Diffraction
▪ When waves meet an obstacle they bend around it.

▪ When waves meet a small opening, the opening generates a new wave on the
other side.

▪ This effect is most pronounced when the wavelength is on the same order of
magnitude as the slit width

89
Single Slit Diffraction
▪ As the wave enters the slit, each ▪ If the distance to the screen is
small portion of the wave area acts large, we can consider these
like an individual secondary source secondary waves as parallel
of waves.

90
Single Slit Diffraction
▪ Why is the slit width 𝑎?

▪ Think 𝑎 for aperture. An aperture is a small opening or gap, like used in a

camera.
▪ Next section we will cover double slit interference and the distance
between two slits will be 𝑑.
▪ Making two separate equations, one with 𝑎 and one with 𝑑 helps keep the
two straight.

91
Single Slit Diffraction
▪ The difference
in path
length, shown
in (b) is what
AP calls Δ𝐷
▪ Destructive
interference
will occur if
this Δ𝐷 is
equal to a half
wavelength

92
Single Slit Diffraction
𝑎
Δ𝐷 = sin 𝜃
2
𝜆
For destructive interference: Δ𝐷 = 𝑚
2

𝜆 𝑎
𝑚 = sin 𝜃
2 2
𝑚𝜆 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃

▪ AP gives you the equation as Δ𝐷 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃, and Δ𝐷= 𝑚𝜆 you will need to put
these two equations together and remember that for 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3 … 𝑎 sin 𝜃
gives you destructive interference.

93
Single Slit Diffraction
The resulting diffraction pattern will
look something like this.

There will be a wide central maximum.

The locations of 𝑚 specify the integer
count of the dark spots.

If asked to find the width of the central

maximum, find the distance from the
origin to 𝑚 = 1 and double it.

94
Single Slit Diffraction𝑎 𝑎
For small angles, sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃
𝑚𝜆 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃
𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
𝐿
𝑦
So we have that
𝑦
𝑎 ≈ 𝑚𝜆
𝐿 𝐿
AP substitutes 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 for 𝑦 to remind you
that you are calculating for areas of
minimum brightness (dark spots).
𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑎 ≈ 𝑚𝜆
𝐿
95
Single Slit Diffraction
Keeping in mind 𝑚𝜆 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃, when 𝑎 decreases, sin 𝜃 increases.

When a equals 𝜆, there is one large peak spanning from -90o to 90o. As the slit
width increases, the central maximum narrows as shown below.

96
AP CED 14.7
Describe the behavior of a wave and the diffraction pattern resulting from a wave
passing through a single opening.

▪ Diffraction is the spreading of a wave around the edges of an obstacle or through an

opening.

▪ Diffraction is most pronounced when the size of the opening is comparable to the
wavelength of the wave.

▪ Diffraction of multiple wavefronts through a single opening leads to observable

interference patterns.

▪ Diffraction is commonly demonstrated by monochromatic light of wavelength 𝜆

incident on a narrow opening of width 𝑎 that is a distance 𝐿 from a screen.

97
AP CED 14.7
Describe the behavior of a wave and the diffraction pattern resulting from a
wave passing through a single opening.

▪ Constructive and destructive interference of multiple wavefronts originating

from the opening will result in bright and dark bands on the screen.

▪ The amount of interference between two wavefronts depends on the path

length difference Δ𝐷 the wavefronts.

▪ The path length difference Δ𝐷 can be described in terms of the opening width
𝑎 and the angle 𝜃 between the direction of propagation of the wavefront and
the normal to the opening by the equation

98
AP CED 14.7
Describe the behavior of a wave and the diffraction pattern resulting from a
wave passing through a single opening.
▪ For small angles, where 𝜃 < 10𝑜 , the small angle approximation can be used
to relate 𝜆 , 𝑎, and 𝐿 to 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛, the distance from the middle of the central
bright fringe to the 𝑚𝑡ℎ order of minimum brightness on the screen.

▪ The diffraction pattern produced by a wave passing through an opening

depends on the shape of the opening.
▪ Visual representations of single-slit diffraction patterns are useful in
determining the physical properties of the slit and the interacting waves.

99
Diffraction – Multiple Slits
▪ Keep in mind that when a wave passes by an edge
the edge acts as a source of new waves.

▪ We talked about diffraction from a single slit, but

we can also have diffraction from two or even
more than two slits.

100
Double Slit Diffraction
▪ When diffraction occurs through multiple slits, the waves emerging from each
slit propagate outwards and interfere with each other.

▪ Thomas Young first performed the double slit experiment noting the pattern
of bright and dark spots below.

101
Double Slit Diffraction
▪ (b) shows the actual geometry of Young’s experiment

▪ If the distance R to the screen is much greater than the distance between the
slits we can use the approximate geometry shown in (c).

102
Double Slit Diffraction
▪ The difference in path length, shown in (c) is
𝑑 sin 𝜃

▪ If this extra distance equals an integer number

of wavelengths, 𝑚𝜆, then there will be
constructive interference on the screen. A
bright spot will be seen.

▪ If this extra distance equals a half number of

1
wavelengths, 𝑚 + 𝜆, then there will be
2
destructive interference on the screen. A dark
spot will be seen.

103
Double Slit Diffraction
▪ Similarly to single slit diffraction, AP does not give you the specific equations
for double slit diffraction.

▪ AP gives you the equation as Δ𝐷 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃, and Δ𝐷= 𝑚𝜆 you will need to put
these two equations together and remember that for 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3 … 𝑑 sin 𝜃
gives you constructive interference.
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆

104
Double Slit Diffraction
v
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆

𝑑 is the distance between the slits

𝑦
𝜃 is the angle from the center of
the slits to the particular bright
spot (𝑚 = 3 in this case) v 𝜃
𝑑 v

𝑚 is the count on the bright spots,

the center spot is 𝑚 = 0

𝜆 is the wavelength.
𝐿v

105
Double Slit Diffraction
v
𝐿 is the distance from the slits to
the screen

𝑥 or 𝑦 is the distance from the 𝑦

center line to the particular
bright/dark spot.
𝑦 v 𝜃
𝑑 v
tan 𝜃 =
𝐿
For small angles (less than 10o)
sin𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃
𝐿v

106
Double Slit Diffraction
v
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑑 tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝑚𝜆
𝑦
𝑑 ≈ 𝑚𝜆 𝑦
𝐿
Your equation sheet says:
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
v 𝜃
𝑑 v
𝑑 ≈ 𝑚𝜆
𝐿
to remind you that the distances to
the maxima (bright spots) are the
integer values of m.
The locations of the dark spots are 𝐿v
found at 𝑚 = 0.5, 1.5, 2.5 …

107
Double Slit Diffraction
▪ Image (a) is the expected result in single slit
diffraction.

▪ Image (b) is the expected result in double slit

diffraction.

▪ The diffraction around the slit edges that

occurs in single slit diffraction must also occur
in double slit diffraction.

108
Double Slit Diffraction
▪ What actually occurs is that the single slit pattern
envelopes or overlaps the double slit pattern, shown in
image (c).

▪ Image (d) shows what this might look like on a screen.

▪ The spacing of the maxima remains the same,

𝑦
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 or 𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ 𝑚𝜆 but some of the
𝐿
maxima can’t be seen because they overlap with a dark
spot from the single slit pattern.

▪ Looking out side the range of the central maximum

from the single slit pattern causes the maxima to be
very dim, so that they do not appear to be present.

109
Diffraction Grating
▪ A diffraction grating is similar to a
double slit set up, except instead of
two slits there are many slits
(potentially thousands of slits).

110
Diffraction Grating
▪ Increasing the number of slits causes more destructive interference, but also
increases the intensity of the constructive interference.

▪ The locations of the maxima do not change, the become narrower and
brighter as more slits are added.

111
Diffraction Grating
▪ The equations for the diffraction grating are the same as for the double slit
because the difference in path length, ∆𝐷 is equal to 𝑑 sin 𝜃 and equal to 𝑚𝜆:
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 and 𝑑 ≈ 𝑚𝜆
𝐿

Note: you should understand how changing any one of these variables affect
the other variables in the equation.

112
Diffraction Grating
▪ Shown on the top is green light after m=3 m=2 m=1 m=0 m=1 m=2 m=3
passing through a diffraction grating.

▪ Shown on the bottom is white light after

passing through a diffraction grating.
▪ The white light separates into its
constituent colors because the amount of
diffraction (𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥) depends on the
wavelength.
m=3 m=2 m=1 m=0 m=1 m=2 m=3
▪ Red light diffracts the most because it has
the longest wavelength.

113
AP CED 14.8
Describe the behavior of a wave and the diffraction pattern resulting from the wave
passing through multiple openings.

▪ When only considering wave interference, a double slit creates a pattern of uniformly
spaced maxima.

▪ Constructive and destructive interference of the wavefronts originating from each slit
will result in bright and dark bands on the screen.

▪ The amount of interference between two wavefronts depends on the path length
difference Δ𝐷 of the wavefronts.

▪ The path length difference Δ𝐷 can be described in terms of the slit separation 𝑑 and
the angle 𝜃 between the direction of propagation of the wavefront and the normal to
the opening by the equation

114
AP CED 14.8
Describe the behavior of a wave and the diffraction pattern resulting from the wave
passing through multiple openings.

▪ For small angles, where 𝜃 < 10𝑜 , the small angle approximation can be used to
relate 𝜆 , 𝑑, and 𝐿 to 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥, the distance from the middle of the central bright fringe to
the 𝑚𝑡ℎ order of maximum brightness on the screen.

▪ When considering wave interference and wave diffraction, a double slit creates an
interference pattern of maxima and minima superimposed within the envelope
created by single-slit diffraction.

▪ Interference patterns produced by light interacting with a double slit indicate that
light has wave properties. The source of this discovery was Young’s double-slit
experiment.

115
AP CED 14.8
Describe the behavior of a wave and the diffraction pattern resulting from the
wave passing through multiple openings.
▪ Visual representations of double-slit diffraction patterns are useful in
determining the physical properties of the slits and the interacting waves.
▪ A diffraction grating is a collection of evenly spaced parallel slits or openings
that produce an interference pattern that is the combination of numerous
diffraction patterns superimposed on each other.
▪ When white light is incident on a diffraction grating, the center maximum is
white and the higher-order maxima disperse white light into a rainbow of
colors, with the longest-wavelength light (red) appearing farthest from the
central maximum.

116
Interference by Thin Films
▪ Another interesting effect caused by light's properties of
refraction, reflection and interference.

▪ It occurs when you have light passing through multiple

media with different indices of refraction.

▪ Light first passes through a thin film. A thin film is a media

layer with a thickness that ranges from 10-9 m to 10-6 m.

▪ Depending on the structure and materials of the media, the

refracted light interferes with the partially reflected light to
produce maxima and minima.

▪ The minima are where little to no reflection is seen and the

maxima are where wonderful colors in unique patterns are
shown.

117
Wave Reflection and Transmission
▪ The transmitted pulse is upright regardless of whether the new material is
more dense or less dense. A pulse that remains upright is said to experience a
zero phase shift.

118
Wave Reflection and Transmission
▪ The reflected pulse inverts when it encounters a denser medium, like in the
first case. If the new medium is less dense, the reflected pulse stays upright.

▪ A pulse that inverts (turns upside down) experiences a 180o phase shift or a
phase shift of 𝝀/𝟐.

119
Interference by Thin Films
▪ We'll use the same principles as we consider two cases of the transmission of
light: Film Coating and Bubble.

120
Interference by Film Coating
▪ Consider a ray of light incident on a thin
film over a second layer of greater index
of refraction, glass in this case (the glass
anti-glare example).

▪ The values of n increase with each layer

(𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 > 𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 > 𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 ).

121
Interference by Film Coating
▪ The portion of the wave that passes into
the film layer remains in phase; there is
no phase shift for transmitted waves
(red arrow).

▪ The portion of the wave that reflects off

of the film layer is phase shifted by λ/2
because the film has a higher index of
refraction than air (green arrow).

▪ The reflected wave phase shift is

analogous to a pulse moving from a less
dense to a more dense medium.

122
Interference by Film Coating
▪ This happens again at the film glass
interface.

▪ The portion of the wave that passes into

the glass layer remains in phase; there is
no phase shift for transmitted waves (red
arrow). This wave is not involved in the
interference.

▪ The portion of the wave that reflects off

of the glass layer is phase shifted by 𝜆/2
because the glass has a higher index of
refraction than the film (green arrow).

123
Interference by Film Coating
▪ The ray reflected off the glass layer (in
green) is finally transmitted back into
the air.

▪ There is no additional phase shift here,

but the λ/2 shift from the glass layer
remains. (red arrow).

▪ The ray originally reflected (blue arrow)

and the ray reflected from the glass (red
arrow) are both in phase because they
are both shifted the same amount.

124
Interference by Film Coating
▪ If the thickness of the film layer is t, then the
extra distance traveled by the second ray is a
minimum of 2t depending on the angle of
incidence.

▪ If this extra distance is an integer multiple

number of wavelengths, then constructive
interference occurs.

▪ If this extra distance is an odd multiple of

half wavelengths, then destructive
interference occurs.

Important! The extra distance traveled occurs

in the film, so the wavelength is 𝝀𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎.

125
Interference by Film Coating
▪ From last year we have:

Film Coating (increasing n)

Constructive Interference:
2𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚

Destructive Interference:
1
2𝑡 = 𝑚 + 𝜆𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚
2

126
Bubble Interference
▪ The second type of thin film interference is
similar to a soap bubble, where there is air
above and below the thin film of soap.

▪ In the second case, we have a ray of light

incident on a thin film which is over a
second layer of lower index of refraction:
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 < 𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑎𝑝 > 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟

127
Bubble Interference
Similarly to Film coating:

▪ The portion of the wave that passes into

the soap layer remains in phase; there is
no phase shift for transmitted waves (red
arrow).

▪ The portion of the wave that reflects off

of the film layer is phase shifted by
𝜆/2 because the film has a higher index
of refraction than air (green arrow).

128
Bubble Interference
▪ At the bottom of the soap layer the
portion of the wave that passes into the
air remains in phase; there is no phase
shift for transmitted waves (red arrow).
This wave is not involved in the
interference.

▪ The portion of the wave that reflects off

of the air at the bottom of the soap
layer also remains in phase, because the
air's index of refraction is lower than the
soap's (green arrow).

129
Bubble Interference
▪ The ray reflected off the bottom of the soap
layer (in green) is finally transmitted back
into the air.

▪ Again, there is no phase shift here, because

the ray is being transmitted (red arrow).

▪ The ray reflected off of the top of the soap

(blue arrow) and the ray reflected from the
bottom of the soap (red arrow) are out of
phase because one has been phase shifted
and the other one hasn't.

130
Bubble Interference
▪ Again, if the thickness of the soap layer is 𝒕,
then the extra distance traveled by the
second ray is a minimum of 𝟐𝒕.

▪ If this extra distance is an integer multiple

number of wavelengths, then destructive
interference occurs, because of the phase
shifting from the soap layer.

▪ If this extra distance is an odd multiple of

half wavelengths, then the waves are
shifted back into phase and constructive
interference occurs.

131
Bubble Interference
▪ From last year we have:

Bubble (n increases then decreases)

Constructive Interference:
1
2𝑡 = 𝑚 + 𝜆𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚
2

Destructive Interference:
2𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚

132
Thin Film Interference
▪ AP does not give you the thin film equations like you had freshman year. All
you have is Δ𝐷= 𝑚𝜆

▪ For thin films, ∆𝐷 = 2𝑡. The difference in path length (∆𝐷) will be twice the
thickness of the film (2𝑡) because the light travels from one side of the film to
the other and back.
▪ Note that problems will almost always say “normally incident” as if the light
is traveling perpendicular to the boundary. This is the shortest difference in
path length and the calculations become complicated when considering the
light is traveling at an angle.

133
Thin Film Interference
▪ AP does not give you the thin film equations like you had freshman year. All
you have is Δ𝐷= 𝑚𝜆

▪ You need to be aware that when light reflects off of a higher index of
refraction it phase shifts 180 o or ½ wavelength.
▪ In the film coating example, there are two phase shifts, so the out going
waves are in phase, constructive interference occurs at intervals of 𝑚𝜆 and
1
destructive interference occurs at intervals of 𝑚 + 𝜆
2

▪ In the bubble example, there is only one phase shift, so the out going waves
are out of phase, destructive interference occurs at intervals of 𝑚𝜆 and
1
constructive interference occurs at intervals of 𝑚 + 𝜆
2

134
Thin Film Interference
▪ AP does not give you the thin film equations like you had freshman year. All
you have is Δ𝐷= 𝑚𝜆

▪ You need to remember that the interference occurs because of the film layer.

▪ The wavelength referred to is the wavelength in the film.

▪ Often you are given the wavelength in the air. The wavelength in the film is
the wavelength in air divided by the index of refraction.
𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜆𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 =
𝑛

135
Thin Film Interference
▪ Any thin translucent layer between two other layers is a thin film. Even though
the preceding slides were titled Bubble Interference, a soap bubble is still a
thin film.

▪ Remember that “ thin film” can refer to any thin layer of material.

136
AP CED 14.9
Describe the behavior of light that interacts with a thin film.
▪ When light travels from one medium to another, some of the light is
transmitted, some is reflected, and some is absorbed.
▪ The phase change of a reflected ray depends on the relative indices of
refraction of the materials with which the ray interacts.
▪ A phase change of 180 degrees occurs when a light ray is reflected from a
medium with a greater index of refraction than the medium through which
the ray is traveling.
▪ No phase change occurs when a light ray is reflected from a medium with a
lower index of refraction than the medium through which the ray is traveling.

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AP CED 14.9
Describe the behavior of light that interacts with a thin film.

▪ The phase of a wave does not change when it is refracted as it passes from one
medium into another.

▪ Thin-film interference occurs when light interacts with a medium whose thickness is
comparable to the light’s wavelength.

▪ The interactions between the initial reflected light and the light exiting the thin film
after being reflected from the second interface exhibit wave interference behavior,
resulting in a single wave that is the sum of the two interacting waves.

▪ The amount of constructive or destructive interference between the two reflected

waves depends on the relationship between the thickness of the film, the wavelength
of light, any phase shifts, and the angle at which the incident light strikes the film.
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AP CED 14.9
Describe the behavior of light that interacts with a thin film.
▪ Practical examples of thin-film interference include the color variations seen in soap
bubbles and oil films, as well as antireflection coatings.
▪ The spectrum of colors observed in oil films and soap bubbles arises from differences
in the thickness of the film.
▪ Antireflection coatings eliminate reflected light by applying the relationships between
indices of refraction, phase shift, and wave interference to create destructive
interference of the light reflected from the two surfaces of the coating.
▪ The simplest antireflection coating has a thickness equal to one-quarter of the
wavelength of the light in the coating, and the index of refraction of the coating is
greater than that of air and less than that of the surface upon which the coating is
applied. This assumes incident light is normal to the surface.

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