Statistical Quality Control (SQC)

In the highly competitive market today, the main objective of manufacturers or producers is to
achieve quality assurance in manufacturing and service organisations. In order to achieve this
objective, different statistical tools have been developed, which are useful for controlling the
quality of products vis-a vis the specifications or standard. The technique of using statistical tools
for controlling product quality vis-a-vis the specifications is known as Statistical Quality Control
(SQC).
Statistical quality control is defined as the technique of applying statistical methods based
on the theory of probability and sampling to establish quality standard and to maintain it in the
most economical manner.

Elements of SQC
The following are the main elements of SQC
a) Sample Inspection: We know that 100% inspection needs huge expenditure of time,
money, labour and resources. Further, if the nature of the product is such that it is
completely destroyed during the process of inspection, e.g., a bulb, candle, ammunition,
food, etc., 100% inspection is not practicable. Therefore, SQC is based on sampling
inspection. In sampling inspection method, some items or units (called sample) are
randomly selected from the process and then each and every unit of the sample is inspected.

b) Use of Statistical Methods: Some commonly used statistical tools such as random
sampling, mean, range, standard deviation, mean deviation, standard error and concepts
such as probability, binomial distribution, Poisson distribution, normal distribution, etc.,
are used in SQC. Since, quality control method involves extensive use of statistics, it is
termed as Statistical Quality Control.

c) Fundamental Objectives: The fundamental objective of SQC is to decide whether the unit
produced is according to its specifications or not. If the unit produced is not according to
its specifications and there is a variation in quality, it becomes necessary to trace the causes
of variation and eliminate them if possible.

d) Decision Making: With the help of SQC, we decide whether the quality of the product or
the process of manufacturing/producing goods is under control or not.

e) Specifications, Production and Inspection: SQC method helps in deciding about the
specifications, production and inspection of an product.
Techniques of Statistical Quality Control
The important techniques used for statistical quality control can be broadly classified into two
categories:
1. Statistical Process Control (SPC) or simply Process Control, and
2. Product Control.

Techniques of SQC

Process Control Product Control

Control Chart Acceptance Sampling

Acceptance Acceptance
Control Chart for Control Chart for
Sampling for Sampling for
Variables Attributes
Variables Attributes

Statistical Process Control (SPC)

Statistical Process Control (SPC) or simply process control (PC) is the first part of SQC. For
understanding SPC, first of all, we should understand the concept of process in quality control.
A process is a series of operations or actions that transforms input to output. It is said to be
stable or repeatable if the resulting output product is of the given specifications or standard quality.
But sometimes, due to certain causes such as poor quality of raw material, change in the machine
settings, use of unskilled work force, improper machine, etc., the stable process is disturbed. In
such situations, we require a tool or technique through which we can control the process. This
technique is known as statistical process control (SPC).
Statistical process control is a technique used for understanding and monitoring the process
by collecting data on quality characteristics periodically from the process, analysing them and
taking suitable actions whenever there is a difference between actual quality and the specifications
or standard.
 Statistical process control technique is widely used in almost all manufacturing processes
for achieving process stability and making continuous improvements in product quality. Its major
tools are:

1. Histogram
2. Check sheet
3. Pareto chart
4. Cause and effect diagram
5. Process flow diagram
6. Scatter diagram
7. Control chart

Product Control
In many situations, the product is so complex that a manufacturer cannot make all components or
parts of the product. Therefore, one or more component (s) of a product are purchased from outside
agents or suppliers and the manufacturer does not have a direct control over the quality of such
component (s). In such situations, the manufacturer faces the problem of controlling the quality of
component (s) sourced from elsewhere. In addition, the manufacturer needs to control the quality
of the final product. So he/she also faces the problem of ensuring that the final product meets its
specifications and various lots of the product do not contain an excessively large number of
defective items. Such types of problems come under the category of product control.
Product control means to control the products in such a way that these are free
from defects and conform to their specifications.
Initially, product control was done by 100% inspection, which means that each and
every unit produced or received from the outside suppliers was inspected. This type of inspection
has the advantage of giving complete assurance that all defective units have been eliminated from
the inspected lot. However, it is time consuming and costly. Also, if a product is destroyed under
inspection, e.g., light bulb, crackers, ammunition, picture tube of the TV, etc., 100% inspection is
not possible.

Sampling inspection or acceptance sampling was developed as an alternative of 100%

inspection

Causes of Variation
Variation in manufactured products is inevitable; it is a fact of nature and industrial life. Even when
a production process is well designed or carefully maintained, no two products are identical. The
difference between any two products could be very large, moderate, very small or even
undetectable depending on the sources of variation.
For example, the weight of a particular model of automobile varies from unit to unit, the
weight of packets of milk may differ very slightly from each other, the length of refills of ball pens,
the diameter of cricket balls may also be different and so on. The existence of variation in products
affects quality. So the aim of SQC is to trace the sources of such variation and try to eliminate
them as far as possible. The causes of variation are broadly classified into two categories:
1. Chance causes, and
2. Assignable causes

Chance causes
Chance causes are also known as random or natural or common causes. Even in a well designed
or carefully maintained production process, variability exists in the product due to some
natural/random causes. Even if the process is operated under the same conditions, that is, the
quality of raw materials used is same and there is no change in the machine settings, operators or
the environment, there is a specific pattern of variability in the product.
For example, the diameter of ball bearings varies slightly, there is a slight variation in
the weight of cricket balls, the fuel efficiency of a particular model of automobile is varies slightly
and so on. Such variability is due to different common or chance causes, may which affect the
process output in minor ways. Such causes are known as chance causes of variation. These may
arise due to, inflexibility of aged machines, variability in purchased material, poor lighting, extent
of worker training or other non obvious reasons. These may or may not be present at the same
time, but when taken together produce random results. If the quality of the output varies too much
due to chance causes, the process must be redesigned or modified to eliminate one or more of these
causes.
Since process redesigning or modification is the responsibility of the management, the
elimination of common/chance causes of variation is usually the responsibility of the management
and not that of workers. It may not be possible to eliminate all chance causes in a process.
However, even if variation due to chance causes is present in the production process, it is still
said to be under statistical control.

Assignable causes
Another kind of variability may be present occasionally in the output of a process. The causes of
such type of variability are not due to the process design, but take place because of changes in raw
material, machine, operator, environment or any other component of the process. These causes
are called assignable causes and are also known as special or non-random or unnatural
causes.
Accidental improper setting of the machine, a worker falling ill and still continuing to
work, change of operators or shift, breakages, misreading of scales, batch of defective raw
material, etc. are examples of assignable causes.
Since the effect of assignable causes is localized within a process, these may be eliminated
by workers or their immediate supervisor. The variability due to assignable causes is generally
larger than the variability due to chance causes and it usually represents an unacceptable level
of process performance. A process that is operating in the presence of assignable causes is said
to be an out-of-control process.

Advantages and limitations of SQC:

The advantages of SQC are listed below:
1. Ease of Application

An excellent feature of statistical quality control is that it is easy to apply. While developing
the statistical methods for quality control, skilled and intelligent persons are required.
However, even those persons who have not had extensive specialised training can apply
statistical methods easily.

2. Reduction in Cost

The cost of inspection is reduced. In SQC as only a part or fraction of a lot is taken and
inspected.

3. Greater Efficiency
Inspection of every item is bound to reduce the efficiency of a quality control inspectors
because of dullness. Inspectors are more alert while using. SQC as only a part is inspected.

4. Early Detection of Faulty Units

SQC consists of continuous checking of the quality of the product. When a sample point
falls outside the control limits it gives the signal that the process is not under statistical
control. If some assignable causes are present in the process, necessary corrective action
can be taken. Therefore, SQC ensures an early detection of faults and results in minimum
wastage of items.
 5. Helpful in Specification
Using SQC, we can find out whether the produced item is under control or not, that is,
whether the item meets the specifications within the tolerance limits or not. If the variation
is beyond the tolerance limits, SQC gives a danger signal and necessary corrective action
can be taken. So, as long as statistical control continues, specifications can be accurately
predicted for the future, which cannot be guaranteed by 100% inspection.
6. Unique method
Statistical quality control is helpful for those items that get destroyed on being examined
for a given quality characteristic, for example, the intensity of match sticks, average life of
compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), strength of glass, etc., In such cases, 100% inspection
will spoil the entire lot and create a huge loss.

The limitations of SQC are listed below:

1. When a sample of the items drawn from the lot is not a true representative of the entire lot,
does not have the same characteristics as the lot from which it is drawn. Then a good lot
may be rejected and a bad one may be accepted. This is the main limitation of SQC.

2. SQC cannot be used mechanically for any production process without studying the process
and without adequate knowledge about it.

3. SQC applied on a production process provides only the information that the process is
under control or out-of-control. It cannot take any action for improvement.
 Tools for Statistical Quality Control
The following are the most important statistical tools for data analysis in quality control of the
manufacturing products.

Tools for Statistical

Quality Control
(SQC)

Shewhart's Control Shewhart's Control

Chart for Variables Chart for Attributes

Charts of 𝑋ത (mean) Control Chart for Control Chart for the

Charts for 𝑋ത (mean)
and 𝜎 (standard fraction Defective or Number of Defects
and R (Range)
deviation) p-Chart per unit or c-Chart