ICE 420 Reviewer:

Instrument - device that measures, monitors and control process variables.

Control - in process industries it refers to the regulation, command or direction of all aspects of the
process.

2 Types of control:

1. Manual Control - refers to the direct manipulation or adjustment of a system, process, or

device by a human operator.

2. Automatic Control - also known as automation, refers to the use of various control systems
and technologies to operate and regulate processes, machines, or systems without direct human
intervention.

Instrumentation and Control - branch of physics which deals with the measuring, monitoring and
controlling variables in a process industry.

Process - refers to the methods of changing or refining raw materials to create end products.

Process Control - the regulation or manipulation of variables influencing the conduct of a process in
such a way as to obtain a product of desired quality and quantity in an efficient manner.

System - an arrangement, set or collection of physical components connected or related in such a

manner as to form and/or act as an entire unit.

Control System - an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to

command, direct or regulate itself or another system.

Control Loop - a process management system designed to maintain a process variable at a desired set
point.

Instrument Loop - an arrangement of two or more instruments connected together to perform a unified
task.

2 Types of Control Loop:

1. Closed Control Loop - exists when a process variable is measured, compared to a setpoint and
action is taken to correct any deviation from setpoint.

2. Open Control Loop - exist when the process variable is not compared, and action is taken not
in response to on the condition of the process variable.

Setpoint - a value for a process variable that is desired to be maintained.

Controller Output - outputs signal generated in response to a change of a process variable.

Manipulated Variable - a process variable linked to the controller output that is used to influence the
measured variable.

Process Variable - any variable property of a ​ process

4 Common Types of Process Variable:

​ 1. Temperature

​ 2. Level

​ 3. Flow

​ 4. Pressure

Measurement - the determination of the magnitude of a variable

Detection - the determination of the existence or the presence of a variable.

Range - the limit or extent of variation. The lower limit is called LRV & the upper limit is called URV.

Span - the number of units between two limits, the LRV and URV.

2 Types of Standardized Signal:

​ 1. Analog Signal - a signal that has no discrete positions or states and changes value.

2. Digital Signal - a signal that generates or uses binary digit signals to represent continuous
values or discrete states.

Relating 4 to 20 mA signals to instrument variables

​ ​ To calculate the equivalent milliamp value for any given percentage of signal range, the
equation takes the form of the standard slope-intercept line equation y=mx + b.

y = equivalent current in milliamps

x = the desired percentage of signal

m = the span of the 4-20 mA (16mA)

b = the offset value, or the “live zero” of 4mA

4 Types of Measuring Elements:

1. Sensor - integral part of loop that first senses the value of a process variable that assumes a
corresponding predetermined state and generates an output signal indictive of or proportional
to the process variable.

2. Transmitter - a device that senses a process variable through the medium of a sensor and has
an output whose steady-state value varies only as a predetermined function of the process
variable.

3. Transducer – a device that translates a mechanical signal into an electrical signal.

4. Process Switch - a mechanism or device used to alternate between different measurement

processes or tasks within an instrument or a control system.

Transducers and transmitters are virtually the same thing, the main difference being the kind of
electrical signal each sends. A transducer sends a signal in volts (V) or millivolt (mV) and
a transmitter sends a signal in milliamps (mA).

2 Types of Process Measurement

1. Direct Method - the process variable is directly measured in units that represent the basic
nature of that variable.

2. Indirect Method / Inferential Method - is the measurement of a process variable indirectly by

using another variable.

2 Types of Measurement

1. Single Point Type or Point to point - the reading is indicated either as high or low

2. Continuous Type - is the measurement of a process variable indirectly by using another

variable.

Instrument Range - refers to the capability of the instrument to measure a variable.

Calibration Range - refers to the set of values within the instrument measuring range where the scaled
output; 4-20 mA, 3-15 psi or 1-5 V is set during calibration.

Instrument Span - It is the distance (or difference) between the upper range value (URV) and lower
range value (LRV).

Upper Range Value (URV) - is the highest value of the measured process variable that the output of a
transmitter is currently configured to measure.

Lower Range Value (LRV) - is the lowest value of the measured process variable that the analog output
of a transmitter is currently configured to measure.
2 Status of Switch:

1. Normally Open Status - the circuit will close only if someone presses the switch, holding its
normally-open contacts in the closed position.

2. Normally Closed Status - the circuit will still be closed only if the switch was left alone, but it
opens the circuit if anyone pressed the switch.

7 Types of Switches:

1. Hand Switch - is an electrical switch actuated by a person’s hand motion. This may take a form
of toggle, pushbutton or rotary.

2. Limit Switch - detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that object. A
limit switch will be in its “normal” status when it is not in contact with anything.

3. Proximity Switch - detects the proximity (closeness) of an object. By definition, these switches
are non-contact sensors, using magnetic, electric or optical means to sense the proximity of
objects.

4. Pressure Switch - detects the presence of fluid pressure. Pressure switches often use
diaphragms or bellows as the pressure sensing elements, the motion of which actuates one or
more switch contacts.

5. Level Switch - detects the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level
switches often use floats as the level-sensing element, the motion of which actuates one or
more switch contacts.

6. Temperature Switch - detects the temperature of an object. Temperature switches often use
bimetallic strips as the temperature-sensing element.

7. Flow Switch - detects the flow of some fluid through pipe. Flow switches often use “paddles”
as the flow-sensing element, the motion of which actuates one or more switch contacts.

Controlling Element - Known as the controller and is the brain of the control system

Controller - a device that receives data from a measurement instrument, compares that data to a
programmed setpoint, and, if necessary, signals a control element to take corrective action.

2 Common Types of Controller:

1. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) - usually computers connected to a set of

input/output (I/O) devices. The computers are programmed to respond to inputs by sending
outputs to maintain all processes at setpoint.

2. Distributed Control System (DCS) - are controllers that, in addition to performing control
functions, provide readings of the status of the process, maintain databases and advance
man-machine-interface.

Final Control Element - The part of the control system that acts to physically change the manipulated
variable.
2 Common Types of Final Control Element:

1. Actuator - the part of a final control device that causes a physical change in the final control
device when signaled to do so.

2. Control Valve - manipulate the flow rate of gas or liquid; whereas, the control switches
manipulate the electrical energy entering a system.

Instrument Symbols

-​ Symbols such as circles, lines, letters, and numbers are used to provide information about
the process.
-​ Symbols may represent devices in the system or indicate how devices are connected to
each other.
-​ In this notation, shapes denote function while the lines in the middle denote location or
mounting
Line Symbols

-​ Line symbols indicate how instruments are connected to each other and to the process
and represents the types of signals transmitted in the process.
-​ Line Symbols could either be a process line symbol or a signal line symbol.

Process Line Symbols

-​ Used to represent process lines and instrument connections.

-​ Process piping is generally shown with thick solid lines.
-​ Thin solid lines indicate instrument-to-process connections or instrument tubing.

Signal Line Symbols

-​ Signal line symbols indicate the type of signal that connects two instruments.

Valve and Actuator Symbols

 -​ Indicates the action of actuation in a valve-actuator instrument.
-​ Also indicates the position during fail mode.
-​ Valve are usually drawn as a bow tie shaped symbol.

Tag Number - Instrumentation Identification Number or Tag Number is an alphanumeric code that
provides specific information about an instrument or its function.

Functional Identifier

-​ A functional Identifier is a series of letters, or letter code, that identifies the function of
the instrument.
-​ The first letter identifies the measured or initiating variable.
-​ The succeeding letters designate one or more readout or passive functions and/or output
functions.

Loop Identification - Loop identification numbers indicate the loop/system in which an instrument
belongs.
Temperature - (sometimes called thermodynamic temperature) is a measure of how hot or cold
something is specifically, a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a system.

Absolute Zero – minimum temperature known.

Temperature Measurement - also known as thermometry, describes the process of measuring a current
local temperature for immediate or later evaluation.

Conduction - the process by which heat or electricity is directly transmitted through a substance when
there is a difference of temperature or of electrical potential between adjoining regions, without
movement of the material.

Convection - the movement caused within a fluid by the tendency of hotter and therefore less dense
material to rise, and colder, denser material to sink under the influence of gravity, which consequently
results in transfer of heat. "The final transfer of energy to the surface is by convection."

Radiation - the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic particles,

especially high-energy particles which cause ionization.

Liquid Glass Thermometer - Most versions have used mercury as the liquid. The element mercury is
liquid in the temperature range of about −40 to 700°F (−38.9 to 356.7°C). As a liquid, mercury expands
as it gets warmer; its expansion rate is linear.

Bimetallic Thermometer - Bonding two dissimilar metals with different coefficients of expansion
produces a bimetallic element. These are used in bimetallic thermometers, temperature switches, and
thermostats having a range of 100 to 1000°F (−73 to 537°C).

Filled Bulb Systems - Filled system thermometers have been used for decades. They have a useful range
of -125°F to 1200°F. Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature.
If a fluid is enclosed in a sealed system and then heated, the molecules in that fluid will exert a greater
pressure on the walls of the enclosing vessel. By measuring this pressure, and/or by allowing the fluid to
expand under constant pressure, we may infer the temperature of the fluid.

Bistate/Phase Change Sensors - These low cost nonelectric sensors are made from heat-sensitive fusible
crystalline solids that change decisively from a solid to a liquid with a different color at a fixed
temperature depending on the blend of ingredients. They are available as crayons, lacquers, pellets, or
labels over a wide range of temperatures from 100 to 3000°F (38 to 1650°C).

Thermocouple - A thermocouple is an assembly of two wires of unlike metals joined at one end
designated the hot end. At the other end, referred to as the cold junction, the open circuit voltage is
measured.

​ Peltier Effect - If the junctions of a thermocouple are at the same temperature and a current is
passed through the circuit of the thermocouple, HEAT is produced at one junction and ABSORBED at the
other.​
​ Thompson Effect - The absorption or evolution of heat when current is passed through an
unequally heated conductor.

​ Seebeck Effect - When two dissimilar metals with different temperatures and they’re touching,
they produce an emf or voltage. ​
​ Seebeck Voltage - this voltage (electromotive force) depends on the difference in temperature
between the hot and the cold junction and the Seebeck coefficient of the two metals.

Resistance Temperature Detector - is a temperature sensor which measures temperature using the
principle that the resistance of a metal changes with temperature. For most metals the change in
electrical resistance is directly proportional to its change in temperature and is linear over a range of
temperatures. This constant factor called the temperature coefficient of electrical resistance is the basis
of RTDs.

Thermistor - is also a resistive device that changes its resistance predictably with temperature. Its benefit
is a very large change in resistance per degree change in temperature, allowing very sensitive
measurements over narrow spans. Due to its very large resistance, lead wire errors are not significant.

Pyrometer - they are non-contact temperature sensors that measure temperature from the amount of
thermal electromagnetic radiation received from a spot on the object of measurement.

Two types of Pyrometer:

1. Radiation Pyrometer - also referred as infrared (IR) thermometer is a noncontact radiant

energy detector. Every object in the world radiates IR energy. The amount of radiant energy
emitted is proportional to the temperature of an object.

2. Optical Pyrometer - work on the basic principle of using human eye to match the brightness
of the hot object to the brightness of the calibrated lamp filament inside the instrument. As a
measure of the reference temperature, a color change with the growth in temperature is taken.

Pressure - is defined as a ratio between a force and a unit area, perpendicular to the direction of that
force, on which the force acts.

Pressure of a fluid - All fluid molecules will be in constant and random motion called “Brownian motion”,
due to which fluid at rest in a vessel, does exerts force on all the walls of the vessel, with which it is in
contact.

Static Pressure - also referred as “hydrostatic pressure” is the pressure of a fluid at rest. Defined as a
pressure not associated with the fluid motion, but its state. It is the pressure which would be indicated
by a gauge moving together with the fluid.

Dynamic Pressure – the pressure of a fluid moving. A measurement of kinetic energy of a moving fluid
and depends on its velocity and density.

Common Types of Pressure:

1. Absolute Pressure - it is measured with relation to perfect vacuum, namely, the pressure
difference at a given measurement point by the vacuum pressure (absolute zero). Normally the
ABS notation is used when this greatness is indicated.

2. Differential Pressure - it is the pressure difference measured between two points. When any
point other than vacuum or atmosphere is used as reference it means differential pressure.

3. Gauge Pressure - it is measured in relation to the ambient pressure, namely, in relation to the
atmosphere. It is always important to register on the notation that it is a relative measurement.
Manometer - A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-filled tube where
an applied gas pressure causes the fluid height to shift proportionately.

Types of Manometer:

1. U-tube Manometer - It consists of a glass tube bent like the letter 'U'. In this type of
manometer, balancing a column of liquid is done by another column of same or other liquid. One
end of the U-tube is attached to the point where pressure is to be measured, while the other
end is open to atmospheric pressure.

2. Well Manometer - is a specific type of manometer designed to measure very low

pressures with high accuracy. It consists of a U-shaped glass tube with one limb connected
to the system whose pressure is to be measured and the other limb connected to a well or
reservoir of mercury. The pressure difference between the system and the atmosphere
causes the mercury level to rise or fall in the well, which is where the measurement is
taken.

3. Raised Well Manometer - It is similar to a well type manometer in construction. The only
difference being that the vertical column limb is inclined at an angle θ. Inclined manometers are
used for accurate measurement of small pressure.

4. Inclined Manometer - is a type of manometer designed to measure pressure differences

by using a liquid column inclined at an angle rather than a vertical orientation like a
traditional U-tube manometer. This design allows for the measurement of small pressure
differences with greater sensitivity compared to vertical manometers.

Sphygmomanometer - a type of manometer, is commonly used to check blood pressure in humans.

Systolic pressure reading is the mercury reading on the pressure gauge when the pulse is first
heard, while diastolic pressure reading is when the pulse can first no longer be heard.

Digital Manometer - uses a microprocessor and pressure transducer to sense slight changes in pressure.
It gives the pressure readout on a digital screen. It measures differential pressure across two inputs. An
analog/digital output in proportion to the instantaneous pressure can be obtained.

Bellows - resemble an accordion constructed from metal instead of fabric. Increasing pressure inside a
bellows unit causes it to elongate. They are thin-walled metallic cylinders, with deep convolutions, of
which one end is sealed and the other end remains open. The closed end can move freely while the
open end is fixed.

Bellow Operation - When pressure is applied to the closed end, the bellows will be compressed.
The closed end will move upwards and the link, which is the rod in between the closed end of
the bellows and the transmission mechanism, will go up and rotate the pointer.

Diaphragm - is nothing more than a thin disk of material which bows outward under the influence of a
fluid pressure. Many diaphragms are constructed from metal, which gives them spring-like qualities.

Diaphragm Operation - A fluid in contact with a flexible membrane pushes on that membrane,
bending it. The pressure is a measure of how hard it pushes. When the outside preference is low,
the reference pressure bends the membrane out. As the outside pressure increases, it pushes
 back on the membrane, bending it back the other way. By measuring how far the membrane
bends, the gauge can detect the outside pressure.

Bourdon Tube - are made of spring-like metal alloys bent into a circular shape. Under the influence of
internal pressure, a bourdon tube “tries” to straighten out into its original shape before being bent at the
time of manufacture.

Bourdon Tube Operation - The Bourdon pressure gauge operates on the principle that, when
pressurized, a flattened tube tends to straighten or regain its circular form in cross-section.
When a gauge is pressurized, the Bourdon creates the dial tip travel to enable pressure
measurement. The higher the pressure requirement of the application, the stiffer the Bourdon
tube needs to be.

Piezoresistive Sensor - means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a resistance that changes value with
applied pressure.

Strain Gauge Sensor - is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force; It converts force, pressure,
tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance which can then be measured. A strain gauge is
an elastically deformable transducer that transforms an applied force or a mechanical displacement into
a change in resistance. It is the underlying mechanism for the working of a strain gauge load cell.

Strain Gauge Working Principle - When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress
and strain are the result. Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces, and strain is
defined as the displacement and deformation that occur.

Differential Capacitance Sensor - a change in capacitance is used to infer pressure measurement. A

capacitor is a device that stores electrical charge. It consists of two metal plates separated by an
electrical insulator. The metal plates are connected to an external electrical circuit through which
electrical charge can be transferred from one metal plate to the other.

Differential Pressure Transmitter - This device senses the difference in pressure between two ports and
outputs a signal representing that pressure in relation to a calibrated range.