Functions of a Computer Early Computing Devices

 The abacus, invented around 4000 years

Overview of Computer Functions ago in China, is considered the first
 A computer performs four primary computing device, using beads on rods for
functions: Input, Processing, Output, and arithmetic calculations.
Storage.  Napier's Bones, created by John Napier in
 Each function plays a crucial role in the the early 17th century, utilized ivory strips
overall operation of a computer system, for multiplication and division, introducing
enabling it to process data effectively. the decimal point.

Input Function Mechanical Calculators

 Input refers to the data entered into a  The Pascaline, developed by Blaise Pascal
computer using input devices such as between 1642 and 1644, was one of the
keyboards, mice, and scanners. first mechanical calculators, capable of
automatic calculations.
 The data can be in various forms,
including characters, words, numbers, or  Charles Babbage's Difference Engine,
images. designed in the 1820s, was a mechanical
computer intended for calculating
 Upon input, a signal is sent to the CPU logarithm tables.
(Central Processing Unit) for further
processing. Advancements in Computing

Processing Function  Babbage's Analytical Engine (1830) was a

groundbreaking design that used punch
 Processing involves executing logical and cards for input and could solve any
arithmetic operations on the input data. mathematical problem.
 The CPU performs calculations based on  The Tabulating Machine, invented by
the instructions provided, transforming Herman Hollerith in 1890, utilized punch
raw data into meaningful information. cards for data sorting and was
 This processed data is then sent to the instrumental in the 1890 U.S. Census.
storage unit for future retrieval. The Birth of Electronic Computers
Output Function  The Differential Analyzer, introduced in
 Output is the final stage where processed 1930, was the first electronic computer,
data is presented to the user in a using vacuum tubes for calculations.
comprehensible format, such as text,  ENIAC, developed in 1945, was a massive
images, or documents. machine that utilized 18,000 vacuum
 Output devices, like monitors and tubes and was the first programmable
printers, translate the processed data into digital computer.
a user-friendly form. Generations of Computers
 The effectiveness of output is crucial for First Generation Computers (1946-1959)
user interaction and understanding.
 Characterized by the use of vacuum
Storage Function tubes, these computers were large, slow,
 Storage refers to the retention of data and and expensive.
instructions for future use, ensuring data  They relied on batch operating systems
is not lost after processing. and used punch cards for input and
 Stored data can be retrieved as needed, output, with magnetic and paper tapes as
making it essential for ongoing operations storage.
and data management. Second Generation Computers (1959-1965)
 Various storage devices, such as hard  The introduction of transistors marked the
drives and SSDs, are used to maintain this second generation, making computers
data. smaller, faster, and more energy-efficient.
History of Computers
  Transistor technology reduced costs and  Capable of supporting hundreds of users
improved performance compared to first- simultaneously and handling vast
generation vacuum tube computers. amounts of data.
Third Generation Computers  Commonly used in banking, insurance,
and government sectors.
 Integrated circuits (ICs) replaced
transistors in the third generation, leading Minicomputers
to further miniaturization and increased
 Also known as midrange computers, these
processing power.
are smaller than mainframes but still
 This generation saw the development of powerful enough for many business
more sophisticated operating systems and applications.
user interfaces, enhancing user
 Typically used by small to medium-sized
experience.
businesses for tasks like data processing
Fourth Generation Computers and control applications.
 Utilized very large scale integration (VLSI)  Examples include DEC PDP-11 and IBM
technology, packing millions of transistors AS/400.
on a single chip.
Microcomputers
 Enabled the development of personal
 The most common type of computer,
computers and advanced operating
designed for individual use.
systems like real-time and distributed
systems.  Includes desktops, laptops, tablets, and
smartphones, widely used for personal
 Examples include the Apple Macintosh
and business tasks.
and IBM PC, which revolutionized personal
computing.  Generally affordable and user-friendly,
making them accessible to the general
Fifth Generation Computers
public.
 Marked by the use of ultra-large scale
Computing Environments
integration (ULSI) technology, allowing for
microprocessors with millions of Personal Computing Environment
components.
 Involves a single computer system where
 Focused on artificial intelligence and all processes are executed locally.
parallel processing capabilities.
 Devices include laptops, desktops,
 Examples include modern desktops, printers, and scanners, all connected to a
laptops, and specialized AI systems. single user.
Types of Computers  Ideal for individual tasks and personal
productivity.
Supercomputers
Time Sharing Computing Environment
 The most powerful type of computer,
designed for complex computations and  Allows multiple users to share system
data processing. resources simultaneously.
 Used in fields such as climate research,  Each user is allocated a time slice,
molecular modeling, and space creating the illusion of dedicated access.
exploration (e.g., NASA).
 Commonly used in mainframe systems to
 Extremely expensive and require maximize resource utilization.
specialized environments for operation.
Client-Server Computing Environment
Mainframe Computers
 Involves a client requesting resources
 Large and powerful systems used from a server, which processes the
primarily by large organizations for bulk request and returns the results.
data processing.
 Servers can handle multiple clients at
once, enhancing efficiency in resource
management.
  Widely used in web applications and  Serves as a platform for software
enterprise systems. developers to create applications,
facilitating software development.
Distributed Computing Environment
Examples of Systems Software
 Comprises multiple interconnected nodes
that work together to solve problems.  Common operating systems include
Microsoft Windows, Apple OS X, and
 Each node operates independently but
various Linux distributions.
collaborates through a network.
 Mobile operating systems include Apple
 Examples include cloud computing and
iOS, Google Android, and Microsoft
grid computing systems.
Windows Mobile.
Cloud Computing Environment
 Each operating system has unique
 Moves computing resources from local features tailored to different hardware and
machines to a centralized cloud user needs.
infrastructure.
Application Software
 Users access services without needing to
Definition and Purpose
understand the underlying technology.
 Application software is designed to
 Offers scalability, flexibility, and cost-
perform specific tasks that are useful to
effectiveness for businesses.
the user, such as word processing or data
analysis.
 Unlike systems software, application
Computer Software software is not essential for the
Definition of Computer Software computer's operation but enhances user
experience and productivity.
 Software is a set of instructions that
directs hardware on operations, making it  Developers use various programming
functional. languages (e.g., C#, Java, PHP) to create
application software.
 Created through programming, software is
essential for hardware to perform tasks Common Types of Application Software
effectively.  Word Processing Software: Enables
 Without software, hardware remains inert users to create and edit text documents,
and cannot execute any operations. format fonts, and manage text layout.

Types of Software  Spreadsheet Software: Allows for

numeric calculations and data analysis
 Software is broadly categorized into two using rows and columns for data entry.
main types: Systems Software and
Application Software.  Presentation Software: Facilitates the
creation of slideshow presentations for
 Systems Software manages hardware and educational or business purposes.
provides an interface for users, essential
for computer operation.  Image Editing Software: Provides tools
for altering and enhancing digital images
 Application Software performs specific and photographs.
tasks for users, enhancing productivity
and functionality.  Video Editing Software: Used for
editing digital video sequences, replacing
Systems Software traditional film editing methods.
Functions of Systems Software
Manages hardware resources, ensuring

efficient operation of the computer.
Operating Systems
 Provides user-interface components, Definition of an Operating System
allowing interaction between the user and  An operating system (OS) is a collection of
the system. software that manages computer
 hardware resources and provides common  It provides a hierarchical file system that
services for computer programs. allows users to navigate and manage files
easily.
 It acts as an interface between the user
and the computer hardware, facilitating Security and Access Control
user interaction with the system.
 The OS implements security measures to
 The OS is a vital component of system protect data and resources from
software, essential for the functioning of unauthorized access.
computer systems.
 It uses techniques such as user
Importance of Operating Systems authentication, access control lists, and
encryption to safeguard information.
 Operating systems perform essential
tasks such as file management, memory Applications of Operating Systems
management, and process management.
Security Applications
 They handle input and output operations
 Operating systems use passwords and
and control peripheral devices like
encryption to prevent unauthorized
printers and disk drives.
access to programs and data.
 The OS ensures efficient resource
 They provide audit trails and logging
allocation and system performance,
features to monitor access and changes
making it crucial for both users and
to sensitive information.
applications.
Performance Monitoring
Key Functions of an Operating System
 The OS records system performance
Memory Management
metrics, such as response times and
 The OS manages the computer's memory, resource utilization, to identify
allocating space for processes and bottlenecks.
ensuring efficient use of RAM.
 It can generate reports that help in
 It keeps track of each byte in a optimizing system performance and
computer's memory and manages the resource allocation.
allocation and deallocation of memory
Job Accounting
space as needed.
 The OS tracks the time and resources
Processor Management
consumed by various jobs and users,
 The OS is responsible for managing the facilitating billing and resource
CPU, scheduling processes, and ensuring management.
that each process gets adequate CPU
 This function is crucial in multi-user
time.
environments to ensure fair resource
 It uses algorithms to determine the order distribution.
in which processes are executed,
Error Detection and Debugging
optimizing performance and
responsiveness.  The OS provides tools for error detection,
including dumps, traces, and error
Device Management
messages to assist in debugging.
 The OS manages device communication
 It helps developers identify and resolve
via drivers, ensuring that hardware
issues in software applications efficiently.
devices function correctly and efficiently.
Coordination of Software Resources
 It abstracts the hardware details from the
user, providing a simpler interface for  The OS coordinates the use of compilers,
device interaction. interpreters, and other software tools
among users.
File Management
 It ensures that multiple users can work on
 The OS handles the organization, storage,
the system without conflicts or resource
retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection
contention.
of files on storage devices.
Programming Languages and Data  The Software Development Life Cycle
Processing (SDLC) is a structured process for
developing software applications.
Overview of Programming Languages
 It includes stages such as planning,
 Programming languages are essential for
analysis, design, implementation, testing,
instructing computers to perform tasks,
deployment, and maintenance.
each with its own syntax and semantics.
Importance of SDLC
 They can be categorized into several
types, including machine language,  SDLC aims to produce high-quality
assembly language, high-level languages, software that meets or exceeds customer
system languages, and scripting expectations.
languages.
 It helps in managing project timelines and
Types of Programming Languages costs effectively, ensuring that software is
delivered on schedule.
Machine Language: The lowest-level
programming language, consisting of binary
code that the CPU can directly execute.
 Assembly Language: A low-level
language that uses symbolic
representations of machine code, making
it more readable than binary.
 High-Level Languages: These
languages, such as Python and C++, are
closer to human languages and abstract
away hardware details.

Data Processing Techniques

 Data processing involves collecting,
manipulating, and processing data for
various applications.
 The methods of data processing include
single-user programming, multiple
programming, real-time processing, online
processing, time-sharing processing, and
distributed processing.
Methods of Data Processing
Single User Programming: A method where
one person uses the computer for personal
tasks, suitable for small offices.
 Multiple Programming: Allows multiple
programs to run simultaneously on the
CPU, enhancing efficiency.
 Real-time Processing: Enables
immediate processing of data, often used
in interactive applications.
Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
Overview of SDLC