INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS UNIT-I

Unit-I
1.0 Key Elements of Mechatronics
Physically mechatronic system composed of four prime components

 Sensors,
 Actuators,
 Controllers and
 Mechanical/electrical components
Figure 1.2 shows Key elements of mechatronics system

Figure 1.2 Key elements of mechatronics system

1.0.1 Sensors

A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into an 'electrical signal'
which can be read by an observer or by an instrument.

 Temperature sensors
 Displacement, position, motion and velocity sensors,
 Fluid sensors, liquid flow, liquid level
 Light sensors etc.,

1.0.2 Actuator

Actuator is transducer which converts electrical signal into physical quantity

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• An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving or controlling a
mechanism or system.
• Mechanical Actuation systems
– Gear trains Belt
– and chain drives, bearings etc.,
• Electrical Actuation systems
Mechanical switches - Keyboards, limit switches, switches, Relays
Solid-state switches - Diodes, thyristors, transistors
Solenoids– Push something, Starter solenoid, pneumatic or hydraulic valve
Drive systems - DC, AC, or stepper motors
1.0.3 Microcontroller
Integrated electronic computing device that includes three major components on a single chip
• Microprocessor (MPU)
• Memory
• I/O (Input/Output) ports
Figure 1.3 shows Basic blocks of Microcontroller

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Figure 1.3 Basic blocks of Microcontroller

Microprocessor: Integrated electronic computing device that includes Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), Control Unit and Register array or Simply CPU on a single IC. It takes digital data as
input, process the data and gives digital data as output.

Input Devices: Provide binary information to the MPU

– Switches and Keypads
Output devices: Receive binary information from the MPU
– LEDs and LCDs
Memory:Storage Device
Major Categories
– Read/Write Memory (R/W)
– Read-only-Memory (ROM)
1.1 Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontrollers

1.2 Arduino
Arduino is an open-source electronics platform which integrates hardware and software
easily. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a
Twitter message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED, publishing
something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of instructions to the
microcontroller on the board.

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1.2.1 Arduino Boards
 Arduino Uno
 Arduino NG, Diecimila, and the Duemilanove (Legacy Versions)
 Arduino Mega 2560
 Arduino Mega ADK
 ArduinoLilyPad
1.2.2 Arduino Pin map
The figure 1.4 shows Arduino Mega Pin map

Figure 1.4 shows Arduino Mega Pin map

ATmega2560:
• The Arduino Mega 2560 is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega2560.
• The ATmega640/1280/1281/2560/2561 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller
based on the AVR enhanced RISC architecture.
• It has 54 digital input/output pins (of which 14 can be used as PWM outputs), 16 analog
inputs, 4 UARTs (hardware serial ports), a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection,
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a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.
• It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller;
• Simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter
or battery to get started.

• Memory - The ATmega2560 has 256 KB of flash memory for storing code (of which 8
KB is used for the bootloader), 8 KB of SRAM and 4 KB of EEPROM (which can be
read and written with the EEPROM library).
Power pins:
• VIN: Used to turn ON the board using battery.
• 5V. It is used to power external components connected to Arduino which needs 5V.
• 3V3.It is used to power external components connected to Arduino which needs 3.3V.
Maximum current draw is 50 mA.
• GND.Ground
Digital Input/Output(I/O):
Each of the 54 digital pins on the Mega can be used as an input or output, using pinMode(),
digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or
receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of
20-50 kΩ. In addition, some pins have specialized functions
Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART): Used to receive (RX) serial data
and transmit (TX) serial data.
• UART 0: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX)
• UART 1: 19 (RX) and 18 (TX)
• UART 2: 17 (RX) and 16 (TX)
• UART 3: 15(RX) and 14 (TX).
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): 0 to 13. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analog Write()
function. These pins are also called as analog output lines
Serial Peripheral Interface(SPI): 50 (MISO), 51 (MOSI), 52 (SCK), 53 (SS).
 MISO (Master In Slave Out)
 MOSI (Master Out Slave In)
 SCK (Serial Clock)
 SS(Serial Select)
LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the
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LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
Inter integrated circuit (I2C): 20 (SDA) and 21 (SCL).
• SDA : Serial Data, It is the bidirectional data line that is used by I2C.
• SCL : Serial Clock, It is used to indicate that data is ready on bidirectional data line that
is used by I2C.
Analog Inputs: The Arduino Mega2560 has 16 analog inputs, each of which provide 10 bits of
resolution (i.e. 1024 different values).
There are a couple of other pins on the board.
AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().
Reset. It Resets the Arduino board if pressed

1.3 Arduino Programming

Structure: A basic Arduinosketch(Progrm) consists of two functions called setup() and loop().
Where setup() is the preparation, loop() is the execution. Both functions are required for
program to work. The setup() should follow the declaration of any variables at every beginning
of the program. It is the first function to ruin in the program, is only run once, and used to set
pinMode or initialize serial communication
The loop() follows next and includes the code to be executed continuously- reading
inputs , triggering outputs etc., this function is core of all arduino programs does bulk of work.
The setup() Function
The setup() called once when program starts. Use it to initialize pin modes, or begin
serial communication. It must be included in program even if there are no statements run.
The loop() Function
After calling the setup() function, the loop() function does precisely what its name
suggests, and loops consecutively, allowing the program to change, respond and control the
arduino board.
Example 1.1
// File: blink.pde
// Turns on an LED on for one second,
// then off for one second, repeatedly. Header: • Overview comments • Global variables
intLED_pin = 11;

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void setup() //• Execute only once • Tasks for start-up
{
pinMode(LED_pin, OUTPUT);
}
void loop() //• Execute repeatedly • Primary tasks for the sketch
{
digitalWrite(LED_pin, HIGH);
delay(1000);
digitalWrite(LED_pin, LOW);
delay(1000);
}

1.4 Arduino Basic functions

1.4.1 Digital I/O:Arduino mega 2560 have 54 digital I/O pins(0-53)
pinMode(pin, mode): Configures the specified pin to behave either as an input or an output.
pin is the pin number(0 - 53). Mode specifies INPUT/OUTPUT.
Ex: pinMode(7, OUTPUT); // sets the “pin 7” as output
pinMode(1, INPUT); // sets the “pin 1” as input
digitalWrite(pin, value): Write a HIGH or a LOW value to a digital pin.
Ex: digitalWrite(14, HIGH); // write logic 1(5V) on to “pin 14”
digitalWrite(52, LOW); // write logic 0(0V) on to “pin 52”
digitalRead(pin): Reads the value from a specified digital pin(0-53). The result will be either
HIGH or LOW
Ex: value= digitalRead(10); // reads logic level(0/1) on pin 10 and assigns to value
1.4.2 Analog I/O:Arduino mega 2560 have 16analog I/O pins(0- 15)
analogRead(pin): Reads the value from the specified analog pin with a 10-bit resolution. This
function works on analog input pins(0 - 15). The resulting integer values from 0 to 1023 to
represent 0 to 5V. It takes about 0.0001 seconds to read an analog pin.
Ex: value=analogRead(0); // reads analog pin 0, converts 10-bit digital number assigns to
value//
Note: Analog pins unlike digital ones do not need to declare as INPUT/OUTPUT.

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analogWrite(pin,value):Arduino mega 2560 have 14PWMs (0- 13)
Writes analog value using hardware enabled pulse width modulation (PWM) to an output
marked PWM. The value can be specified as a variable or constant with a value from 0-255.

Ex: analogWrite(0,value); // write value to “PWM0”

A value of 0 generates a steady state 0V output at the specified pin; a value of 255 generates
5Voutput at the specified pin. For values in between 0 and 255 the pin rapidly alternate between
0 and 5V. As value increases duty cycle of the pulse is increased.
analogReference(type): The default reference voltage is 5V. This can be changed to a different
type and different resolution using this function.
1.4.3 Serial I/O: Typically used for communication between an Arduino board and a computer
via the USB port. Use the serial monitor to communicate with the board.
Serial.begin(9600): Used to begin serial communications, typically at a 9600 baud rate (bits per
second)
Serial.print(val,format): Prints data to the serial port as human-readable ASCII text.
Examples: Serial.print(78) gives "78"
Serial.print(1.23456) gives "1.23"
Serial.println(1.23456, 4) gives "1.2346"
Serial.print("Hello world.") gives "Hello world."
Serial.println(val): Prints val followed by carriage return
delay():Pauses the program for the amount of time (in milliseconds) specified as parameter.
Syntax: delay(ms)
Parameters:
ms: The number of milliseconds to pause
Returns: Nothing
delayMicroseconds():Pauses the program for the amount of time (in microseconds) specified as
parameter.
Syntax: delayMicroseconds(µs)
Parameters:
µs: The number of microseconds to pause
Returns: Nothing

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SENSORS

2.0 Sensors: A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a
electrical signal. Examples of sensors are Temperature sensors, Displacement, position, motion
and velocity sensors, Fluid sensors, liquid flow, liquid level, Light sensors etc.,

2.1 Characteristics of Sensors: Sensor characteristics are of two types

 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics

Static characteristics refer to the steady state relationship between sensor input and output
Dynamic characteristics refer to the relationship between the sensor input and output when the
measured quantity is varying rapidly.

2.1.1 Static Characteristics

i) Range: The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary.
Example: a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range
of 25-225 °C.
ii) Span: Span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input.
Thus, the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 225-25=200 °C.
iii) Error: Error is the difference between the measured value and the true value of the
quantity. Example: A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm, when
the actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is 0.2 mm.
iv) Sensitivity: Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value
of a sensor per unit change in input value. For example, a temperature sensor may
have a sensitivity of 10 mV/°C. If 1oC raise in temp results in 10mV.
v) Non-Linearity: The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual
measured curve of a sensor from the ideal curve. It is shown in fig. 2.1
vi) Hysteresis: The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum
difference in output at any measurement value within the sensor’s specified range
when approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing the input
parameter. It is shown in fig. 2.2

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Fig. 2.1 Non-Linearity Fig. 2.2 Hysteresis

vii) Stability: Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output with a
constant input over a period.
viii) Dead band: The dead band or dead space of a sensor is the range of input values
for which there is no output.
ix) Repeatability: It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated
applications of same input value under same conditions.
x) Accuracy: This is the closeness to the actual value.
xi) Precision: Precision is defined as the ability of sensor to reproduce a certain set of
readings within given accuracy. Precision depends upon repeatability.
xii) Output Impedance: It is the impedance measured at the output of sensor. It is
necessary to know the output impedance of a sensor because the electrical output
of sensor is interfaced with an electronic circuit.
2.1.2 Dynamic Characteristics
i) Response time: This is the time which elapsed by sensor to gives an output
corresponding to some specified percentage (90-95%) of its steady value after a
constant input, a step input, is applied.
ii) Time constant: The time constant is a measure of the inertia of the sensor and so
how it will react to changes in its input. This is the 63.2% response time.
iii) Rise time: This is the time taken for the output to rise from 10% to 90 % of its
steady value.
iv) Settling time: This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some small
percentage (2%) of steady state value.

The Dynamic Characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.3

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Fig. 2.3 Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors

2.2 Classification of sensors

In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active and Passive.

Active sensors (self-generating): Does not require power for its operation. Ex: Thermocouple

Passive Sensors (external supply): Require external power for its operation Ex: Photodiode

In the second classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Analog and digital.

Analog Sensors: Analog Sensors produce an analog output i.e. a continuous output signal with
respect to the quantity being measured. Ex: LDR, Strain gauge

Digital Sensors: Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with discrete or digital
data. The data in digital sensors, which is used for conversion and transmission, is digital in
nature. Ex: IR, PIR

In the third classification of the sensors, they are divided in to primary and secondary.

Primary Sensor: Primary transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical device. It
usually converts the physical quantity to be measured into a mechanical signal.

Secondary Sensor: Secondary transducers are deployed in cascade with primary one. This
converts that mechanical signal into a more comprehensible electrical signal.

Ex: Bourdon tube (Primary sensor) and LVDT(Secondary sensor).

2.3 Selection of Sensors

The following parameters need to be considered while selecting a sensor for a application
 Operating principle

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 Availability
o Sources-Location, delivery schedule,
o payment options, Continuation of supply.
 Cost: Cost of sensor itself, delivery cost.
 Performance figures:
o Range, ease of use, power supply requirements, accuracy, hysteresis effect and
any other
2.4 Displacement Sensors:

Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement of an object. The
displacement sensor converts displacement into electrical signal. This electrical signal may
Rresistance/Capacitance/Inductance. Based on the electrical output, the displacement sensor
classified into three types:

 Resistive Displacement sensors: Potentiometer, strain gauge

 Capacitive Displacement sensors: Capacitive element
 Inductive Displacement sensors: LVDT
2.4.1 Resistive Displacement sensors
i) Potentiometer:

Construction: It consist of a resistance element with sliding contact which can be moved
over the length of the element as shown in fig. 2.4. The resistive element is a wire wound
track or conductive plastic. Wire wound track has a resolution of the order of 0.5mm. The
conductive plastic may have the resolution of about 0.1 µm.

Fig. 2.4 Potentiometer Construction

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Operation: Potentiometer is one of the common sensors for position measurements. It relates
the change in position (linear or rotary) into the change in resistance, as shown in Figure 2.5 a
and b. The resistance change is then converted to a proportional voltage change in the electrical
circuit of the sensor. Hence, the relationship between the measured physical variable,
translational(linear) displacement x or rotary(angular) displacement θ, and the output voltage
for a ideal potentiometer is

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑘𝑉𝑠 𝑥 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑘𝑉𝑠 𝜽

Where Vs= supply voltage
X= linear displacement
𝛉= angular displacement.
Vout = output voltage
K= Sensitivity of the potentiometer is a function of the winding resistance and
physical shape of the winding.

Fig. 2.5 (a) Linear displacement Fig. 2.5 (b) Angular displacement

ii) Strain gauge: A strain gauge is an example of passive transducer that converts a
mechanical displacement into a change of resistance. Strain gage is one of the most popular
types of transducer. It has got a wide range of applications. It can be used for measurement of
force, torque, pressure, acceleration and many other parameters. The basic principle of
operation of a strain gage is simple: when strain is applied to a thin metallic wire, its dimension
changes, thus changing the resistance of the wire. Let us first investigate what are the factors,
responsible for the change in resistance.
Based on principle of working:
a. Mechanical

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b. Electrical
c. Piezoelectric
Based on mounting:
a. Bonded strain gauge
b. Unbonded strain gauge
Out of these the most commonly used one is the electrical strain Gauge
Construction of electrical strain Gauge: There are many types of strain gauges. Among them,
a universal strain gage has a structure such that a grid-shaped sensing element of thin metallic
resistive foil (3 to 6μm thick) is put on a base of thin plastic film (15 to 16μm thick) and is
laminated with a thin film and is shown in fig. 2.6

Fig. 2.6 Construction of Metal foil Strain gauge

Types of electrical strain Gauges: Types of electrical strain Gauges are shown in fig.2.7

Fig.2.7 (a) Metal wire type (b) Semiconductor type (c) Metal foil type

Operation: The strain gage is tightly bonded to a measuring object so that the sensing element
(metallic foil) may stretch or contract according to the strain on the measuring object. The
stretching and contraction may result in change length of the strain gauge as shown in fig. 2.8.

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The change in length results change in resistance according to following equation

𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
Where R = Resistance
l= length
A= Area

Fig. 2.8 Strain gauge under tension Fig. 2.7 Strain gauge under contraction
Hence the applied strain is directly proportional to the change in resistance
∆𝑅
=𝐺∈
𝑅
where, R=Original resistance of strain gage, Ω (ohm)
ΔR= Elongation- or contraction-initiated resistance change, Ω (ohm)
G= Proportional constant (called gage factor)
ε = Strain (∆𝑙)
𝑙

G= 2 for metal wire or metal foil strain gauge

G= -100 or less for N-type semiconductor
G= +100 or more for N-type semiconductor
Applications of Strain gauge:
 Displacement measurement
 Force measurement
 Residual stress
 Vibration measurement
 Torque measurement
 Bending and deflection measurement
 Compression and tension measurement

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 Strain measurement
Displacement Measurement using Strain gauge: One form of displacement sensor has strain
gauge attached to flexible element in the form of cantilevers, rings and U- shapes.
Fig.2.9 Shows displacement measurement using cantilever.

Fig. 2.9(a) Cantilever under no displacement Fig. 2.9(b) Cantilever with displacement
When strain or force is applied on beam of cantilever, it is displaced, then the strain
gauges mounted on the cantilever are also strained. which results in one strain gauge is under
tension and one is under compression as shown in fig. 2.8(b) and give a resistance change
which can be monitored. The change in resistance is thus measure of displacement of beam of
cantilever. Such arrangements typically used for linear displacements of the order of 1mm to
30mm and Have non-linearity error of about ±1% of full range.
2.4.2 Inductive Displacement sensor: The best example of inductive displacement sensor
is the Linear Variable Differential Transducer/Transformer (LVDT).
Linear Variable Differential Transducer/Transformer (LVDT):
Principle of LVDT: LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the
displacement which is a non-electrical energy is converted into an electrical energy.
Construction of LVDT: LVDT consists of a cylindrical former where it is surrounded by one
primary winding in the centre of the former and the two secondary windings at the sides. The
number of turns in both the secondary windings are equal, but they are opposite to each other,
i.e., if the left secondary windings is in the clockwise direction, the right secondary windings
will be in the anti-clockwise direction, hence the net output voltages will be the difference in
voltages between the two-secondary coil. The two secondary coil is represented as S1 and S2.
Esteem iron core is placed in the centre of the cylindrical former which can move in to and fro
motion as shown in the figure 2.10. The AC excitation voltage is 5 to 12V and the operating
frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.

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Fig. 2.10 (a) LVDT Construction Fig. 2.10 (b) LVDT Equivalent circuit

Working of LVDT:

The working of LVDT by splitting the cases into 3 based on the iron core position inside the
insulated former.
Case 1: When no external force, the core reminds in the null position itself without providing
any movement then the voltage induced in both the secondary windings are equal which results
in net output is equal to zero
V0=V1-V2=0
Case 2: When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core tends to move in the left-
hand side direction then the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil1 is greater when
compared to the emf induced in the secondary coil 2. Therefore, the net output will be
V0=V1-V2= +ve
Case 3: When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core moves in the right-hand
side direction then the emf induced in the secondary coil 2 is greater when compared to the
emf voltage induced in the secondary coil 1. Therefore, the net output voltage will be

V0=V1-V2= -ve

Applications of LVDT:

 LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from fraction millimetre to centimetre.

 Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as a device to measure force,
weight and pressure, etc.

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2.5 Force Sensor (Load Cell)

2.5.1 Basic Principle of Strain gauge load cell: When steel cylinder is subjected to a force,
it tends to change in dimension. On this cylinder, if the strain gauges are bonded, the strain
gauge also is stretched or compressed, causing a change in its length and diameter. This change
in dimension of the strain gauge causes its resistance to change. This change in resistance or
output voltage of the strain gauge becomes a measure of applied force.
2.5.2 Construction
The main parts of the strain gauge load cell is shown in fig.211. They are a cylinder made up
of steel on which four identical strain gauge are mounted and out of four strain gauges, two of
them (R1 and R4) are mounted along the direction of the applied load (vertical gauges). The
other two strain gauges (R2 and R3 Horizontal gauges) are mounted circumferentially at right
angles to gauges R1 and R4.

Fig. 2.11 Construction of Load Cell

2.5.3 Operation of strain gauge Load cell

These four gauges are connected in the form of bridge to convert the change in resistance to
voltage as shown in fig. 2.12. the output voltage Vout is given by

Fig.2.12 Wheatstone Bridge and is output volage

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Case 1: When there is no load (force) on the steel cylinder, all the four gauges will have the
same resistance. Hence the wheat stone bridge is balanced and hence the output voltage will
be zero.
Vout =0
Case 2: Now the load (force) to be measured (say compression force) is applied on the steel
cylinder. Due to this, the vertical gauges R1 and R4 will undergo compression and hence there
will be a decrease in resistance. At the same time, the horizontal gauges R2 and R3 will undergo
tension and there will be an increase in resistance. Thus, when strained, the resistance of the
various gauges changes. Then the wheat stone bridge is unbalanced and hence the output
voltage will not be zero.
Vout ≠ 0
Now the change in output voltage due to the applied load (force) becomes a measure of the
applied load force when calibrated.
Applications:

 Vehicle Weigh Bridges

 Too force dynamo meters
 Tension measurement of wires
2.6 Temperature Sensors

Detect or measure changes in temperature and converts into electrical signal. The types of
temperature sensors as follows
 Bi-metallic strips(4200C)
 Thermocouples (-2000C to over +2000oC to be measured.)
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) (-200 to +600oC.)
 Thermistors (-50- 200oC)
 Thermodiodes and thermotransistors (-50- 150oC)
2.6.1 Bi-metallic strips

Bonding two metals with dissimilar thermal expansion coefficients can produce useful devices
for detecting and measuring temperature changes. A typical pair is brass and steel with typical
expansion coefficients of 19 and 13 parts per million per degree Celsius respectively.

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This principle is used in many applications. The most important application of bi-metallic strip
as a thermal switch as shown in fig. 2.13

Fig.2.13 Thermal Switch

Advantages and disadvantages:
 Power source not required2
 Easy to use and cheap but not very accurate.
 Can be used to 500 °C
 Limited to applications where manual reading is acceptable, e.g. a household
thermometer
 Not suitable for very low temperatures because the expansion of metals tend to be too
similar, so the device becomes a rather insensitive thermometer
2.6.2 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change in its
temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear relationship
as shown in Figure 2.5.2. The correlation is

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Where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (°C) and R0 is the temperature at 0°C and α is the
constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is usually
made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0°C

Fig.2.14 Variation of resistance with temperature for metals

Applications:
 Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
 Food Processing
 Stoves and grills
 Textile production
 Plastics processing
 Petrochemical processing
 Micro electronics
 Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
 Exhaust gas temperature measurement
2.6.3 Thermistors
Thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure temperature changes, relying on the change in
its resistance with changing temperature. Thermistor is a combination of the words thermal and
resistor. The symbol of thermistor is shown in fig.2.15

Fig. 2.15 The symbol of thermistor

A simple linear relationship between resistance and temperature is

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ΔR = k Δt
where ΔR = change in resistance
Δt = change in temperature
k = temperature coefficient of resistance
Commercially available thermistors have nominal values of 1K,2K,10K,20K,100K etc,.
Types of thermistors:
Negative temperature co-efficient (NTC) thermistors: These are Mixture of metal oxides
such as chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel pressed into a bead, disc or rod shape.

Positive temperature co-efficient (PTC) thermistors: Positive temperature co-efficient

thermistors are made-up of barium, lead and strontium titanite. these have limited use and they
are particularly used for protection of motors and transformer winding.
Characteristics of thermistors: Fig.2.16 shows characteristics of thermistors

Fig.2.16 Characteristics of thermistors

2.6.4 Thermocouple
Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it produces
an electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires
composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then there
is a continuous current which flow in the thermoelectric circuit. Figure 2.17 shows the

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schematic of thermocouple circuit. The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a
function of junction temperature and composition of two metals. It is given by,
ΔVAB = αΔT
Where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant of proportionality.

Fig. 2.17 Schematic of thermocouple circuit

Generally, Chromel(90% nickel and 10% chromium)–Alumel(95% nickel, 2% manganese, 2%
aluminium and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture of a thermocouple.
Applications of Thermocouples
 To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process
 Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and
petroleum refineries
 Testing of heating appliance safety
 Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
 Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
 Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in the steel,
iron and aluminium industry
2.6.5 Thermodiodes and thermotransistors
A junction semiconductor pn junction diode is widely used as temperature sensor. When
temperature of doped semiconductor changes the mobility of their charge carries changes and
this effect the rate at which electrons and holes can diffuse across a pn junction. Thus, when
pn junction diode as potential difference V across it. The current through the junction is a
function of the temperature and is given by

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𝑉𝐷 𝑞𝑉𝐷
I= ɳ𝑉
𝐼𝑂 (e 𝑇 − 1) = 𝐼𝑂 (e ɳ𝐾𝑇 − 1)

After applying natural logarithm on both sides

𝑞𝑉𝐷 𝐼
= ln ( + 1)
𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑂
𝐾𝑇 𝐼
𝑉𝐷 = ln ( + 1)
𝑞 𝐼𝑂
Where temperature on kelvin scale.
Thus, for a constant, current we have VD is proportional to the temperature on kelvin
scale. So measurement of the potential difference across the diode for a constant current can
be used as measure of temperature, such sensor is compact like thermistor and as the great
advantage of giving a response which is linear function of temperature. Diodes for use of
temperature sensor, together with necessary signal conditioning are supplied as integrated
circuit eg. LM3911 and give very compact sensor. The output voltage from LM3911 is
proportional to temperature at the rate 10mV/0C.
In similar manner to the thermodiode, for a thermotransistor the voltage across the
junction between the base and emitter depend on the temperature and can be used as a measure
of temperature. A common method is to use two transistors with different collector current and
determine the difference in the base emitter voltage between them, this difference is
proportional to the temperature on kelvin scale. Such transistor with necessary signal
conditioning are supplied as integrated circuit eg. LM35 and give very compact sensor.
LM35: Integrated-circuit temperature sensor with an output voltage linearly-proportional to
the Centigrade temperature and is shown in fig. 2.18

Fig. 2.18 LM35 Temperature sensor

Features:
 Calibrated Directly in Celsius (Centigrade)
 Linear ± 10mV/°C Scale Factor
 0.5°C Ensured Accuracy (at 25°C)
 Rated for Full −55°C to 150°C Range
 Suitable for Remote Applications
 Low-Cost

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 Operates from 4 V to 30 V
 Less than 60-μA Current Drain
 Non-Linearity Only ±¼°C Typical
 Low-Impedance Output, 0.1 Ω for 1-mA Load
Applications:
 Air conditioners (AC)
 Incubators
 Microwave ovens
 Poly houses
 Poultry forms

2.7 Light Sensors

Light sensors are devices that are used to convert light energy into electrical energy. The
commonly used sensors are
 Light Dependent Resister (LDR)
 Photo Diode
 Photo transistor
2.7.1 Light Dependent Resister (LDR)
LDR is a device whose resistance is a function of amount of light falling on it. This is
also called as Photoresistor, Photoconductor, Photoconductive cell or simply Photocells.
Construction: Made up of with semiconductor materials having high resistance. Like
cadmium sulphide, lead sulphide (PbS), lead selenide (PbSe), indium antimonide (InSb).
Cadmium sulphide is used in the manufacture of photoconductive cells because its spectral
response curve closely matches that of the human eye and can even be controlled using a simple
torch as a light source. The LDR and its symbols are shown in fig. 2.19

Fig. 2.19 Construction of LDR LDR Symbols

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Working principle: Photo conductivity is an optical phenomenon in which the materials

conductivity is increased when light is absorbed by the material. When photon of energy ℎ𝑣 ≥
𝐸𝑔 Incident on the semiconductor material. The electrons in the valance band gains the energy
and exited to conduction band as shown in fig. 2.20. This process results in a greater number
of carriers in the conduction band. Hence the conductivity of semiconductor material is
increased. When there is no light, the resistance on the device is known as Dark Resistance.
This is of the order of several MΩ.

Fig.2.20 Photo conductivity

Characteristics of LDR: The characteristics of LDR is shown in fig.2.21.

Fig.2.21 Characteristics of LDR

Applications:
 Automatic Street light systems
 Bar code Scanners
 Counting packages
 Light Intensity Meters
 Burger Alarms

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2.7.2 Photodiode
A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light energy into electrical
energy. It is sometimes referred as photo-detector, photo-sensor, or light detector. The symbol
of photodiode is shown in fig. 2.22

Fig.2.22 Symbol of Photodiode

Photodiodes are like regular semiconductor diode except that they may be either exposed (to
detect UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber to allow light to reach the
sensitive part of the device. The made up with compounds of semiconductor materials like
GaAs and InGaAs
Photodiodes are classified into three types, they are
a) PN Photodiode
b) PIN Photodiode
c) Avalanche Photodiode.
PN Junction Photodiode: A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias as shown in fig.
When there is no light a small reverse saturation current is flowing due to thermally generated
minority charge carriers. The current in the circuit is known as Dark Current.
When light energy is supplied to photodiode, the valence electrons in the depletion
region gain the energy and come out from the atom. Hence new electron-hole pairs crated in
the depletion region. The mechanism of generation of new electron-hole pairs by using light
energy is known as photo electric effect and the carriers are called Light generated carriers or
phot carriers. These carriers constitute a current in the external circuit and is known as Photo
Current. The current flowing through the photodiode is directly proportional to the incident
number of photons as shown in fig.2.23

Fig.2.23 Photodiode VI Characteristics

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Characteristics: The characteristics of Photodiode is shown in fig.2.24

Fig.2.24 Characteristics of Photodiode

Applications:
 CD Players
 Smoke detectors
 Space Applications
 Optical Communication
2.7.3 Phototransistor
Phototransistors are either tri-terminal (emitter, base and collector) or bi-terminal (emitter and
collector) semiconductor devices which have a light-sensitive base region. Although all
transistors exhibit light-sensitive nature, these are specially designed and optimized for photo
applications. These are made of diffusion or ion-implantation and have much larger collector
and base regions in comparison with the ordinary transistors. These devices can be either
homojunction structured or heterojunction structured, as shown by Fig. 2.25 a and b,
respectively.

Fig. 2.25 (a) Homojunction Fig. 2.25 (b) Heterojunction

Applications:
 CD Players
 Smoke detectors

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 Space Applications
 Optical Communication
In the case of homojunction phototransistors, the entire device will be made of a single
material-type; either silicon or germanium. However to increase their efficiency, the
phototransistors can be made of non-identical materials (Group III-V materials like GaAs) on
either side of the pn junction leading to heterojunction devices. Nevertheless, homojunction
devices are more often used in comparison with the hetero junction devices as they are
economical.
The circuit symbol for npn phototransistors is shown by Figure 2.26 which is nothing
but a transistor (with or without base lead) with two arrows pointing towards the base indicating
its sensitivity to light. Similar symbolic representation holds well even in the case of pnp
phototransistors with the only change being the arrow at emitter pointing in, instead of out.

Fig. 2.26 (a) Tri-terminal Fig. 2.26 (b) Bi-terminal

Principle of Working: The collector current equation of a transistor is given by
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽)𝑂
In phototransistor the base is open that is IB= 0, then above equation becomes
𝐼𝐶 = 1 + 𝛽)𝑂
In photodetector, ICBO is increased when collector base junction is illuminated by light.
When ICBO is increased the collector, current is also increased for a given amount of
illumination. Thus, phototransistor is a light detector which is combines photodiode and
transistor amplifier.
Applications:
1. Monitoring paper position and margin in printers
2. Punch card readers
3. CD players
4. Night vision light systems
5. Counting coins and other items
6. Security systems

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2.8 Proximity Sensors:

A proximity sensor is sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical
contact. Proximity sensors often emits an electromagnetic field or beam of electromagnetic
radiation(infrared) and looks for change in the field or return signal. The object being sensed
is often referred to the proximity sensor target. Types of proximity sensors
 Inductive
 Capacitive
 Optical
 Ultrasonic
2.8.1 Inductive proximity sensor
An Inductive proximity sensor is a type of non-contact electric proximity sensor that is used to
detect the presence and position of metallic objects. Inductive proximity sensor is shown in fig.
2.27. Their operating principle is based on a coil and high frequency oscillator that creates a
field in the close surroundings of the sensing surface. The presence of metal in the operating
area causes a change in the oscillation amplitude. This change is identified by a threshold
circuit, which changes the output of the sensor. The operating distance of the sensor depends
on the coil’s size as well as the target’s shape, size and material. The sensing range is rarely
greater than 6 cm, however, and it has no directionality.

Fig.2.27 Inductive proximity sensor

Applications:
 Common applications of inductive sensors include metal detectors, car washes, and a
host of automated industrial processes.
 Because the sensor does not require physical contact it is particularly useful for
applications where access presents challenges or where dirt is prevalent.
2.8.2 Capacitive proximity sensor
Capacitive sensors are used for non-contact detection of metallic objects & non-metallic
objects (liquid, plastic, wooden materials and so on). Capacitive proximity sensor is shown in

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fig. 2.28. Capacitive proximity sensors use the variation of capacitance between the sensor
and the object being detected. When the object is at a preset distance from the sensitive side of
the sensor, an electronic circuit inside the sensor begins to oscillate. The rise or fall of such
oscillation is identified by a threshold circuit that drives an amplifier for the operation of an
external load.

Fig. 2.28 Capacitive proximity sensor

Applications:
 Capacitive touch sensors are used in many devices such as laptop track pads, digital
audio players, computer displays, mobile phones, mobile devices and others.
 More and more design engineers are selecting capacitive sensors for their versatility,
reliability and robustness and cost reduction over mechanical switches.
2.8.3 Optical proximity sensor
Optical proximity sensors generally cost more than inductive proximity sensors, and about the
same as capacitive sensors. They are widely used in automated systems because they have been
available longer and because some can fit into small locations. These sensors are classified into
three types
 Through beam
 Diffuse reflective
 Retroreflective
These optical sensors are shown in fig. 2.29

Fig.2.29 (a) Through beam Fig. (b) Diffuse reflective Fig. (c) Retroreflective
In all types of sensor if output is ON only object is present otherwise output is OFF.

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2.8.4 Ultrasonic proximity sensor

Ultrasonic sensors are sometimes used in place of optical sensors. Instead of using an light
beam, a high frequency sound wave is used. This sound wave is above normal hearing
frequencies and are called ultrasonic. Frequencies around 40KHz are common.
⚫ Subsonic sound: 20Hz
⚫ Sonic Sound :20-20KHz
⚫ Ultrasonic Sound: > 20KHz
Working: The sensor first emits a short Ultrasonic Pulse

and waits for the echo.

When echo is retuned, the sensor detects the target is present and by measuring the time delay
between transmitted pulse and the return echo the sensor calculates the distance between sensor
and the object.

Applications:
 Ultrasonic sensors can measure the distance to a wide range of objects
 Liquid Level Control/Monitoring
 Trash Level Monitoring
 Uses in Production Lines
 Vehicle Detection for Car Washes, Automotive Assembly, and Parking Garage

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UNIT -III
ACTUATORS
3.0 Actuators
An Actuator is a device which converts electrical energy into physical energy or
an actuator is a component of a machine that is the drives the mechanism or system. The
actuators basically classified into two types
 Electrical actuators
Ex: Relays, Solenoids
Solid-state switches: Diodes, transistors, MOSFETS, thyristors
Drive systems: -DC, AC, or stepper motors
 Mechanical actuators
Ex: Gears, Belt and chain drives and bearings etc.,
3.1 Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. It is also called as electromagnetic or
electromechanical switch. The heart of a relay is an electromagnet: a coil of wire that becomes
a temporary magnet when electricity flows through it. Relay consists of four elements and it is
shown in Fig.3.1
⚫ Electromagnet
⚫ Movable armature
⚫ Contacts and
⚫ Spring.

Fig. 3.1 Relay showing its components

3.1.1 Working
When a small current flow in the input circuit, it activates the electromagnet as shown
in fig.3.2, which produces a magnetic field all around it. The energized electromagnet pulls the

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metal bar in the output circuit toward it, closing the switch and allowing a much bigger current
to flow through the output circuit.

Fig. 3.2 Relay is under DC supply as input

When we remove power supply to the coil, the coil will be demagnetized, the movable armature
get back to its original position because of spring action as shown in fig. 3.3. The output circuit
operates a high-current appliance such as a lamp or an electric motor.

Fig. 3.2 Relay is under no input

3.1.2 Types of Relays
Relays are basically classified into four type as shown in fig. 3.4.
 Single Pole Single Through (SPST)
 Single Pole Double Through (SPDT)
 Double Pole Single Through (DPST)
 Single Pole Single Through (DPDT)

Fig. 3.4 Types of relays

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3.1.3 Applications
 Home appliances- A.C, Refrigerator, Oven
 Automobiles- Car head lights, viper
 Industrial plant control-Boilers, furnace
Basic Uses of relays:
 Control of High power circuits using low input power
 Control two or more circuits using single input.
3.2 Solenoid
Solenoid is a insulated copper coil is wound around some cylindrical cardboard or
plastic tube such that the length of the coils is greater than its diameter, then it becomes like a
magnet.

Fig. 3.5 Solenoid working

3.2.1 Working
Solenoid is an electromagnetic device made up of a coil which produces a magnetic
field when electric current passed through it, then it is energized and attracts the ferrous core
as shown in figure 3.5(b). if supply is removed the coil is un-energized and releases the ferrous
core as shown in figure 3.5(a). Such solenoids are used in relaying energy from one device to
another. such solenoids are used mainly in opening and closing valves as shown in figure 2.
Solenoid valves When the solenoid coil is energized, the valve opens, allowing water to flow
from the reservoir into the fish tank. otherwise, valve is closed.
3.2.2 Applications
 Robots,
 Open and close of car doors
 Dish washes
 Liquid/gas flow control (Solenoid valves)
 Solenoid engines.

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3.2.3 Solenoid valves

Figure 3.6 shows Solenoid valves, which can control the flow of liquid.

Fig. 3.6 Solenoid valves

3.3 Solid-State switches
Solid-State switches are made up of with semiconductor material. The commonly use Solid-
State switches are Diodes, transistors, MOSFETS, thyristors etc,.
3.3.1 Diode
A pure silicon crystal or germanium crystal is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
There are not enough free electrons and holes in an intrinsic semi-conductor to produce a usable
current. The electrical action of these can be modified by doping means adding impurity atoms
to a crystal to increase either the number of free holes or no of free electrons. When a crystal
has been doped, it is called a extrinsic semi-conductor. They are of two types
 n-type semiconductor having free electrons as majority carriers
 p-type semiconductor having free holes as majority carriers
A junction is made by joining p-type semiconductor to n-type semiconductor a useful
device is produced known as diode and it is shown in fig. 3.7. It will allow current to flow
through it only in one direction. The unidirectional properties of a diode allow current flow
when forward biased and disallow current flow when reversed biased.

Fig.3.7 PN Junction diode

Formation of Depletion Region or (Open circuited PN Junction): The open circuited pn
junction diode is shown in fig. 3.8. In a P-N junction, there exists a concentration gradient near
the junction. There is large number of holes on N side, near the junction. Those holes start

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moving from P side to N side i.e. from high concentration area to low concentration area. This
is nothing but diffusion of holes from P side to N side. Similarly, the electrons on N side start
diffusing across the junction into the P region.

Fig. 3.8 Open circuited PN Junction

As holes enter the N region, they find number of donor atoms. The holes recombine
with donor atoms. As donor atoms accept additional holes, they become positively charged
immobile ions. Atoms on P side are acceptor atoms. The electrons diffusing from N side to P
side recombine with the acceptor atoms on P side. As acceptor atoms accept additional
electrons, they become negatively charged immobile ions. Such a large number of negatively
charged ions get formed near the junction on P side.
As more number of holes diffuses on N side, large positive charge will be accumulated
on N side near the junction. Eventually in the same way large negative charge will be
accumulated on P side near the junction. Such a region is depleted of free mobile charge carriers
and hence it is called “depletion region” or “depletion layer”. The depletion region is also called
“space charge region” if the depletion region can become widened up to a point where no
further electrons are holes can cross the junction. Thus, depletion region can acts as the barrier.
P-N Junction Diode: The P-N junction forms a popular semiconductor device called “P-N
Junction Diode”. The P-N Junction has two terminals called as electrodes: one each from P
region and N region. As there are two electrodes, it is called as diode i.e. di + electrode. The
terminal connected to p-region is called Anode and the terminal connected to n-region is called
cathode. The symbol of pn junction diode is shown in fig. 3.9

Fig. 3.9 Symbol of pn junction diode

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We can connect the diode in circuits in two ways. This is also called as biasing which
means applying an external voltage. The biasing is of two types
 Forward biasing
 Reverse biasing
Forward Biased PN Junction Diode:
If an external voltage is connected in such a way that the P region terminal is connected
to the positive of DC voltage and the N region is connected to the negative of the DC voltage,
the biasing condition is called forward biasing. The forward biased pn junction is shown in
fig.3.10.

Fig.3.10 Forward biased PN Junction

When we apply an external voltage more than the barrier potential, the negative
terminal of battery pushes the electrons against barrier from N to P region. Similarly, positive
terminal pushes the holes from P to N region. Thus, holes get repelled by positive terminal and
cross the junction against barrier potential. This reduces the width of depletion region. As
forward voltage increased, at a particular value the depletion region becomes zero such that
large number of charge carriers can cross the junction, hence current starts flowing through the
diode and it is shown in fig. 3.12. The voltage at which the diode starts conducting is known
as cut-in voltage or threshold voltage or knee voltage. The cut -in voltage for silicon diode is
0.7V and for germanium diode is 0.3V. Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very
large, the diode can be approximated as short- circuited switch.
Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode:
When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to
the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.
The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the
positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also

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attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode. The net result is that the
depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high impedance
path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus preventing
current from flowing through the semiconductor material. But due to minory charge carries a
small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode and which is of
the order of micro-amperes, (μA). This current is negligible; the diode can be approximated as
an open circuited switch.

Fig.3.11 Reverse biased PN Junction

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode: The volt- Ampere characteristics of pn junction
diode is shown in fig.3.12.

Fig.3.12 V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode.

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Applications: A p-n junction diode allows electric current when it is forward biased and blocks
electric current when it is reverse biased.
 Rectifier circuits
 Used as Switch
 Demodulator circuits
 Clipper and clamper circuits
3.3.2 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
A transistor is basically a Si on Ge crystal containing three separate regions. It can be
either NPN or PNP type. The middle region is called the base and the outer two regions are
called emitter and the collector.
In transistors, emitter is heavily doped. Its job is to emit or inject electrons into the base.
These bases are lightly doped and very thin, it passes most of the emitter-injected electrons on
to the collector. The doping level of collector is intermediate between the heavy doping of
emitter and the light doping of the base.
The collector is so named because it collects electrons from base. The collector is the
largest of the three regions; it must dissipate more heat than the emitter or base. The transistor
has two junctions. One between emitter and the base and other between the base and the
collector. Because of this the transistor is similar to two diodes, one emitter base diode and
other collector base diode.

Operating Modes of Transistors:

Depends on the biasing conditions like forward or reverse, transistors have three major
modes of operation namely cut-off, active and saturation regions.
Active Mode
In this mode transistor is generally used as a current amplifier. In active mode, emitter-
base junction is forward biased whereas collector-base junction is reverse biased. In this mode,
the current flows between emitter and collector and amount of current flow is proportional to
the base current.

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Cut-off Mode
In this mode, both collector base junction and emitter base junction are reverse biased.
This in turn not allows the current to flow from collector to emitter when the base-emitter
voltage is low. In this mode device is completely switched off as the result the current flowing
through the device is zero. Hence in this mode transistor is acting as open switch.

Saturation Mode
In this mode of operation, both the emitter base and collector base junctions are forward
biased. Current flows freely from collector to emitter when the base-emitter voltage is high. In
this mode device is fully switched ON. Hence in this mode transistor is acting as closed switch.

Characteristics of Transistors:
The figure 3.13 shows the output characteristics of a BJT Transistor. In the figure 3.13
cutoff region has the operating conditions as zero collector output current, zero base input
current and maximum collector voltage. These parameters cause a large depletion layer which
further doesn’t allow current to flow through the transistor. Therefore, the transistor is
completely in OFF condition.

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Fig.3.13 CE output Characteristics

Similarly, in the saturation region, a transistor is biased in such a way that maximum
base current is applied that results maximum collector current and minimum collector-emitter
voltage. This causes the depletion layer to become small and to allow maximum current flow
through the transistor. Therefore, the transistor is fully in ON condition.
Hence, the transistors can be made to work as ON/OFF solid-state switch by operating
transistor in cutoff and saturation regions. This type of switching application is used for
controlling motors, lamp loads, solenoids, etc,.
Transistor is operated in three configuration and comparison of configuration are given
in below table
Property Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector
Input resistance Low moderate high
Output resistance high moderate Low
Current gain 1 high high
Voltage gain About 150 About 500 Less than 1
Phase shift 0 or 360 180 0 or 360
For high frequency For audio For impedance
Applications
circuits frequency circuits matching
Transistor Applications:
 Amplifiers, Oscillators
 Used as a Switch.

Transistor as a Switch:

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Transistor will become ON (saturation ) when a sufficient voltage V is given to input.

During this condition the Collector Emitter voltage Vce will be approximately equal to zero,
i.e., the transistor acts as a short circuit. For a silicon transistor it is equal to 0.3v. Thus, collector
current Ic = Vcc/Rc will flows. This is shown in fig. 3.14

Fig. 3.14 Transistor as Closed Switch

Transistor will be in OFF ( cutoff ) when the input Vin equal to zero. During this state
transistor acts as an open circuit and thus the entire voltage Vcc will be available at collector.
This is shown in fig. 3.15

Fig. 3.15 Transistor as open Switch

3.3.3 MOSFET – Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor.
The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor is a
semiconductor device which is widely used for switching and amplifying electronic signals in
the electronic devices. The MOSFET is a three terminal device such as source, gate, and drain.
The MOSFET is very far the most common transistor and can be used in both analog and digital
circuits

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The MOSFET works by varying the width of a channel along which charge carriers
flow (holes and electrons). The charge carriers enter the channel from the source and exits
through the drain. The channel width is controlled by the voltage on an electrode is called gate
which is located between the source and drain. It is insulated from the channel near an
extremely thin layer of metal oxide.
Types of MOSFET Devices
The MOSFET is classified into two types such as
 Depletion-type MOSFET or DE-MOSFET: The DE-MOSFET can be operated in both
depletion mode and the enhancement mode. For this reason, it is also called
depletion/enhancement MOSFET.
 Enhancement-type MOSFET or E-MOSFET: The E-MOSFET can be operated only in
enhancement mode.
MOSFET Working Principle:
The construction of MOSFET is shown in fig. 3.16. The working of MOSFET depends
upon the metal oxide capacitor (MOS) that is the main part of the MOSFET. The oxide layer
presents among the source and drain terminal. It can be set from p-type to n-type by applying
positive or negative gate voltages respectively. When apply the positive gate voltage the holes
present under the oxide layer with a repulsive force and holes are pushed downward through
the substrate. The deflection region populated by the bound negative charges which are allied
with the acceptor atoms.

Fig. 3.16 Construction of MOSFET

Enhancement Type MOSFET:

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The Enhancement type MOSFET is also further classified into two types, they are n-
channel and p-channel and symbols are shown in below The figure 3.symbols for n-channel E-
MOSFET and the schematic symbol for p-channel E-MOSFET.

The E-MOSFET has no channel between source and drain. The substrate extends
completely to the SiO2 layer so that no channel exists. The E-MOSFET requires a proper gate
voltage to form a channel, called induced channel between the source and the drain. It operates
only in the enhancement mode and has no depletion mode.
Only by applying VGS of proper magnitude and polarity, the device starts conducting.
The minimum value of VGS of proper polarity that turns on the E-MOSFET is called threshold
voltage [VGS(th)]. The n-channel MOSFET requires positive VGS (≥VGS(th)) and the p-channel
MOSFET requires negative VGS(≥VGS(th)).
Circuit Operation of E-MOSFET
The circuit of n-channel E-MOSFE. The circuit action is as under:

(i) When VGS= 0V, there is no channel connecting source and drain. The p-substrate has
only a few thermally produced free electrons (minority carriers) so that drain current is
almost zero. For this reason, E-MOSFET is normally OFF when VGS = 0V.
(ii) When VGS is positive, i.e gate is made positive, it attracts free electrons into the p
region. The free electrons combine with the holes next to the SiO2 layer.

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If VGS is positive enough, all the holes touching the SiO2 layer are filled and free
electrons begin to flow from the source to drain. The effect is same as creating a thin layer of
n-type material i.e. inducing a thin n-layer adjacent to the SiO2 layer. Thus the E-MOSFET is
turned ON and drain current ID starts flowing from the source to the drain.
The minimum value of VGS that turns the E-MOSFET ON is called threshold
voltage[VGS(th)].
(iii) When VGS is less than VGS(th), there is no induced channel and the drain current ID is
zero. When VGS is equal to VGS(th), the E-MOSFET is turned ON and the induced
channel conducts drain current from the source to the drain.
Beyond VGS(th), if the value of VGS is increased, the newly formed channel becomes
wider, causing to ID to increase.
If the value of VGS decreases not less than VGS(th), the channel becomes narrower and
ID will decrease.
Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET characteristics

Depletion type MOSFET: The depletion type MOSFET is also further classified into two
types, they are n-channel and p-channel and symbols are shown in below

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Operation: In a depletion type or DE-MOSFET, a channel for conduction is already

constructed physically. Due to this, current flows in between the source and drain without any
gate bias voltage. This means that the channel conducts even when VGS = 0. The fig.3.17
shown below will help you to understand DE-MOSFET in a better way:

Fig.3.17 N-Channel DE-MOSFET

DE-MOSFET can be operated with both positive and negative gate potential. When the
MOSFET is operated with 0 gate voltage it is said that the MOSFET is operating in E-mode.
In a DE-MOSFET when the gate potential is made negative with respect to the substrate, it
causes repulsion of negative charge carriers out of the initially formed channel. This increases
the channel resistance which resultantly reduces the drain current.
Depletion mode N-Channel MOSFET characteristics:

MOSFET Applications
 MOSFETs are used in digital integrated circuits, such as microprocessors.
 Used in memories and in logic CMOS gates.

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 Used as analog switches.

 Used as amplifiers.
 Used in the applications of power electronics and switch mode power supplies.
 MOSFETs are used as oscillators in radio systems.
 Used in automobile sound systems and in sound reinforcement systems.
MOSFET as a Switch:

Fig.3.18 MOSFET SWITCH

In Fig. 3.18 enhanced mode and N-channel MOSFET is being used to switch a sample
lamp ON and OFF. The positive gate voltage (VGS =+ve) is applied to the gate of the MOSFET
and the lamp is ON. If zero voltage((VGS=0). applied to the gate of the MOSFET then lamp
turns off.
Comparison between BJT, FET and MOSFET
TERMS BJT FET MOSFET
Device type Current controlled Voltage controlled Voltage Controlled
Current flow Bipolar Unipolar Unipolar
Terminals Not interchangeable Interchangeable Interchangeable
Operational modes No modes Depletion mode only Both Enhancement
and Depletion modes
Input impedance Low High Very high
Output resistance Moderate Moderate Low
Operational speed Low Moderate High
Noise High Low Low
Thermal stability Low Better High

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3.3.4 THYRISTORS
Thyristors are basically classified into three types
 Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs)
 DIAC (Diodes as AC Switch)
 TRIAC (Triode as AC Switch)
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs):
The SCR is a four-layered, three terminal semiconductor device, with each layer
consisting of alternately N and P-type materials. The main terminals, labelled anode and
cathode, and the control terminal, called the gate, is attached to p-type material near the
cathode. These simply named as thyristors.



The SCR has three p-n junctions (serially named J1, J2 and J3 from the anode).



When the anode is at a positive potential VAK with respect to the cathode with no
voltage applied at the gate, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, while junction J2 is reverse
biased. As J2 is reverse biased, no conduction takes place (Off state). Now if VAK is increased
beyond the breakdown voltage VBO of the thyristor, avalanche breakdown of J2 takes place and
the thyristor starts conducting (On state).

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If a positive potential VG is applied at the gate terminal with respect to the cathode, the
breakdown of the junction J2 occurs at a lower value of VAK. By selecting an appropriate value
of VG, the thyristor can be switched into the on state quickly.
Once avalanche breakdown has occurred, the thyristor continues to conduct,
irrespective of the gate voltage, until: (a) the potential VAK is removed or (b) the current
through the device (anode−cathode) is less than the holding current specified by the
manufacturer. Hence VG can be a voltage pulse.
Switching characteristics
In a conventional thyristor, once it has been switched on by the gate terminal, the device
remains latched in the on-state (i.e. does not need a continuous supply of gate current to remain
in the on state), providing the anode current has exceeded the latching current (IL). As long as
the anode remains positively biased, it cannot be switched off until the anode current falls
below the holding current (IH).
A thyristor can be switched off if the external circuit causes the anode to become
negatively biased. Fig. 3.19 VI characteristics of SCR

Fig. 3.19 VI characteristics of SCR

Applications
Thyristors are semiconductor devices that are specifically designed for use in high-
power switching applications. Thyristors can operate only in the switching mode, where they
act like either an open or closed switch and once triggered it will remain conducting. Therefore,
in DC circuits and some highly inductive AC circuits the current has to be artificially reduced
by a separate switch or turn off circuit.

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3.3.5 TRIAC
TRIAC, from triode for alternating current, is a generic trademark for a three
terminal electronic component that conducts current in either direction when triggered. It’s
also called as bidirectional triode thyristor or bilateral triode thyristor. The figure shows the
circuit symbol for a TRIAC where A1 is Anode 1, A2 is Anode 2, and G is Gate. Anode 1 and
Anode 2 are normally termed Main Terminal 1 (MT1) and Main Terminal 2 (MT2)
respectively.

TRIACs are a subset of thyristors. TRIACs differ from SCRs in that they allow current
flow in both directions, whereas an SCR can only conduct current in a single direction. Most
TRIACs can be triggered by applying either a positive or negative voltage to the gate (an SCR
requires a positive voltage). Once triggered, SCRs and TRIACs continue to conduct, even if
the gate current ceases, until the main current drops below a certain level called the holding
current.
TRIAC’s bidirectionality makes them convenient switches for alternating-
current (AC). This is commonly used for controlling the speed of induction motors, dimming
lamps, and controlling electric heaters.
Triac Characteristics:
Typical V-I characteristics of a TRIAC are shown in figure 3.20. The TRIAC has on
and off state characteristics like SCR but now the characteristic is applicable to both positive
and negative voltages. This is expected because TRIAC consists of two SCRs connected in
parallel but opposite in directions.
TRIAC Applications:
The TRIAC is most commonly used semiconductor device for switching and power
control of AC systems as the TRIAC can be switched “ON” by either a positive or negative
Gate pulse, regardless of the polarity of the AC supply at that time. This makes the TRIAC
ideal to control a lamp or AC motor load with a very basic TRIAC switching circuit.

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Fig. 3.20 VI Characteristics of TRIAC

3.4 Motors
A motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Electrical motors are frequently used as final controlling element in position and speed control
systems. Basically, it consists of two parts
⚫ Stator

⚫ Rotor

Classification of Motors:

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3.4.1 DC Motors:
Construction

Fig. 3.21 Construction of DC Motor

Working principle of a DC motor:

Figure 3.22 Working of DC Motor

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"Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a

mechanical force". The direction of this force is given by Fleming's left-hand rule and its
magnitude is given by
F = BIL
Where, B = magnetic flux density,
I = current and
L = length of the conductor.
Same magnitude and opposite forces acting on left and right conductors causes
torque(T=Fxr) is produce at circumference of the conductors. Because of this twisting force
motor stars rotating in anticlockwise direction as shown in above figure 2.
The direction of motor can be controlled by simply changing the supply terminals or
interchanging of south and north poles.
Back EMF:
Once motor starts rotating, the conductors cuts the magnetic flux lines causes an emf is
induced in the armature conductors according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
and is given by
NPZ
Eb 
60 A
Where N- speed of armature
P- number of poles
Φ- magnetic flux lines
A- number of parallel paths
Z- number of conductors
The induced emf opposes the change cause it, according to Lenz’s Law. Here it opposes
the supply voltage, hence it is called “Back emf”.
Significance of Back EMF: Back EMF regulates flow of armature current to meet the load
requirements. Hence dc motor acting as self-regulating machine.
Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed of the motor. Consider the load
on a dc motor is suddenly reduced. In this case, required torque will be small as compared to
the current torque. Speed of the motor will start increasing due to the excess torque. Hence,
being proportional to the speed, magnitude of the back emf will also increase. With increasing
back emf armature current will start decreasing. Torque being proportional to the armature
current, it will also decrease until it becomes sufficient for the load. Thus, speed of the motor
will regulate.

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On the other hand, if a dc motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause decrease in the
speed. Due to decrease in speed, back emf will also decrease allowing more armature current.
Increased armature current will increase the torque to satisfy the load requirement. Hence,
presence of the back emf makes a dc motor „self-regulating‟.
Types of DC Motors
DC motors are usually classified of the basis of their excitation configuration, as
follows -
 Separately excited (field winding is fed by external source)
 Self-excited -
 Series wound (field winding is connected in series with the armature)
 Shunt wound (field winding is connected in parallel with the armature)
 Compound wound -
Separately excited motor:
The separately excited motor has separate control of the armature and field currents.

Series-wound:
With the series-wound motor the armature and field coils are in series. Such a motor
exerts the highest starting torque and has the gretest no-load speed. Reversing the polarity of
the supply to the coils has no effect on the direction of rotation of the motor since both the field
and armature currents have been reversed.

Shunt-wound:
With the shunt-wound motor the armature and field coils are in parallel. It provides
lowest starting torque. It provides constant speed regardless of load. To reverse the direction
of rotation either armature or field supply must be reversed.

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Compound-wound:
The compound motor has two field windings, one in series with the armature and one
in parallel. The aim is to get the best features of the series and shunt-wound motors, such as
high starting torque and good speed regulation.

3.4.2 AC MOTORS
3-Ø Induction Motor:
The main body of the Induction Motor comprises of two major parts:
1. Stator 2. Rotor
Stator: The stator of an induction motor is in principle, the same as that of a synchronous motor
(or) generator. It is made up of a number of stampings, which are slotted to receive the
windings. The stator carries a 3-phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase supply. It is wound
for a definite number of poles; the exact number of poles being determined by the requirements
of speed. The number of poles is higher, lesser the speed and vice-versa. The stator winding,
when supplied with a 3-phase currents, produce a magnetic flux, which is of constant
magnitude but which revolves at synchronous speed and is given by
Ns = 120 x f / p
Where Ns= synchronous speed
f = Frequency
p = no. of poles
This revolving magnetic flux induces emf in rotor by mutual induction.. Figure 3.23 shows
construction of stator.

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Fig.3.23Construction of Stator
Rotor: two types of constructions are commonly used
(i) Squirrel cage Rotor:
(ii) Phase wound (or) slip-ring Rotor:
Squirrel cage Rotor:
Almost 90 percentage of induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because this type of
rotor has the simplest and most rugged construction imaginable and is almost indestructible.
The Rotor consists of cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the rotor
conductors which, it should be noted clearly, are not wires but consists of heavy bars of copper,
aluminium or alloys. One bar is placed in each slot; rather the bars are inserted from the end
when semi-enclosed slots are used. The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded or bolted
to two heavy and stout short circuiting end-rings, thus giving us, what is called a squirrel cage
construction and is shown in figure 3.24.

Fig.3.24 Squirrel cage rotor

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Principle and working:

Induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When three phase
supply is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of constant magnetic field is
produced. The speed of rotating magnetic field is synchronous speed, Ns in r.p.m.
Ns = 120 x f / p
Where Ns= synchronous speed
f = Frequency
p = no. of poles
Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux R.M.F. is rotating. So its obvious
that there exists a relative motion between the R.M.F. and rotor conductors. Now the R.M.F.
gets cut by rotor conductors as R.M.F. sweeps over rotor conductors. Whenever a conductor
cuts the flux, emf gets induced in it. So emf gets induced in the rotor conductors called rotor
induced emf. This is electromagnetic induction. As rotor forms closed circuit, induced emf
circulates current through rotor called rotor current.
Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. So rotor produces its flux called
rotor flux. For assumed direction of rotor current, the direction of rotor flux is
clockwise/anticlockwise.
The direction can be easily determined using right hand thumb rule. Now there are two
fluxes, one R.M.F. and another rotor flux. Both the fluxes interact with each. On left of rotor
conductor, two fluxes are in same direction hence added up to get high flux area. On right side
of rotor conductor, two fluxes are in opposite direction hence they cancel each other to produce
low flux area. So rotor conductor experiences a force from left to right, due to interaction of
the two fluxes. As all rotor conductor experiences a force, overall rotor experiences a torque
and starts rotating.
After rotor starts rotating it try to catch-up synchronous speed. Once rotor speed Nr
reaches synchronous speed Ns. The relative motion between R.M.F and rotor is zero. Hence
the rotor always slips by a synchronous speed.
%Slip = 𝑵𝒔−𝑵𝒓x100
𝑵𝒔

3.4.3 STEPPER MOTOR

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into
discrete mechanical movements. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the
direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to
the frequency of the input pulses.

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STEPPER MOTOR WORKING

Stepper motors work on the principle of electromagnetism. There is a soft iron or
magnetic rotor shaft surrounded by the electromagnetic stators. The rotor and stator have poles
which may be teethed or not depending upon the type of stepper. When the stators are energized
the rotor moves.
TYPES OF STEPPER MOTOR:
By construction the step motors come into three broad classes:
 Permanent Magnet Stepper
 Variable Reluctance Stepper
 Hybrid Step Motor
PERMANENT MAGNET STEPPER:
 The rotor and stator poles are not teethed.
 The rotor has alternative north and south poles parallel to the axis of the rotor shaft.
 When a stator is energized, it develops electromagnetic poles.
 The magnetic rotor aligns along the magnetic field of the stator.

Operation:

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VARIABLE RELUCTANCE STEPPER:

It has a toothed non-magnetic soft iron rotor. When the stator coil is energized the rotor
moves to have a minimum gap between the stator and its teeth.

Operation:

HYBRID STEPPER:
A hybrid stepper is a combination of both permanent magnet and the variable
reluctance. It has a magnetic teethed rotor which better guides magnetic flux to preferred
location in the air gap.

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Operation:

If pulse is given to windings of stator, then the rotor teeths are aligned with stator teeth
as shown in above figure.
TYPES OF WINDING AND LEAD LEAD-OUT:
Based on winding arrangement stepper motors are classified into two types.
1. Uni polar Stepper motor 2. Bipolar stepper motor
In unipolar stepper motor pole may have one lead common i.e., center tapped. In bipolar stepper
motor there is a single winding per phase. The direction of current needed to the changed by
the driving circuit so that the driving circuit of the stepper motor becomes complex.

Fig. 3.25 (a) Unipolar Fig. 3.25(b) bipolar

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3.5 MECHANICAL ACTUATORS

3.5.1 GEARS
Gear trains are used to transfer and transform rotational motion. They are used when a
change in speed or torque of a rotating device is needed. e.g. the car gear box enables the driver
to match the speed and torque requirements of the terrain with the engine power available.
Rotary motion can be transferred from one shaft to another by a pair of rolling cylinders.
The transfer of the motion between the two cylinders depends on the frictional forces between
the two surfaces in contact. Slip can be prevented by the addition of meshing teeth to the two
cylinders also gears can be used to transfer rotating motion for shafts which have axis inclined
to one another, i.e. the two shafts intersect (bevel gears)
Slip can be prevented by the addition of meshing teeth to the two cylinders

Fig. Two meshed gears

When two gears in mesh the larger gear wheel is called the spur (or crown wheel), the smaller
is called the pinion.
Gears basically classified into two types based on their axes and they are shown in fig.
3.26

Fig.3.26 (a) Parallel gear axes, (b) axes inclined to one another
Parallel shaft gears: These are further divided into spur, helical, double helical and Rack and
penion are shown in fig. 3.27
Spur gears: have axial teeth with the teeth cut along axial lines parallel to the axis of the shaft
Helical gears: helical teeth with teeth being cut on helix helical gears have the advantage of
smoother drive and prolonged life of gears, however, the inclination of the teeth results in an
axial force component on the shaft bearing which can be overcome by using double helical
teeth.

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Rack and pinion: are used to transfer linear to rotary motion

Fig. 3.27 Types of Parallel axes gears

Gear ratio:
Consider meshed wheels A & B. A with 40 teeth and B with 80 teeth.

Wheel B must have twice the diameter of wheel A. Gear ratio is used for the ratio of
the angular speeds of a pair of intermeshed gear wheels
Types of gear trains:
Simple gear train: The simple gear train is shown in fig. 3.28 and this term is used for a system
where each shaft carries only one gear wheel here we have

Fig. 3.28 Simple gear train

The intermediate wheel B is termed the idler wheel is used to change the direction of rotation
of the output wheel.
The compound gear train: The compound gear train is shown in fig.3.29 and this term is used
to describe a gear train when two (or more) wheels are mounted on a common shaft. When two

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wheels are mounted on the same shaft, they have the same angular velocity. Thus, for both
compound gear trains.

Fig. 3.29 Compound gear trains

3.5.2 BELT & CHAIN DRIVES
Belt Drives is essentially a pair of rolling cylinders with the motion of one cylinder being
transferred to the other by a belt. The transmitted torque is due to differences in tension that
occur in the belt during operation. This difference results in a tight side and slack side for the
belt. If the tension on the tight side is T1 and that on the slack side is T2 then: Torque on A
=(T1-T2)rA Torque on B=( T1-T2)rB

rA and rB are the radius of A and B

If belt speed is v then angular speed for A and B are:

Power on either pulley is:

If distances between shafts are large, then a belt drive is more suitable than gears.
Forms of reversing drives: two forms of reversing belt dives are shown in fig. 3.30.

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Fig.3.30 Reversed belt drives: (a) crossed belt, (b) open belt
Types of belts: Types of belts are shown in fig.3.31
Flat: Produces little noise, can transmit power over long distance. Crowned pulleys are used
to keep the belts from running off the pulleys
Round: Has circular cross section and is used with grooved pulleys
V belts: Used with grooved pulleys, less efficient than flat belts
Timing belts: Required toothed wheels; it can run at slow or fast speed, does not stretch or
slip

Fig. 3.31 Types of belts

CHAINS
 Slip can be prevented by the use of chains which lock into teeth on the rotating
cylinders.
 The drive mechanism used with bicycle is an example of a chain drive.
 It enables a number of shafts to be driven by single wheel and so give a multiple drive
3.5.3 BEARINGS
The main function of a rotating shaft is to transmit power from one end of the line to the other.
 It needs a good support to ensure stability and frictionless rotation.
 The support for the shaft is known as “bearing”.
 The shaft has a “running fit” in a bearing. Whenever there is a relative motion of one
surface in contact with another either by rotating or sliding, the frictional forces
generate heat which waste the energy and results in wear.
 All bearing is provided some lubrication arrangement to reduced friction between shaft
and bearing.
Bearings are machine elements which are used to support a rotating member viz., a
shaft. The bearings are classified based on the type of contact they have between the rotating
and the stationary member

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Sliding contact bearings: Continuous contact between shaft and bearing

• The sliding contact bearings having surface contact shown in below figure

• Sliding contact bearings are classified in three ways.

1. Based on type of load carried
2. Based on type of lubrication
3. Based on lubrication mechanism

Based on type of load carried:

a) Radial bearing b) Axial bearing c) Angular bearing

 Radial bearing carries radial load
 Axial bearing carries axial load
 Angular bearing carries both radial and axial loads.

Based on type of lubrication:

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• The type of lubrication means the extent to which the contacting surfaces are separated
in a shaft bearing combination. This classification includes
(a) Thick film lubrication (There is no surface contact)
(b) Thin film lubrication (There is a slight surface contact)
(c) Boundary lubrication (There is a continuous surface contact)

(a) Thick film lubrication (b) Thin film lubrication (c) Boundary lubrication

Based on lubrication mechanism:

a. Hydrodynamic lubricated bearings
b. Hydrostatic lubricated bearings
c. Boundary lubricated bearings
d. Solid film lubricated bearings

ROLLING CONTACT BEARINGS

• Rolling contact bearings are also known as anti-friction bearing due to its
low friction characteristics between ball and inner and outer rings.
• Rolling contact bearings are used for radial load, thrust load and combination of these
both loads.
• Rolling contact bearings are often used due to its lower price, less maintenance cost and
easy to operate.
Parts of Rolling contact bearings
• Outer race (also called outer ring or cup)
• Inner race (also called inner ring or cone)
• Rolling elements (either balls or rollers)
• Separator (also called cage or retainer)
Rolling Contact bearings are of two types they are:
 Ball bearing: Point contact between shaft and bearing.
 Roller bearing: Line contact between shaft and bearing.

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