Higher Technological Institute

Tenth of Ramadan City

MATHEMATICS (1)
code: (MTH001)

Department of Basic Science

Dr. Mahmoud Abo-Zaid Dr. Ebtsam El-Emam

Dr. Ahmad Abdel-Aal Dr. Sabry Al-Shorbagy
Dr. Afaf Hatem Syam Dr. Iman Sharaf
Contents
Chapter one : Matrix Algebra, Linear Systems and its Solutions.

1.1 Matrix Algebra………………………………………………….……....1

1.2 Determinant of a Matrix…………………………………….….…..…..7

Exercise.1.1………………………………………………………………...…8

1.3 The inverse of a matrix………………………………….…….….….….9

Exercise.1.2………………………………………………….….…….…...…11

1.4 Solving Systems of Linear Equations Using Matrices…………..…….12

Exercise.1.3…………………………………………………………..…...…16

Chapter two : Logarithmic and Exponential Functions.

2.1 Inverse Functions ……………………………………………….…….18

Exercise.2.1………………………………………………………….…...…22

2.2 Natural Logarithmic Functions………………………………….…..23

Exercise.2.2…………………………………………………………….…...37

2.3 Natural Exponential Function……………………………………..….40

Exercise.2.3…………………………………………………………..…..…45

2.4 General Exponential and logarithmic Functions…………….……..48

Exercise.2.4…………………………………………………………..…..…54

2.5 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions……………56

Exercises.2.5…………………………………………………………….….63

Chapter three: Inverse Trigonometric, Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic

3.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions……………………………………..64

Exercise.3.1……………………………………………………….……...….72

3.2 Hyperbolic Function ………………………………………………….74

Exercises.3.2……………………………………………………….…...…...81

3.3 Inverse Hyperbolic Function …………………………….….……..….83

Exercises.3.3…………………………………………………..……..….…...87

Chapter four: Techniques of Integration

4.1 Integration By Parts………………………………………….….……..88

Exercise.4.1……………………………………………………….…….…...101

4.2 Trigonometric Integrals …………………………………….………....103

Exercises.4.2……………………………………………………….…….….113

4.3 Trigonometric Substitution……………………………………………………….….…114

Exercises.4.3……………………………………………………………...…117

4.4 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions……………………118

Exercises4.4…………………………………………………….…….……..126

4.5 Integrals Involving Quadratic Expressions……….……………………...………127

Exercises4.5……………………….………………….……………..….…...129

Chapter five: Application of Definite Integration

5.1 Area between curves…………………………………………….…..…131

Exercise.5.1……………………………………………………….…...….....139

5.2 Solids of Revolution…………………………………..…………….…..141

Exercise.5.2…………………………………………………………………155

5.3 Arc Length and Surface area…………………………………….….....157

Exercises.5.3…………………………………………………………….….161

Chapter six: Improper Integrals

6.1 Indeterminate Forms and L'Hopital's Rule……………….………… 162

Exercise.6.1……………………………………….…………….………...…169

6.2 Improper Integrals…………………………………….………….…..170

Exercise.6.2. .………………………………………………..……….…..…174

References…………………………………………………………………………175
 Chapter one
Matrix Algebra, Linear Systems and its Solution
1.1 Matrix Algebra
A matrix is a rectangular array or table of numbers, expressions,
or symbols, arranged in columns and rows, which is used to represent
a mathematical object or rearranged by a similar procedure.

 a11 a12 a13  a1n 

a 
 21 a22 a 23  a2 n 
A  [aij ]   a31 a32 a33  a3n   M mn
 
    
am1 am 2 am3  amn 
mn

For example,
2 5
[ ]
8 6

is a matrix with two columns and two rows. This is often called a "two by two

matrix ", or a matrix of dimension 2 × 2. .

Matrices are used to represent linear relations and make computations in linear
algebra easily. Therefore, the study of matrices plays a large part in solving
linear algebra, and most properties and operations of abstract linear algebra can
be expressed in terms of matrices to make it easily solved. For example, matrix
multiplication represents the composition of linear maps. Square matrices, are
the matrices having the same number of rows and columns, and they play a
major role in matrix theory. Square matrices of a given dimension form a non
commutative ring, which is one of the most common examples of a non-
commutative ring. The determinant of a square matrix is a number associated
to the matrix, which is fundamental for the study of a square matrix; for
example, a square matrix is invertible if and only if it has a nonzero
determinant, and the eigenvalues of a square matrix are the roots of
a polynomial determinant. In geometry, matrices are widely used for specifying
and representing geometric transformations (for example rotations)
and coordinate changes. In numerical analysis, many computational problems
(linear) are solved by representing in a matrix form, and this often involves
computing with matrices of huge dimension. Matrices are used in most areas of
most scientific fields and mathematics, either directly, or through their use in
numerical analysis and geometry.
1
Matrix Theory
The study of the matrices is the most important branch of mathematics.
It was initially a sub-branch of linear algebra, but soon grew to include subjects
related to graph theory, algebra, combinatorics and statistics.
The specifics of symbolic matrix notation vary widely, with some popular
trends. Matrices are commonly written in square brackets or parentheses, so
that an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix have 𝑚 number of rows and 𝑛 number of columns. 𝐴 is
represented as
𝑎11 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎11 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝐴=[ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]=( ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ )
𝑎𝑚1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑎𝑚1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛

1.1.1 Operation on Matrices

Matrices undergo various mathematical operations such as addition,

subtraction, scalar multiplication, and matrix multiplication. These operations
occur between the elements of two matrices to give an equivalent matrix that
contains the elements which are obtained as a result of this operation. Let’s
learn the operation of matrices.

(i) Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

In addition of matrices, the elements of two matrices are added to give a

matrix that contains elements obtained as the sum of two matrices. The
addition of matrices is done between two matrices of the same dimension.
If A  [aij ]mn , B  [bij ]mn ,

then A  B  [aij ]mn  [bij ]mn  [aij  bij ]mn  [cij ]mn  C

Let’s learn through an example.

2 6 1 2
Example 1: Find the sum of 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ].
−5 3 7 3
Solution:
2+1 6+2 3 8
𝐴+𝐵=[ ]=[ ].
−5 + 7 3+3 2 6

2
Subtraction of matrices is the difference between the elements of two
matrices of the same dimension to give an equivalent matrix of the same
dimension whose elements are equal to the difference of elements of the two
matrices. The subtraction of two matrices can be represented in terms of the
addition of two matrices. Let’s say to subtract matrix B from matrix 𝐴 then
we can write 𝐴 – 𝐵. We can also rewrite it as 𝐴 + (−𝐵). Let’s solve an
example
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟔
Example 2: Subtract 𝑩 = [ ] from 𝑨 = [ ]
𝟕 𝟑 −𝟓 𝟑
Solution:
2−1 6−2 1 4
𝐴−𝐵 =[ ]=[ ].
−5 − 7 3−3 −12 0
(ii) Scalar Multiplication of Matrices

Scalar Multiplication of matrices refers to the multiplication of each term of a

matrix with a scalar term. If a scalar ‘k’ is multiplied by a matrix then the
equivalent matrix will contain elements equal to the product of k and all
elements of the original matrix. Let’s see an example:
2 6
Example 3: Multiply 4 by 𝐴 = [ ] .
−5 3
Solution:
4∗2 4∗6 8 24
4𝐴 = [ ]=[ ].
4 ∗ −5 4∗3 −20 12
(iii) Multiplication of Matrices

In the multiplication of matrices, two matrices are multiplied to yield a single

equivalent matrix. The multiplication is restricted with the manner that the
elements of the row of the first matrix multiply with the elements of the
columns of the second matrix and the product of elements are added to yield a
single element of the equivalent matrix. If a matrix [𝐴]𝑚⨯𝑛 is multiplied with
matrix [𝐵]𝑛⨯𝑝 then the product is given as [𝐴𝐵]𝑚⨯𝑝 .

If A  [aij ]mn and B  [bij ]n p ,

then AB  [aij ]mn[bij ]n p  [cij ]m p  C,

Let’s see an example.

3
 2 6 1 2
Example 4: Find the multiple 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ].
−5 3 7 3
Solution:
2×1+6×7 2×2+6×3 44 22
𝐴×𝐵 =[ ]=[ ].
−5 × 1 + 3 × 7 −5 × 2 + 3 × 3 16 −1
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟕 𝟏 −𝟏
Example 5: Find the multiple 𝑨 = [𝟑 𝟐 𝟒] and 𝑩 = [−𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 ].
𝟓 𝟏 𝟏 𝟓 𝟔 𝟏
Solution:
(2 ∗ 7 + 1 ∗ −2 + 3 ∗ 5) 𝟑𝟕 38 27 𝟑𝟕 38
𝐴×𝐵 = [ 𝟐𝟑 𝟑𝟓 𝟏𝟒] = [𝟐𝟑 𝟑𝟓 𝟏𝟒] ..
5 𝟗 0 5 𝟗 0

−𝟏 𝟑
−𝟑 𝟐
Example 6: Find the multiple 𝑨 = [ 𝟒 −𝟐] and 𝑩 = [ ]
−𝟒 𝟏 𝟐×𝟐
𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟑×𝟐
Solution:

 (1)(3)  (3)(4) (1)(2)  (3)(1) 

AB  (4)(3)  (2)(4) (4)(2)  ( 2)(1) 
 (5)(3)  (0)(4) (5)(2)  (0)(1)  3 2
 9 1 
  4 6 
 15 10  3 2

1.1.2. Properties of Matrix operations

The properties of matrix addition and multiplication are as given below:

 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴 (Commutative).
 (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) (Associative).
 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴 in general (Not Commutative).
 (𝐴𝐵) 𝐶 = 𝐴 (𝐵𝐶) (Associative).
 𝐴 (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 (Distributive).

1.1.3. Transpose of Matrix

The transpose of a Matrix is basically the rearrangement of column elements

in a row and row elements in column. A matrix in which the elements of the
row of the original matrix are arranged in columns or vice versa is called the
Transpose of a Matrix. The transpose matrix is represented as 𝐴𝑇 .

4
If = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚𝑥𝑛 , then 𝐴𝑇 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛𝑥𝑚 where 𝑏𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 .
Let’s see an example:
2 6
Example 7: Find transpose of 𝐴 = [ ] .
−5 3
2 −5
Solution: 𝐴𝑇 = [ ].
6 3

Properties of the Transpose of a Matrix

Properties of the transpose of a matrix are illustrated below:
 (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴
 (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵𝑇
 (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 .

1.1.4. Trace of a Matrix

Trace of a Matrix is the sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix.

Since the diagonal is only found in square matrices, so we can get the trace
for only square matrices. Let’s see an example.
2 6
Example 8: Find the trace of the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]
−5 3
Solution:
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 (𝐴) = 2 + 3 = 5

1 2 5
Example 9: Find the trace of the matrix 𝐴 = [4 −2 7]
3 2 5
Solution:
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 (𝐴) = 1 − 2 + 5 = 4

1.1.5. Types of Matrices

Matrices are classified into various types

 Row Matrix:
A Matrix in which there is only one row is called a Row Matrix,
e.g. 𝐴 = [1 7 8]

 Column Matrix:
A Matrix in which there is only one column is called a Column Matrix,
5
e.g. [−3].
8
5
 Horizontal Matrix:
A Matrix in which the number of columns is greater than the number of
rows is called a Horizontal Matrix.

 Vertical Matrix:
A Matrix in which number of rows is greater than the number of columns
is called a Vertical Matrix.

 Rectangular Matrix:
A Matrix in which the number of columns and rows are unequal is called a
Rectangular Matrix.

 Square Matrix:
A matrix in which the number of columns and rows are the same is called
a Square Matrix.

 Diagonal Matrix:
A matrix which all elements are zero except for the elements of the
diagonal.

 Zero or Null Matrix:

If all elements of a matrix are zero is called a Zero Matrix. A zero matrix
is also called as Null Matrix.

 Unit or Identity Matrix:

A diagonal matrix whose all diagonal elements are 1 is called a Unit
Matrix. A unit matrix is also called an Identity matrix. An identity matrix
is represented by 𝐼.

 Symmetric matrix:
A square matrix is said to be symmetric if the transpose of the matrix is
equal to its original matrix. i.e. (A𝑇 ) = 𝐴.

 Skew-symmetric Matrix:
A skew-symmetric (or antisymmetric or antimetric) matrix is a square
matrix whose transpose equals its negative value of its elements, i.e.
(A𝑇 ) = −𝐴.

 Orthogonal Matrix:
A matrix is said to be orthogonal if 𝐴A𝑇 = A𝑇 𝐴 = 𝐼 .

6
  Upper Triangular Matrix:
A square matrix in which all the elements below the diagonal are zero is
known as the upper triangular matrix.

 Lower Triangular Matrix:

A square matrix in which all the elements above the diagonal are zero is
known as the lower triangular matrix.

 Singular Matrix:
A square matrix is said to be a singular matrix if its determinant is zero,
i.e. |A| = 0.

 Nonsingular Matrix:
A square matrix is said to be a non-singular matrix if its determinant is
non-zero.

1.2 Determinant of a Matrix

Determinant of a matrix is a number that can only be calculated for a

square matrix. It is represented by |A|. The determinant of a matrix is
calculated by adding the product of the elements of a matrix with their
cofactors. Let’s see how to find the determinant of a square matrix.
1 3 5
Example 10: Find determinant of the matrix 𝐴 = [−2 2 6].
2 4 1
Solution:

|𝐴| = 1((2 ∗ 1) − (4 ∗ 6)) − 3((−2 ∗ 1) − (6 ∗ 2)) + 5((−2 ∗ 4) − (2 ∗ 2))

= −40‫و‬

2 5
Example 10: Find determinant of the matrix 𝐴 = [ ].
4 7
Solution: |𝐴| = (2 ∗ 7) − (5 ∗ 4) = −6.

1.2.1. Properties of Determinants

We now list the basic properties of the determinant of a matrix.

The determinants of a matrix A and its transpose AT are equal, i.e.

A  AT

Example 11: For the matrix A in the above example,

7
 1 4 3
A T
 2 2 1 , AT  1(4  3)  4 (4  3)  3 (6  6)  13  A .
3 3 2

Let A be a square matrix.

(i) If A has a row (column) of zeros, then A  0 .

(ii) If A has two identical rows (columns), then A  0 .

(iii) If A is triangular, i.e. A has zeros above or below the diagonal,
A  product of diagonal elements. Thus I  1 .

Exercise.1.1

1) Use the matrices below and perform the matrix addition and subtraction.
Indicate if the operation is undefined.
1 5 10 14
1 3 2 14
𝐴=( ), 𝐵=( ), 𝐶 = ( 8 92) , 𝐷=(7 2)
0 7 22 6
12 6 5 3
𝑖) 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑖𝑖)𝐴 − 𝐶 𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝐵 + 𝐷 𝑖𝑣) 2𝐴 + 3𝐶 − 2𝐷 𝑣) 𝐶𝐵

𝑣𝑖) 𝐴𝐵 vii)𝐴 − 5𝐷 𝒗𝒊𝒊𝒊)𝐵𝐶 𝑖𝑥)( 𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐷 𝑥) 𝐶𝐷

2) Use the matrices in the previous example to perform the following

operations:
i)𝐴𝑇 , 𝑖𝑖)(𝐵𝐷)𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 , 𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝐵𝑇 (𝐶 + 𝐷 𝑇 )𝑇 , 𝑖𝑣)𝐵𝑇

3) Use the matrices below to find the following :

1 2 −3 3 2 8
𝐴 = (3 −1 2 ), 𝑩 = (−2 −1 4)
5 4 6 9 7 6

𝑖)𝐴𝐵, 𝑖𝑖)𝐵𝐴, 𝑖𝑖𝑖)(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐴, 𝑖𝑣)(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐵, 𝑣)𝐵𝐴

4) Find the determinants of the following matrices:

3 2 8 1 2 −3
𝒊)𝑨 = (−2 −1 4) 𝑖𝑖)𝐵 = (3 −1 2 ) 𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝐶 = (
2 14)
22 6
9 7 6 5 4 6

1 5
iv) 𝐷 = ( 8 92).
12 6

8
1.3. The inverse of a matrix

The inverse of a square n × n matrix A, is another n × n matrix denoted

by 𝐴−1 such that 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼 where I is the n × n identity matrix.
Hence, multiplying a matrix by its inverse produces an identity matrix. Not all
square matrices have an inverse matrix. We cannot find an inverse of a matrix,
if the determinant of the matrix is zero, and the matrix is said to be singular.
Only a non-singular matrix has an inverse.

1.3.1. A formula for finding the inverse of a matrix

For any non-singular matrix A, its inverse can be obtained from the relation
𝒂𝒅𝒋(𝑨)
𝑨−𝟏 = | where |A| is the determinant of A and adj (A) is the adjoint
|𝑨|
matrix. The procedure for finding the adjoint matrix is given below.

Finding the adjoint matrix

The adjoint of a matrix A is found by the following procedures:

1. Find the transpose of A, which is denoted by 𝐴𝑇 . For example, the first

column of A is the first row of the transposed matrix; the second column
of A is the second row of the transposed matrix, and so on.

2. The minor of any element is found by eliminating the elements in its

column and row and finding the determinant of the remaining matrix. By
replacing each element of 𝐴𝑇 by its minor, we can write down a matrix
of minors of 𝐴𝑇 .

3. The cofactor of any element is found by taking its minor and imposing a
sign pattern according to the following rule : (−1)𝑖+𝑗 , where 𝑖 is the
number of row and 𝑗 is the number of column, which can be simply
presented as

     
     
 
     
     
 
     
     
 

9
 NOTE: Sign pattern for cofactors. Odd positions (where i+j is odd) have
negative signs, and even positions (where i+j is even) have positive signs.
(Positive and negative signs appear alternately.)

This means, for example, to find the cofactor of an element in the first row,
second column, the sign of the minor is changed. On the other hand to find the
cofactor of an element in the second row, second column, the sign of the minor
is unchanged. This is equivalent to multiplying the minor by ‘+1’ or ‘−1’
depending upon its position. In this way we can form a matrix of cofactors of
𝐴𝑇 . This matrix is called the adjoint of A, denoted adj (A).

1.3.2. Minors, Cofactors and Adjoint matrix

Consider an n-square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ], let 𝑀𝑖𝑗 denote the (n-1) square
submatrix of A obtained by deleting its ith row and jth column. The
determinant |𝑀𝑖𝑗 | is called the minor of the element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of A, and we define
the cofactor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , denoted by 𝐴𝑖𝑗 to be the “signed” minor:

𝐴𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 |𝑀𝑖𝑗 |.

Now, we can write the matrix of cofactors of A as,

 A11 A12 . . . A1n 

A A22 . . . A2 n 
Cofactors A   21 .
 . . . . 
 
 An1 An 2 . . . Ann 

We can define the adjoint matrix, denoted by adj (A), as the transpose of the
cofactors of A:
 A11 A21 . . . An1 
A A22 . . . An 2 
adj A   12
 . . . . 
 
 A1n A2 n . . . Ann 

Find the adjoint, and hence the inverse of

1 −2 0
𝐴=( 3 1 5)
−1 2 3

11
Solution

First: find the transpose of A by taking the first column of A to be the first
row of 𝐴𝑇 , and so on:

1 3 −1
𝑇
𝐴 = (−2 1 2)
0 5 3

Now find the minor of each element in 𝐴𝑇 . The minor of the element ‘1’
in the first row, first column, is obtained by deleting the elements in its
1 2
row and column to give ( ) and finding the determinant of this
5 3
reduced matrix, which is −7. The minor of the element ‘3’ in the second
column of the first row is found by deleting the elements in its row and
−2 2
column to give ( ) which has determinant −6. We continue in this
0 3
way and form a new matrix by replacing every element of 𝐴𝑇 by its
minor. Check for yourself that this process gives
−7 −6 −10
𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑇 = ( 14 3 5 )
7 0 7
Then impose the place sign. This results in the matrix of cofactors, that is,
the adjoint of A.
−7 6 −10
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = (−14 3 −5 )
7 0 7
It is a straightforward matter to show that the determinant of A is 21.
Finally

−7 6 −10
−1 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) 1
𝐴 = = (−14 3 −5 )
|𝐴| 21
7 0 7

Exersise 1.2

1. Verify that the given matrices are inverses of each other:

1 −1 0 3 −4 1
7 3 1 −3
𝑖) [ ],[ ], 𝑖𝑖) [1 0 −1] , [2 −4 1].
2 1 −2 7
2 3 −4 3 −5 1

2. Find the inverse of the following matrices

11
 1 0 2 1 1 −1
3 −5
i) [ ] ii) [0 1 4] iii) [1 0 1]
−1 2
0 0 1 2 1 1
1 1 1
6 −2
iv) [3 1 0] v) [ ]
9 8
1 1 2
3) Without expanding the determinant, show that,

1 x yz
1 y xz  0.
1 z x y
.

1.4. Solving Systems of Linear Equations Using Matrices

Matrices are particularly useful when solving systems of equations. Here is an
example, with three equations and three unknowns:
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3
3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −1
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4

Every system of linear equations has either

1. exactly one solution
2. infinitely many solutions
3. no solution

There are various techniques, including substitution, and multiplying equations

by constants and adding them to get single variables to cancel. There is an
easier way, and that is to use a matrix. Note that this system of equations can be
represented as follows:

1 2 1 𝑥 3
[3 −1 −3] [𝑦] = [−1] ⇒ 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏
2 3 1 𝑧 4
1 2 1 𝑥 3
𝐴 = [3 −1 −3] , 𝑋 = [𝑦] , 𝑏 = [−1]
2 3 1 𝑧 4

We can solve the problem Ax = b by multiplying both sides by 𝐴−1 and

simplifying. This yields the following:

12
 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏 → 𝐴−1 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝑏 → 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝑏

We can therefore solve a system of equations by computing the inverse of A,

and multiplying it by B. In this example, matrix A and its inverse is as follows

1 2 1 8 1 −5
𝐴 = [3 −1 −3] → 𝐴−1 = [−9 −1 6]
2 3 1 11 1 −7

We can now solve this system of equations:

8 1 −5 3 3
𝑋 = [−9 −1 6 ] [−1] = [−2]
11 1 −7 4 4

If we return to the original equations, we see that they in fact fulfill the
identities. Computationally, this is a much easier way to resolve systems of
equations – we just need to compute an inverse, and perform a single matrix
multiplication. This approach will lead to a solution; however, if the matrix A
is nonsingular (not invertible) then using the inverse method will not work. In
fact, if a row or a column of the matrix A is a linear combination of the others,
then there are no solutions to the system of equations, or there are many
solutions to the system of equations.

1.4.1. Gauss Elimination Method

In mathematics, the Gauss elimination method is known as the row reduction
algorithm to solve linear system of equations. It consists of a sequence of
operations performed on the corresponding matrix of coefficients.

O1: Interchange two equations

O2: Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant
O3: Add a multiple of an equation to another equation

It is used for solving a given system of linear equations. There are other
methods of solve system of linear equations, e.g. the Jacobi method, Cramer’s
rule, Gauss-Seidel method. The Gauss Elimination method is a direct method
for solving a system of linear equations because, within a finite number of
determined steps, we can solve the given system. The steps of the Gauss
elimination method are:

13
 1. Put the given system of linear equations in matrix form AX = b, where
A is the coefficient matrix, X is a column matrix of unknown variables
and b is the column matrix of the constants.
2. Reduce the augmented matrix [A : b] by elementary row operations to
get [A' : b'].
3. We get A' as an upper triangular matrix.

4. By the backward substitution in A'X = b', we get the solution of the

given system of linear equations.

Example 1: Solve the following system of equations:

x + y + z = 2, x + 2y + 3z = 5, 2x + 3y + 4z = 11.

Let us put these equations in the augmented matrix form.

1 1 1 2
[1 2 3 5]
2 3 4 11

By subtracting R1 from R2 to get the new elements of R2, i.e. R2 → R2 – R1.

From this we get,

1 1 1 2
[0 1 2 3]
2 3 4 11
And R3 → R3 – 2R1
1 1 1 2
[0 1 2 3]
0 1 2 7
Subtract R2 from R1 to get the new elements of R1, i.e. R1 → R1 – R2.
1 0 −1 − 1
[0 1 2 3 ]
0 1 2 7
Now, subtract R2 from R3 to get the new elements of R3, i.e. R3 → R3 – R2.

1 0 −1 − 1
[0 1 2 3 ]
0 0 0 4

Here, x – z = -1, y + 2z = 3, 0 = 4

14
The system has no solution.

Now, we will introduce another way to solve a linear system of equations by

Gauss-Jordan Method Why?

Both Gauss-Jordan and Gauss elimination are somewhat similar methods, the
difference between the two methods is in the Gauss elimination method the
matrix is reduced into an upper-triangular matrix whereas in the Gauss-Jordan
method is reduced into a diagonal matrix.

 Gauss-Jordan elimination:
The procedure for reducing a matrix to its reduced row-echelon
form

 Row-echelon form: (1), (2), and (3)

 Reduced row-echelon form: (1), (2), (3), and (4)

1. All rows consisting entirely of zeros occur at the bottom of the

matrix.
2. For each row that does not consist entirely of zeros, the first nonzero
entry from the left side is 1, which is called as leading 1.
3. For two successive nonzero rows, the leading 1 in the higher row is
further to the left than the leading 1 in the lower row.
4. Every column that contains a leading 1 has zeros everywhere else.
1.4.2 Gauss Jordan Method
Here, our aim is to solve the system of linear equations is to get diagonal
matrix by using some operations on rows.

1. Write the system in matrix form.

2. Interchange rows if necessary to obtain a non-zero number in the first row,
first column.
3. Use a row operation to get a 1 as the entry in 𝑎11
4. Use row operations to make all other entries as zeros in column one.
5. Interchange rows if necessary to obtain a nonzero number in the second
row, second column. Use a row operation to make this entry.
6. Use row operations to make all other entries zeros in column two.
7. Repeat step 5 for row 3, column 3. Continue moving along the main
diagonal until you reach the last row, or until the number is zero.

15
The final matrix is called the reduced row-echelon form.

Example 2: Solve the following system by the Gauss-Jordan method.

2x+y+2z=10, x+2y+z=8, 3x+y-z=2.
Solution
We write the augmented matrix.
2 1 2 10
[1 2 1 8 ]
3 1 −1 2
−𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒,
1 −1 1 2
[1 2 1 8]
3 1 −1 2
𝑅1 − 𝑅2 , 3𝑅1 − 𝑅3
1 −1 1 2
[0 −3 0 − 6]
0 −4 4 4
−1 1
𝑅 and 𝑅3
3 2 4
1 −1 1 2
[ 0 1 0 2]
0 −1 1 1
𝑅2 + 𝑅3
1 −1 1 2
[0 1 0 2]
0 0 1 3
𝑅2 + 𝑅1
1 0 1 4
[0 1 0 2 ]
0 0 1 3
−𝑅3 + 𝑅1 , give,
1 0 0 1
[0 1 0 2]
0 0 1 3
Clearly, the solution is
x=1, y=2 and z=3.

Exercise1.3

1. Solve the following system of equations using Gauss elimination method.

x + y + z = 9,2x + 5y + 7z = 52, 2x + y – z = 0.

2. Solve the following linear system using Gaussian elimination method.

4x – 5y = -6, 2x – 2y = 1.

16
3. Using Gauss elimination method, solve:
2x – y + 3z = 9, x + y + z = 6,x – y + z = 2.
4.Use Gauss-Jordan elimination to solve the system:
x + 3y + 2z = 2, 2x + 7y + 7z = −1, 2x + 5y + 2z = 7.
5.Use Gauss-Jordan elimination to solve the system:
x + y + z = 1,3x + 2y + z = 4, 6x -y +3z = 2.
5.Use Gauss-Jordan elimination to solve the system:
-x + 2y + 6z+7w =15, 3x -6y -3w = −9, x + 6z-w = 5.
6.Use Gauss-Jordan elimination to solve the system:
2x + y +2w =4, y+3w =3,-x + 2y+4w = 3,y+7z +2w = 2.

17
 Chapter two
Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
2.1. Inverse Functions

An inverse function or an anti-function is donated by f 1 and is defined as a

function that maps the output of the original function back to its original input.

That is if, f ( x)  y then f 1 ( y )  x .

In simple words, if any function f takes x to y then, the inverse of f will take
y to x as shown in figure 2.1

Figure 2.1

NOTE: The inverse function returns the original value for which a
function gave the output. That is if, f 1 ( x)  y equal to x  f ( y ) .

Conditions for Existence

The inverse function f 1 exists if and only if the original function f is

bijective, or (one-to-one and onto) since, every value x corresponding to
only one y values shown in figure 2.2. This can be verified using the
horizontal line test and Algebraic test, where a function is one-to-one if
every horizontal line intersects the graph at most once as shown in figure
2.3.

18
 Figure 2.2

The horizontal line test

isn’t one to one f ( x) is one to one f ( x)

f 1 ( x) Does not exist. f 1 ( x) exist.

Figure 2.3

Note: the graph y  x 2 meet horizontal line at more than one point so, haven’t
inverse f 1 ( x) , but the graph y  x3 meet horizontal line at only one point , so
the inverse exist and the function is (one-to-one and onto).

Algebraic test

The function is f one to one if for all a , b in the domain of the function if
f ( a )  f (b )  a  b

19
Example (1) The function f ( x)  3 x  1 is one to one since

f ( a )  3a  1 , f (b)  3b  1  f ( a )  f (b)

 3a  1  3b  1  a  b

How to Find the Inverse of a Function?

The inverse function f 1 ( x) is a reflection of a graph of function in the line
y  x and can by calculated in algebra by using the following steps.

 Step 1: Replace f ( x)  y
 Step 2: Interchange x and y
 Step 3: Solve for y in terms of x
 Step 4: Replace y with f 1 ( x) and the inverse of the function is
calculated.
Example (2)

(3x  5)
i ) f ( x)  ii) f ( x)  3 x  2
2
3x  2
iii ) f ( x )  x 3 iv) f ( x) 
x 1
Solution

(3x  5)
i) Replace f ( x)  y  y 
2
(3 y  5)
Interchange x and y  x 
2
(2 x  5)
Solve for y in terms of x  y 
3
1 (2 x  5)
Replace y with f ( x)  f 1 ( x) 
3
ii) f ( x)  3 x  2  y  3 x  2  x  3 y  2

21
 1
 x  ( y  2)  x3  ( y  2)  y  ( x3  2)  f 1 ( x)  ( x3  2)
3

1
 y  x  f 1 ( x)  3 x iii) f ( x)  x3  y  x 3  x  y 3
3

3x  2 3x  2 3y  2
iv) f ( x)  y x  xy  x  3 y  2
x 1 x 1 y 1
2 x 2 x
 y( x  3)  2  x  y   f 1 ( x) 
x 3 x 3

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

Definition: Two functions f and g are inverse functions if

f ( g ( x))  g ( f ( x))  x

21
Example (3) Determine if the following functions are inverse to each
1
other? y  2 x  5 , and y  ( x  5)
2
Solution

1
Let f ( x)  2 x  5 and g ( x)  ( x  5)
2

1
(1) g ( f ( x))  g (2 x  5)  ((2 x  5)  5)  x
2

1 1
(2) f ( g ( x))  f ( ( x  5))  2( ( x  5))  5  x
2 2

From (1) and (2)  g ( f ( x))  f ( g ( x))  x .

1
Then, the two functions y  2 x  5 and y  ( x  5) are the inverse of each
2
other.

Applications
Inverse functions are used in various fields, such as trigonometry to find the
measure of an angle given the sine value, and in calculus to find the derivative
of an inverse function as shown in the next section.

Exercises (2.1)

Find the inverse of the following functions, sketch the graph of f and use a
reflection to sketch the graph of f 1 .

(1) f ( x )  x  4 (2) f ( x )  x3

x4 2
(3) f ( x)  (4) f ( x) 
2x  5 x 1

(5) f ( x)  x 2  8 x  22 ; x  4 (6) f ( x)  x 2  1 ; x  0

22
2.2. Natural Logarithmic Functions

In this section, we will study two important functions in math and

science: the natural logarithm function ln x and the exponential function e x
.The natural logarithm and the exponential function are inverse of each other as
shown in figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4

So, to understand the exponential function e x , we must explain the natural

logarithm function ln x first.

Definition:

The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm function and donated

in the form Loge x  ln x , e is Euler constant and e=2.718281828.

The Natural Logarithm as an Integral

For x  0 the natural logarithm function defined as

x 1
ln x  
1 t
dt

1 x 1
For x  1 , the integral
1 t 
dt  ln x just the area under the curve y  from
t
x1 11
t  1 to t  x as shown in figure 2.5a. For x  1 , we find  dt   dt
1 t xt

, so in this case it is the negative of the area under the curve from. t  x to
t  1.

23
 a
b

Figure 2.5
11 1 e
Note: (1) ln1  1 t dt  0 (2) ln e  
1 t
dt  1

2.2. 1 Derivative of Natural Logarithm Function

From fundamental theorem of calculus, if the function f is continuous on

 a b  and a  c  b , then for every x   a b 

d x
dx c
f (t ) dt  f ( x)

So, from this theorem, we get

d x1 1
ln x   dt  ; x  0
dx 1 t x
Figure 2.6

Note that, the derivative of y  ln x is positive for every x  0 , the function is

continuous, increasing and one to one also the graph is concave down as

shown in figure 2.6. The domain of logarithmic function is x  0 , and

undefined for x  0 also, its range are all real numbers (, ) .

Remark: Let u be a differentiable function of x such that u  f ( x)

24
 d d du 1 du
(1)Chain rule: ln u  ln u   , u0
dx du dx u dx
d d dx 1 dx 1
So, ln x  ln x.  
dx dx dx x dx x

d f ( x) d 1
ln  f ( x)   , ln x  , x  0 .
dx f ( x) dx x

Therefore

(2) Absolute value

d 1 du u
ln u   , u0
dx u dx u
d d 1
For x  0 , ln x  (ln x ) 
dx dx x
d d 1 d 1 1
For x  0 , ln x  (ln(  x))  (  x)  ( 1) 
dx dx x dx x x

d f ( x) d 1
ln f ( x)  , ln x  , x  0
dx f ( x) dx x

Therefore

The function of y  ln x is shown in figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7

25
 dy
Example (1) Find for the following functions:
dx

(i) y  ln(7 x 2  3x  5) (ii) y  ln x 2  2 x  1 (iii ) y  ln sin x

1
(iv) y  ln( ) (v) y  cos(ln x) (vi) y  ln lnsec x
x

Solution

dy d 1 d 14 x  3
(i )  ln(7 x 2  3x  5) = (7 x 2  3 x  5) 
dx dx (7 x  3x  5) dx
2
(7 x 2  3x  5)

dy d 1 d 2 2x  2
(ii)  ln x2  2 x  1 = 2 ( x  2 x  1)  2
dx dx x  2 x  1 dx x  2x  1
dy d 1 d cos x
(iii)  lnsin x= sin x   cot x
dx dx sin x dx sin x
dy d 1 1 d 1 1 1
(iv)  ln( )= ( )  x( 2 ) 
dx dx x 1 dx x x x
x
dy d d sin(ln x)
(v)  cos(ln x)   sin(ln x) ln x  
dx dx dx x
dy d 1 d 1 1 d
(vi)  ln(lnsec x)  lnsec x  sec x
dx dx lnsec x dx lnsec x sec x dx
sec x tan x

sec x lnsec x
dy
Example (2) Find for the following functions:
dx

(i)ln ln ln x 2 (ii)ln x  3 (iii )ln( x 2  4)3

26
Solution

dy d 1 d 1 1 d
(i)  ln(ln ln x2 ) = 2
ln(ln x2 )  2 2
(ln x 2 )
dx dx ln ln x dx ln ln x ln x dx
1 1 2x 2
 ( ) 
ln ln x2 ln x 2 x 2 x ln x 2 ln ln x 2
dy d 1 d 1 1 1
(ii )  ln x  3  x3  
dx dx x  3 dx x  3 2 x  3 2( x  3)
dy d 1 d 2 3( x 2  4)2 (2 x) 6x
(iii)  ln( x  4)  2
2 3
( x  4) 3
 
dx dx ( x  4)3 dx ( x 2  4)3 ( x 2  4)

Properties of logarithmic function

Logarithmic function has important properties that make them

useful for facilitating expressions and solving equation as clearing in the

following:

For any numbers p  0, q  0,

1. Product rule ln( pq)  ln p  ln q.

p
2. Quotient rule ln( )  ln p  ln q.
q
3. Power rule ln p q  q ln p.

dy
Example (3) Find for the following functions:
dx

3x 2  5 x  9
(i) y  ln( ) (ii ) y  ln 4 (2 x  6)3 (iii ) y  ln ( x 4  1)3 x 2  3 
7x  5  

Solution

By using Properties of logarithmic function

(i ) From property 2,

y  ln(3 x 2  5 x  9)  ln(7 x  5)

27
dy d
 (ln(3x2  5x  9)  ln(7 x  5))
dx dx
dy 1 d 1 d
 (3 x 2
 5 x  9)  (7 x  5)
dx (3x 2  5 x  9) dx (7 x  5) dx
dy d d
 ln(3x2  5x  9)  ln(7 x  5)
dx dx dx
dy 6x  5 7
 
dx (3x  5 x  9) (7 x  5)
2

(ii) Use property 3,

3
3
y  ln(2 x  6)  ln(2 x  6) ,
4
4
dy 3(2) 3
  .
dx 4(2 x  6) 4( x  3)

(iii ) Use property 1,

1
y  ln( x  1)  ln x  3  ln( x  1)  ln( x  3)
4 3 2 4 3 2 2

1
 ln( x 4  1)  ln( x 2  3)
2

dy 3(4 x3 ) 1 2 x 12 x3 x
 4   4  2 .
dx ( x  1) 2 ( x  3) ( x  1) ( x  3)
2

dy
Example (4) Find for the following functions:
dx

 3 3

 x 2 3 sin 3x  ( x  1)
2 5
 ( x  1) 4 
(i) y  ln   (ii) y  ln (iii) y  ln 2 3
 ( x 2  1)10  x sin x 
 
2
2 x 5
 

28
Solution
By using Properties of logarithmic function

(i ) Use property 2, y  ln( x2 3 sin3x )  ln 2 x2  5

Use property 1, y  ln x  ln 3 sin3x  ln 2 x  5

2 2

1 1
y  ln x  ln(sin3x)  ln(2 x  5)
2 3 2 2

1 1
Use property 3, y  2ln x  ln(sin3x)  ln(2 x2  5)
3 2
dy 2 3(cos3 x) 4x
Differentiate,   
dx x 3(sin 3 x) 2(2 x 2  5)

dy 2 2x
  cot3x 
dx x (2 x 2  5)
1
 ( x 2  1)5  2 1  ( x 2  1)5 
(ii ) y  ln  2 10 
 ln  2 
 ( x  1)  2  ( x  1)10 
1
2
1

  ln ( x 2  1)5  ln( x2  1)10  5ln ( x2  1)  10ln( x 2  1)
2

dy 5  2x 2 x  10 x  1 2 
  2 2 2 )  
( x  1)  2  ( x 2  1) ( x 2  1) 
)
dx 2  ( x  1)

dy  1 2 
 5x  2  2 )
dx  ( x  1) ( x  1) 
3 3
(iii) y  ln( x  1)  ln x sin x  ln( x  1)   ln x 2  lnsin 3 x 
3 4 2 3 3 4

dy 3(3x 2 ) 2 3cos x 9x2 2

      3cot x
dx 4( x  1) x sin x 4( x  1) x
3 3

2.2.2 Logarithmic differentiation (implicit functions)

Logarithmic differentiation can be used for

29
 1. Functions with Variable Bases like as :
2
x x , e x ,(sin x) cos x , ( ln x) ln x ,.......
x5
2. Functions with Products and Quotients like as :
(1  10 x 2 ) x 2  1

The method of solution by applying the following steps

For given function y  f ( x) or y   f ( x)

g ( x)

1. Take the natural logarithmic of both sides.

2. Expand using properties of logarithm.
3. Differentiate both sides.
4. Multiply by y on both sides
5. Replace y by f ( x) .

dy
Example (5) Find for the following functions:
dx

( x 2  1) 3 x 2  1 ( x 2  1) 2 x  1 sin 2 x 3 tan 2 x
(i ) y  (ii ) y  (iii) y 
x3 sin x 2 ( x 4  1)( x  2) (sec x  1) 2

Solution
( x 2  1) 3 x 2  1
(i) y 
x3 sin x 2
Step (1) Take the natural logarithmic of both sides

( x 2  1) 3 x 2  1
ln y  ln
x3 sin x 2
Step (2) Expand using properties of logarithms

 
ln y  ln ( x 2  1) 3 x 2  1  ln x 3 sin x 2  
ln y  ln( x 2  1)  ln 3 x 2  1   ln x 3
 ln sin x 2 
1
ln y  ln( x2  1)  ln( x2  1)  3ln x  lnsin x2
3
 
Step(3) Differentiate both sides with respect to x .

31
 1

ln y  ln( x2  1)  ln( x2  1)  3ln x  lnsin x2
3

1 2x 2x 3 2 x cos x 2
y  2  (  )
y ( x  1) 3( x 2  1) x sin x 2
Step (4) Multiply by y on both sides
 2x 2x 3 2 x cos x 2 
y  y  2  ( 
sin x 2 
)
 ( x  1) 3( x  1) x
2

( x 2  1) 3 x 2  1
Step (5) Replace y by f ( x)  .
x3 sin x 2

( x 2  1) 3 x 2  1  2 x 2x 3 2 x cos x 2 
y   ( x 2  1) 3( x 2  1) x  sin x 2 ) 
  (
x3 sin x 2  
dy ( x 2  1) 3 x 2  1  2 x 2x 3 2 x cos x 2 
  ( x 2  1)  3( x 2  1)  ( x  sin x 2 ) 
dx x3 sin x 2  

( x 2  1)2 x  1
(ii ) y  4
( x  1)3 ( x  2)

( x 2  1)2 x  1
ln y  ln 4
( x  1)3 ( x  2)

  
ln y  ln ( x 2  1)2 x  1  ln ( x 4  1)3 ( x  2) 
ln y  ln( x 2  1)2  ln x  1  ln( x 4  1)3  ln( x  2)

1
ln y  2ln( x 2  1)  ln( x  1)  3 ln( x 4  1)  ln( x  2)
2

1 2(2 x) 1 3(4 x3 ) 1
y  2   4 
y ( x  1) 2( x  1) ( x  1) ( x  2)
 4x 1 12 x3 1 
y  y  2   4  
 ( x  1) 2( x  1) ( x  1) ( x  2) 

31
 ( x 2  1) 2 x  1  4 x 1 12 x3 1 
y  4   
( x  1)3 ( x  2)  ( x 2  1) 2( x  1) ( x 4  1) ( x  2) 
dy ( x 2  1) 2 x  1  4 x 1 12 x3 1 
 4   
dx ( x  1)3 ( x  2)  ( x 2  1) 2( x  1) ( x 4  1) ( x  2) 


sin 2 x3 tan 2 x
(iii ) y 
(sec x  1) 2

sin 2 x3 tan 2 x
ln y  ln
(sec x  1)2

 
ln y  ln sin 2 x3 tan 2 x  ln(sec x  1) 2

ln y  ln sin 2 x 3  ln tan 2 x  2 ln(sec x  1)

ln y  2ln sin x 3  ln tan 2 x  2 ln(sec x  1)

1 2(3x 2 )cos x3 2(2)sec 2 2 x 2sec x tan x

y   
y sin x3 tan 2 x (sec x  1)
sin 2 x3 tan 2 x  6 x 2 cos x3 4sec 2 2 x 2sec x tan x 
y   
(sec x  1) 2  sin x3 tan 2 x (sec x  1) 
dy sin 2 x3 tan 2 x  6 x 2 cos x3 4sec 2 2 x 2sec x tan x 
  
dx (sec x  1) 2  sin x3 tan 2 x (sec x  1) 

dy
Example (6) Find for the following functions:
dx

(ii) y   cos x  (iii) y   ln x  (iv) y  1  cos x 

ln x sin x tan x
(i) y  x2 x

Solution

(i ) y  x 2 x

Step (1) Take the natural logarithmic of both sides

ln y  ln x 2 x

Step (2) Expand using properties of logarithms, ln y  2 x ln x

Step (3) Differentiate both sides with respect to x

32
1 2x
y  2ln x   2(ln x  1)
y x
Step (4) Multiply by y on both sides

y  2 y (ln x  1)

Step (5) Replace y by f ( x) .

dy
 2 x2 x (ln x  1)
dx

(ii) y   cos x 
ln x

ln y  ln  cos x 
ln x

ln y  ln x ln cos x .

Differentiate both sides with respect to x

1 1   sin x 
y  ln cos x  ln x  
y x  cos x 

1   sin x  
y  y  ln cos x  ln x  
x  cos x  

dy 1 
 cos xln x  ln cos x  ln x tan x 
dx x 

(iii ) y  (ln x)sin x

ln y  ln(ln x)sin x  sin x ln(ln x)

Differentiate both sides with respect to x

1 1 sin x
y  cos x ln(ln x) 
y x (ln x)

 1 sin x 
y  y  cos x ln(ln x)  
 x (ln x) 

33
dy  sin x 
 (ln x)sin x  cos x ln(ln x)  
dx  x(ln x) 

(iv) y  (1  cos x) tan x

ln y  ln (1  cos x) tan x

ln y  tan x ln (1  cos x)

Differentiate both sides with respect to x

1  sin x
y  sec2 x ln (1  cos x)  tan x
y (1  cos x)

dy  sin x 
 (1  cos x) tan x sec 2 x ln (1  cos x)  tan x .
dx  (1  cos x ) 

2.2.3 Integration of Natural Logarithmic Function

From the derivatives of Natural logarithmic function

d f ( x) 1
ln f ( x)  , and ln x  , x  0
dx f ( x) x

The integral form take the following formula

f ( x)
 f ( x)
dx  ln f ( x)  c,

1
 x dx  ln x  c
Example (7) Evaluate the following integrals

1 3x 2  1 (ln x) 2 sin x  cos x

i) dx ii )  3 dx iii)  dx iv)  dx
4x  1 x x x sin x  cos x
Solution

1 1 4 1
i) dx   dx = ln 4 x  1  c
4x  1 4 4x 1 4

34
 3x 2  1
ii )  dx  ln x3  x  c
x x
3

(ln x) 2 1 1
iii )  dx   (ln x) 2 dx = (ln x)3  c
x x 3

sin x  cos x (sin x  cos x)

iv) dx   dx   ln sin x  cos x  c
sin x  cos x sin x  cos x
Remark:
 f ( x)
n 1

 f ( x) f ( x) dx  c
n

n 1

Example (8) Evaluate the following integrals

sec2 x x 2 csc2 x  sec x tan x

i) dx ii)  dx iii)  dx iv)  dx
tan x  1 1 x x x ln x cot x  sec x

Solution

sec2 2 x 1 2sec 2 2 x 1
i) dx =  dx  ln(tan 2 x  1)  c
tan 2 x  1 2 tan 2 x  1 2
3
x 2 3 x 2 2 x 2
ii)  dx   dx   dx  ln(1  x x )  c
1 x x 3 2(1  x x ) 3 1 x x 3
1
2 1
iii)  dx  2 dx  2 x dx  2ln(ln x)  c
x ln x x ln x ln x

csc2 x  sec x tan x (csc 2 x  sec x tan x)

iv)  dx    dx   ln(cot x  sec x)  c
cot x  sec x cot x  sec x

Try by yourself:

x 2  7 x  12 x 2  3x  2 x2  4
i)  dx ii)  dx iii)  dx
x3 x 1 x
The natural logarithmic function can be applied to find expressions for the
integration of some trigonometric function as follows:

35
 1)  tan x dx  ln sec x  c

2)  cot x dx  ln sin x  c

3)  sec x dx  ln sec x  tan x  c

4)  csc x dx  ln csc x  cot x  c

To proof this expression:

sin x  sin x
1) tan x dx   cos x dx    cos x dx   ln cos x  c
1 1
 ln cos x  c  ln  c  ln sec x  c
cos x

cos x
2) cot x dx   sin x dx =ln sin x  c
(sec x  tan x) (sec x  tan x)
3)  sec x dx   sec x dx   sec x dx
(sec x  tan x) (sec x  tan x)
(sec x 2  sec x tan x)
= dx  = ln sec x  tan x  c
(sec x  tan x)

(csc x  cot x) (csc x  cot x)

4)  csc x dx   csc x dx   csc x dx
(csc x  cot x) (csc x  cot x)
(csc2 x  csc x cot x)
=  (csc x  cot x)
dx  = ln csc x  cot x  c

Example (9) Evaluate the following integrals

i )  (tan 3x  sec3 x) dx ii)  csc 2 x(1  csc 2 x) dx
tan(ln x 2 )
iii )  x cot x dx
2 3
iv)  dx
x

36
Solution

1 1
i) (tan3x  sec2 x) dx   3tan3x dx   2sec2 x dx
3 2
1 1
= ln sec3x + ln sec2 x  tan 2 x  c
3 2
1
ii)  csc 2 x(1  csc 2 x) dx   2(csc 2 x  csc 2 2 x) dx
2
1
 
 ln csc 2 x  cot 2 x  cot x  c
2

1 2 1
iii) x 2 cot x3 dx   x cot x 3
dx  ln sin x3  c
3 3

tan(ln x 2 ) 1 2 1
iv)  dx   tan(ln x 2 )dx  ln secln x 2  c
x 2 x 2
Exercise (2.2)

dy
(I)Find for the following functions:
dx

(1) y  ln( x 2  3 x 2  1) (2) y  ln( x 4 +1) (3) y  ln ln x

(4) y  ln 1  2 x 2 (5) y  ln ln ln x (6) y  ln(tan x)

(7)ln x2 +  ln x  (8) y  ln csc x  cot x (9) y  ln tan x  sec x

2

1 1
(10) y  ln  (11) y  sin(ln x) (12) y  ln(sin 2 x)
x ln x
3
(13) y  ln ln(sec x 2 ) (14) y  ln sin x 2 (15) y  ln x 2  2 
 

(16) y  ln ln cos x (17) y  ln x2  2 x  1 (18) y  ln( x2  x )

37
(19) y  ln(1  sin x) (20) y  sec(1  ln x) (21) y  tan( x  ln x)

ln x  1
(22) y  ln( x  ln x ) (23) y  (24) y  ln x3  ln  
x  ln x  x3 

(25) y  ln 7 x + 3
ln x (26) y  ln 5 x  9 (27) y  4 (2 x  3)3

(II) Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the given point .
(1) y  ln( x 2  3x  1) at (3,0)

(2) y  x 2 ln x at (1,0)

dy
(III)Find for the following functions:
dx

x 1
(1) y  ln 4 (2) y  ln ( x3  12) 2 3 x 2  1 
x4  1  

 ( x 2  1) 3 x 2  1  ( x  1)3
(3) y  ln   (4) y  ln
 x 3
sin x 2
 ( x 2  1)6

(5) y  x x (6) y  xsin x

x 2x  1
(7) y   sin xln x (8) y 
e x sin 3 x
3
( x  1)
3 4
(9) y  (10) y  (2 x 4  1) tan x
x 2 sin 3 x

(11) y  (1  x 2 ) tan x (12) y  (5 x 2  4)5 ( x 3  1) 2

(13) y  ( x 2  1)3 x 2  1 (14) y  ( x  1)( x 4  1)

(5 x 2  4)5 csc3 x
(15) y  (16) y  ( x 2  1) 2 x 2  1
( x 2  1)5 ( x 4  1)3

38
(17) y  7 ( x  1)3 ( x 4  1) (18) y  3 ( x3  1)4 2 x 2  1

( x 2  1)( x3  5)
(19) y  (20) y  (1  x 2 ) (1 x )
( x  1)( x  1)

(21) y  (3  cos x)csc x (22) y  (sec x  ln x) x

(23) y  (1  x 4 )cot x (24) y  (cot x) csc x

(25) y  (ln x  sin x) x (26) y  ln x cot x

2

(28) y  (ln(sec x)  tan x) x

3
(27) y  (cot x)ln x
2


(Iv)Let f ( x)  cx  ln(cos x). For what value of c is f ( )  6?
4
(v) Evaluate the following integrals

x2  2x  3 x2  4 x
1)  3 dx 2)  dx 3)  dx
x  3x 2  9 x x x 1
2

sin x  cos x sin 2 x sec 2 3x

4)  dx 5)  dx 6)  dx
sin x  cos x 1  sin 2 x 2  tan 3 x

dx sin x cos x sin 2 x

7)  8)  dx 9)  dx
x 3 ln x 3  cos 2 x 3  cos 2 x
1 dx csc3x cot 3x
10)  dx 11)  12)  dx
x (1  x ) x(1  ln x) 2  csc3x

13)  tan 7 x dx 14)  sec x(1  sec x) dx 15)  (cot 2 x  csc5 x) dx

cot(ln x3 )
16)  x sec x dx
2 3
17)  dx 18) x3 csc x 4 dx
x

39
2.3. Natural Exponential Function

The inverse function of the natural logarithmic function f ( x)  ln x is

called the Natural exponential function and is denoted by
1
f ( x)  e or exp( x) as shown in figure 2.8.
x

Figure 2.8

That is, y  e x if and only if x  ln y .

Inverse relationship
The inverse relationship between the natural logarithmic function and the
natural exponential function can be summarized as shown.

ln(e x )  x and eln x  x

Properties of Natural Exponential Function

1- The domain of f ( x)  e is (, ) and range is (0, )

x

2- The function f ( x)  e x is continuous, increasing, and one to one

on its entire domain.
3- The graph of f ( x)  e x is concave upward on its entire domain.
lim e x  0, lim e x  , e x  0.
x x

41
Exponential Function Rules

For any real numbers p, q.

Product rule: e p eq  e pq

ep
Quotient rule: q  e
p q
(e p )q  e pq  (eq ) p
e
Power of a Power rule : (e p )q  e pq  (eq ) p

Negative Exponent rule : e p  1p .

e
Zero rule : e0  1

2.3.1 Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function

Let y  e x , then ln y  x.

Differentiate both sides with respect to x

1 dy dy
Therefore,  1, then  y  ex .
y dx dx

If u be differentiable function of x such that u  f ( x) and by using the Chain

rule:

d x x d u u du
(1) e e (2) e e .
dx du dx

d
Generally e f ( x)
 e f ( x ) f ( x)
dx

Example (1)

i) y  e x ii) y  x3e x
4 2

iii) y  e x ln x
2
iv)ln(sin e x )

41
Solution

dy x4 d 4
e x  4 x3e x
4
i)
dx dx
dy dx3 x2 d 2
ii )  e  x3 e x  3x 2e x  x 3 (2 x)e x =3x 2e x  2 x 4e x
2 2 2 2

dx dx dx
x
dy de x d 2 xe x
iii )  ln x  e
2
ln x  e ln x  2
2 x 2

dx dx dx x
2
dy d 1 d cos e x d x2
iv)  ln(sin e )  x2
2 (sin e ) 
x2
2 e
dx dx sin e x dx sin e x dx
x2
x 2 cos e
 2 xe 2  2 xe
x2
cot e x2

sin e x
Example (2)

4e7 x x 2 1
i) y  ii ) y  e
7x  4
iii) y  3e x  5e3 x3 x iv) y  e 2 x (sec x)
2

Solution

dy 4(7 x  4)(7e7 x )  4e7 x (7) 28e7 x (7 x  4)  28e7 x

i)  =
dx (7 x  4)2 (7 x  4)2
196 xe7 x  112e7 x  28e7 x 196 xe7 x  84e7 x
 
(7 x  4)2 (7 x  4) 2
e x 1
2
dy x 2 1 d
ii)  e x 1 
2
(2 x)
dx x 2 x2  1
dy
 3e x  5(3  6 x)e3 x3 x  3e x  (30 x  15)e3 x3 x
2 2
iii)
dx
d d
iv) y  e2 x (sec x)  e2 x (sec x)  sec x e2 x  e2 x sec x tan x  2e2 x sec x
dx dx
 e 2 x sec x(tan x  2)

2.3.2 Natural exponential differentiation (implicit functions)

Natural exponential differentiation used for given f unctions contains

e xy ,sin( xy ),ln( xy ),...

42
 1. Use implicit differentiation to differentiate xy to get y  xy .
2. Collect y terms together
3. Solve the equation for y .

Example (3)

i ) 7 y 2  e3 xy  8 x ii ) e xy tan xy  1

iii ) The equation of the curve is ye2 x  y 2e x  2

dy y 2e x  2 ye 2 x
Show that  2x
dx e  2 ye x

Solution

i ) Use implicit differentiation to differentiate xy to get y  xy .

d
14 y y  e3 xy (3xy)  8
dx
14 y y  e3 xy (3 y  3 x y)  8

14 y y  3 ye3 xy  3e3 xy x y  8 Collect y terms together

y(14 y  3e3 xy x)  8  3 ye3 xy

dy 8  3 ye3 xy
y   Solve the equation for y
dx (14 y  3e3 xy x)

. ii ) e xy tan xy  1
d xy d
e tan xy  e xy tan xy  0
dx dx
d d
e xy ( xy) tan xy 2  e xy sec2 ( xy) xy  0
dx dx

e xy ( y  xy) tan xy  e xy sec 2 ( xy )( y  xy)  0

ye xy tan xy  xy e xy tan xy  ye xy sec 2 ( xy )  xye xy sec 2 ( xy )  0

43
 y( xe xy tan xy  xe xy sec 2 ( xy ))  ( ye xy tan xy  ye xy sec 2 ( xy ))

dy ( ye xy tan xy  ye xy sec2 ( xy ))

dx ( xe xy tan xy  xe xy sec2 ( xy ))

iii ) ye 2 x  2 ye 2 x  (2 yye x  y 2e x )  0

ye 2 x  2 ye 2 x  2 yye x  y 2e x  0

y(e 2 x  2 ye x )  2 ye 2 x  y 2e x  0

y(e 2 x  2 ye x )  y 2e x  2 ye 2 x

y 2e x  2 ye2 x dy y 2e x  2 ye2 x
y  2 x   2x
(e  2 ye x ) dx e  2 ye x

2.3.2 Integration of Natural Exponential Function

The formula of integration can be obtained from the formula of the derivative
of the natural exponential function as follows

e dx  e x  c , If u  f ( x) then  ueu du  eu  c
x

 f ( x)e dx  e f ( x )  c
f ( x)
General ,

Example (6) Evaluate the following integrals

 x e dx e
3
2 x 5x
i) ii ) dx

1
 cos2 x e dx e
tan x cos2 x
iii) iv) sin 2 x dx

Solution
1 1 x3
3
i) 3 x 2 x3
e dx  e +c
3
1 1
ii)  5e5 x dx  e5 x  c
5 5

44
 1
 cos2 x e dx =  sec x e dx  e  c
tan x 2 tan x tan x
iii)

1 1
 2e sin2x dx  ecos 2 x  c
cos 2 x
iv)
2 2

Example (7)Evaluate the following integrals:

tan(e2 x ) e x  e x
i)  e2 x dx ii )  e x  e x dx
 e (1  sin(e )) e 1  e x dx
x x x
iii) dx iv)

Solution

tan(e2 x )
i)  2x
dx   e2 x tan(e2 x ) dx  ln sec e2 x +c
e
e x  e x
ii)  x  x dx  ln(e x  e  x )  c
e e

 e (1  sin(e )) dx   (e  e x sin(e x )) dx
x x x
iii)

  e x dx   e x sin(e x )dx
 e x  cos e x  c
1 3
2
e 1 e dx   e (1  e ) dx  (1  e )  c
x x x x 2 x 2
iv)
3

Exercise (2.3)

dy
(I)Find for the following functions:
dx
1) y= xe x  e x 2) y  ecos x ln x 3) y  x 2e x  2 xe x  2e x
2  x2 e x  e x
4) y  x e 5) y  ln(cot e ) x
6) y  ln
2
 x2 ex  1
7) y  e ln x 8) y  e sin x
ln x 2
9) y   x
e 1

45
10) y  5e2 x x 11) y  (1  x)e1ln x 12) y  x 2esec x
2 2

x1
13) y  e tan x
14) y  1  esec x 15) y  x4e

x 3 2 e x  e x
16) y  (e  e ) x
17) y  x  x 18) y 
e e 2

1  ex
19) y  ln 20) y  e x (sin x  cos x) 21) y  e x tan 2 x
1  ex

3
 x2 3e8 x
22) y  e +ln x  1
x2 23) y  e tan(e
x
) 24) y 
8x  3

dy
(II)Find for the following functions:
dx

1)2 x 2  e xy  10 2)e y sin x  x 2  y 2

2

3)e x  y  e x  y  4)1  ln xy  e x  y

5) xe y +ye x =1 6)e xy  x 2  y 2 0

7)1  ln xy  e x  y 8) xe y +ye x =1

9) xe y  10 x  3 y  0 10)e xy sin xy  10

 y2
11) ln( x  y )  e x 12) xe y  tan xy  1
2
=0

13)e x  y  cos xy  x 2 14)e y ln xy  x 2

15)ln(cot e x )  e y  2 x 2 y 16)e x sin y  e y cos x  2 x 2 y

2

17)e  e  2 x
y y
18) x 2  e xy  y 2  1

46
19)e y  y  ln 2 x 20) tan e y  x  x 2

(III) Evaluate the following integrals:

 (e  e ) dx x e
2x 2 x 3 x 4
1) 2) dx

 (e  e2 x )2 dx e e
2x x 2x
3) 4) dx
x2
5)  e 7 x2
dx 6)  xe 3
dx
1
ex
7)   2 dx 8)  e x cos e x dx
x

9) ln(e3 x1 ) dx 10) e x cos e x dx

(e2 x  1) 2 csc2 (e2 x )

11)  dx 12)  dx
ex e2 x

sin(e2 x ) csc2 (e2 x )

13)  2 x dx 14) dx
e e2 x

csc2 (e2 x )
3
x 2 e6 x
15) dx 16) dx
1  e6 x
3
e2 x

e2 x 1  e2 x
17)  dx 18) 2 x dx
1  e2 x e
19) csc2 x ecot x dx 20) e x (1  cot e x ) dx

x 1
e
21) dx 22) e2 x 1  e2 x dx
x
e3 x 1
23) 
1  e3 x
dx 24) 
e x 1  e x
dx

cos x ecsc x
25)  26)  xe3 x tan e3 x dx
2 2
dx
sin 2 x

47
2.4 General Exponential and logarithmic Functions

2.4.1 General Exponential Function

Definition: The general exponential function is defined as

y  a x , a  0 , and a  1 .
x ln a 
can written as y  a  e
x
Also,

Where a is the base and must be positive real number greater than zero.

x is an independent variable and can be any real number.

The natural exponential function y  e x with base (e  2.718) is special case

of the general exponential function.

Basic rules of General Exponential Function

The general exponential function y  a x , a  0 have basic rules as:

Product rule: a x y  a x . a y
x y ax
Quotient rule: a  y
a
Power of power rule: a  x y
 a xy

x 1
Negative rule: a  .
ax

a0  1 ,  ab   a xb x
x

Derivative of the General Exponential Function

Let y  ax , then ln y  ln a x

 ln y  x  ln a 

Differentiate both sides with respect to x

48
 1 dy dy
Therefore,   ln a  , then  y  ln a  put y  a x
y dx dx

dy
Then, dx  a  ln a 
x

If u is a differentiable function of x such that u  f ( x) ,by using the

Chain rules

d x d u du
(1) a  a x  ln a  (2) a  au  ln a  .
dx du dx
General form

d
 a  ln a  f ( x)
f ( x) f ( x)
a
dx

dy
Example (1) Find for the following functions:
dx

i) y  7 x ii ) y  52 x x
2

iii ) y  9sec x iv) y  2cos x 4 x

3

Solution

dy d x dx
i)  7 = 7 x  ln 7  = 7 x  ln 7 .
dx dx dx
dy d 2 x x2 d
 = 52 x x (ln5) (2 x  x2 )  (2  2 x)(ln5) 52 x x .
2 2
ii) 5
dx dx dx
dy d sec x d
iii)  9  9sec x  ln9  sec x  9sec x  ln9  sec x tan x
dx dx dx
dy d d  3  d 3
iv)  2cos x 4 x   2cos x  4 x   4 x  2cos x
3

dx dx  dx   dx 

 d  3  3 d 
  2cos x  ln 2  cos x  4 x   4 x  ln 4  x3  2cos x
 dx   dx 

49
 
  2cos x  ln 2  sin x   4x  4 x  ln 4   3x2  2cos x
3 3


 2cos x sin x  ln 2  4 x  4 x  3 x 2   ln 4  2cos x
3 3

dy
Example (2) Find for the following functions:
dx

i) y  10csc x cot x3 ii) y  7 x 42 x

3 2

4
8x
iii) y  6 sec x 2
ln x 3
iv) y= 3
ex
Solution

dy d tan x  d tan x  d  tan x

i)  10 sec x3 =  10  cot x3 +  sec x3 10
dx dx  dx   dx 

 10tan  ln10  sec2 x cot x3  3x210tan x sec x3 tan x3

dy d x3 2 x2
7 4 = 7 x 42 x  ln 7  (3x2 ) +7 x 42 x  ln 4  (4 x)
3 2 3 2
ii) =
dx dx
sec x 2
dy 2 6
iii )  6 sec x 2
 ln 6  sec x tan x (2 x)ln x + 3x 3
2 2 3

dx x
3
 (2 x)6sec x (ln 6)sec x 2 tan x 2 ln x3  6sec x
2 2

x
d x d x
8  8x
3 4 4 3
ex e
e x 8 x (ln8)(4 x3 )  8 x e x (3 x 2 )
3 4 4 3
dy dx dx
iv)  =
 
2 3
dx e x 3
e2 x

e x 8x ( ln8 (4 x3 )  3x 2 )
3 4 4
x
dy 2 8
 3  ( ln8  (4 x )  3 x ) x3
3

dx e2 x e
Integration of General Exponential Function
The integration formula can be obtained from the derivative formula of general

exponential function as follows

51
  a  ln a  dx  a  c , If u  f ( x) then
x x

 a  ln a  u du  a c
u u

General ,  f ( x) a
f ( x)
 ln a  dx  a f ( x)  c
Example (3) Evaluate the following integral,

i )  7 x dx ii ) x 2 5x dx
3

3
9ln x
iii )  sec 3x 10
2 tan 3 x
dx iv)  dx
x
Solution

1 7x
i)  7  ln 7 dx  7  ln 7 dx 
 ln 7  
x x
c
 ln 7 
3
1 1 5x
ii)  x 5 dx  3x 5  ln 5dx 
3 ln 5 
2 x3 2 x3
c
3  ln 5
1 1 10tan 3 x
iii)  sec 3x 10
3 ln10  
2 tan 3 x
dx = 2
3sec 3x 10 tan 3 x
ln10dx = c
3  ln10 
3 3
9ln x 1 1 ln x3 1 9ln x
iv)  3 9  ln9  dx =
3 ln 9   x
dx = c
x 3  ln9 

Example (4)

5x
i ) 10 sin10 dx
x x
ii ) dx
5x  1

2 x  8x
iii)  dx iv) 6 x 1  6 x dx
2x
Solution
1 1
i ) 10 x sin10 x dx    ln10 10 x sin10 x dx   cos10 x  c
 ln10   ln10 
5x 1 5x 1
ii)  dx =   ln 5  dx  ln(5x  1)  c
5 1
x
 ln 5 5 1
x
 ln 5
51
 2 x  8x 2x 8x (23 ) x
iii)  dx   2x dx   2x dx   dx   2x dx
2x
1 1
  dx   (2ln 2) 2 2x
dx  x  22 x  c
(2ln 2) (2ln 2)
1 3
iv)  6 x 1  6 x dx 
1
(ln 6) 
(ln 6)6 x
 
1  6 x 2
dx 
2 1
3 (ln 6)
  +c
1  6 x 2

2.4.2 General Logarithmic Function

The general logarithmic function is defined as the inverse of the general exponential

function and has the form

y  log a x iff x  ay

Where, a is the base of the logarithmic and a  0, a  1

Common Logarithmic and Natural Logarithmic function.

1) Common logarithmic: if base=10 then y  log x

2) Natural Logarithmic :if base= e then loge x  ln x

Relation between Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Let y  log a x then x  a y

By taking the natural logarithmic for both sides, we get

lnx  ln a y  lnx  y ln a

Since, y  loga x then lnx  loga x ln a

Therefore,
lnx
log a x 
 ln a 

Basic rules of General logarithmic Function

52
The general logarithmic function y  log a x has the basic rules as the natural

exponential function and can be expressed as:

1) Product rule: loga xy  loga x  loga y.

x
2) Quotient rule: log a ( )  log a x  log a y.
y
3) power rule: log a x n  nlog a x.
log a x
4) Change of Base Formula: log b x  .
log a b

Derivative of General logarithmic Function

The derivative formula can be obtained by relation between logarithmic and

exponential Functions as

d d lnx 1 1
log a x  =
dx dx  ln a   ln a  x

d d ln f ( x) 1 d
log a f ( x)   ln f ( x)
dx dx  ln a   ln a  dx
1 f ( x)

 ln a  f ( x)

Example (5)

i ) y  log 4 x 2 ii ) y  log 5 ( x3  1)

iii) y  log 7 tan x iv) y  log8 4 3x  1

53
Solution

dy 1 d 1 2
i)  ln x 2 
dx  ln 4  dx  ln 4  x
dy  1  d 1 3x 2
ii)    ln( x  1) 
3

dx  ln 5  dx  ln 5 ( x3  1)
dy 1 d 1 sec2 x
iii)  ln tan x =
dx  ln 7  dx  ln 7  tan x
dy 1 d 4 1 1 d 1 1 3
iv)  ln 3x  1  ln(3 x  1) 
dx  ln8 dx  ln8 4 dx  ln8 4 (3x  1)
Example (6)

i) y  log9 cot 4 x ii) y  log 7 sec e x

iii ) y  3log9 x iv ) y  (log 2 x ) 2

Solution

1 4  ln 4  2 x
x
dy 1 d
i)  ln cot 4  
x
csc 4
dx  ln 9  dx  ln 9  cot 4 x
dy 1 d 1 x sec e x tan e x 1
ii )  ln sec e 
x
e = e x tan e x
dx  ln 7  dx  ln 7  sec e x
 ln 7 
dy d 1 1
iii )  3log9 x log 9 x  3log9 x
dx dx  ln 9  x
dy d 1 1
iv)  3(log 2 x) 2 (log 2 x)  3(log 2 x) 2
dx dx  ln 2  x
Exercise (2.4)

dy
I) Find for the following functions:
dx
1) y  11x 2) y  8tan x 3) y  7 x 4
2 3

4) y  ln(4 x ) 5) y  3sec 2 x 6) y  2cot x3 x

2

54
 ln(2 x )
7) y  5 +ln(3 )
ex x2
8) y  8 sin x
4 cos x
9) y 
3x
10) y  sec(2 x +e x ) 11) y  9 ln(2 x 1) 12) y  15cot x  10csc x
13) y  ln(5x +e2 x ) 14) y  3ln x +ln3x 15) y  tan(8 x  e x )
2 2

3x
16) y  4 tan x esec x 17) y  3cot 3x  cot e x 18) y  x
e
19) y  log 3 ( x3  2) 20) y  log 4 (2  x5 ) 21) y  log8 (2 x  5 x)
2

22) y  log 6 (e x  x 2 ) 23) y  log 7 (cos x  x) 24) y  (log8 x)3

3

x2  1
25) y  log 6 (cot x  3x ) 2
26) y  log 7 x  1 5
27) y  log 7
x2  1
1 1
28) y  log 6 7 x3  1 29) y  log 3 2
+ 30) y  log9 3sin x
x log3 x 2
31) y  10log3 sin x 32) y  log 3 sec5 x  esin x 33) y  3x log 2 e x
2

II) Evaluate the following integrals

1)  x 2 9 x dx 2)  sec 2 x 8tan x dx
3

5x
3)  2 x 7 4 x dx 4) 
2
dx
5x  1
5)  (4 x  3 x ) dx 6)  (2 x  2 x ) 2 dx
7)  (2 x  2 x ) 2 dx 8) 2 x tan(2 x ) dx
9)  7 x cot(7 x ) dx 10)  a  x sec(a  x ) dx
ax
11) dx 12) 10 x 4 10 x  1 dx
a 1
x

( x  2)
8 2(ln x2)
13) dx 14)  dx
x x
cos(34 x )
15)  6 x 6 x  1 dx 16)  dx
34 x
8x  16 x
2
x csc9 x
17)  dx 18) dx
9 x
2
8x
19)  sin 2 x 5cos 2 x dx 20)  3e e x dx
x

2x
21)  (2+csc 3x 5 2 cot 3 x
) dx 22)  x dx
2 1

55
 2.5 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
We have already explored some essential applications of exponential and

logarithmic functions. In this section, we study some important applications in

more depth, including radioactive isotopes and Newton’s Law of Cooling.

2.5 .1 Modeling Exponential Growth and Decay

Exponential functions can be used to effectively model the decline or decay of

a population over time.

Exponential Growth (population)

We may choose the exponential growth function:

N (t )  N 0e kt Where N 0 is equal to the value at time zero, e is Euler’s constant,

and k is a positive constant that determines the rate (percentage) of growth.

Example (1) A population of bacteria doubles in size every hour. If the culture

started with 10 bacteria, find a model that describes the population size after of

the bacteria after t hours. Determine how many bacteria there will be after 10

hours.

Solution

Bacteria growth is exponential.  The amount at time zero  N0  10

To determine the rate (percentage) of growth, we must find k and by using the
fact that after one hour  t  1 . Since the population doubles from 10 to 20. The
formula is derived as follows:

N (t )  N 0e kt

56
 20  10ek (1)  2  ek  ln 2  k

 
t
So, the equation that the bacteria growth is N (t )  10eln(2)t  10. eln 2  10.2t
.

The population of bacteria after ten hours is 10240 .

Example (2) Population of California

The projected populations (in thousands) of California from 2015 through 2030
canbe modeled by y  34,696 e0.0097 t ,where t represents the year with t  15
corresponding to 2015. At what rate will the Population be changing in 2020?

Solution

We can calculate the derivative when you can estimate that the rate of change
in2020. Then the derivative of the model is

dy
 (0.0097)(34,696) e0.0097 t
dt
=336.55e0.0097 t

The rate will the Population be changing in 2020with t  20

= 408.6 Thousand people per year.

(2) Doubling Time

The model represents the population size after a given amount of time t .

N 0 is the initial population size and d is the time it takes for the population to

t
double in size. N (t )  N 0 2 d

Example (3) Cancer cells sometimes increase exponentially. If a cancerous

growth contained 300 cells last month and 360 cells this month, how long will

57
it take for the number of cancer cells to double? Round your answer to the
nearest tenth.

Solution

Let t time in months, at the initial size of the population t  0 , we are given
two pieces of data: last month, (0, and 300) and this month, (1, 360).
t
For equation of the growth. Using the form N (t )  N 0 2 , N 0  300
d

1
Then, 360  300 2 d

1
360
2 d
300
1
1.2  2 d

Take the natural logarithmic of both sides

 d1  1
ln(1.2)  ln  2   ln(1.2)  ln  2   d ln(1.2)  ln  2 
  d

ln  2 
Then, d  d  3.8 months
ln(1.2)

(3) Radioactive Decay and Half-Life

 ln  2  
 t
The model M (t )  M 0e  h 
represents the amount of material (mass) left

after a given amount of time t . M 0 is the initial mass size and h is the half-life of

the material.

Example (4) The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years.

Express the amount of carbon-14 remaining as a function of time t .

58
 A bone fragment is found that contains 20% of its original carbon-14. to the

nearest year, how old is the bone?

Solution
 ln 2 
 t
The function that describes this continues decay is M (t )  M 0e  5730 
(i)
Since the percentage of carbon-14 in all living things is 100 and the percentage
of carbon-14 after some amount of time t , (which we are trying to find) is 20%.
Using decimals for the percent,  M 0  1, M1 (t )  0.2
 ln  2  
 t
From (i), M (t )  M 0e  5730 

 ln  2    ln  2  
 t  t
0.2  1. e  5730 
 0.2  e  5730 

Take the natural logarithmic of both sides

 ln  2    5730 
ln  0.2     t  t     ln  0.2   t  13,305.
 5730   ln  2  

Then, the bone fragment is about 13305 years.

(4) Newton’s Law of Cooling

Exponential decay can also apply to temperature. The temperature of an object, T in

surrounding air with temperature Ts will behave according to the formula

T (t )  D0e  kt  Ts
where t is time, D0 is the difference between the initial temperature of the
object and the surroundings. k is a constant, the continuous rate of cooling of
the object.

59
Example (5)

A cheesecake is taken out of the oven with an ideal internal temperature

of 165° F , and is placed into a 35°F refrigerator. After 1010 minutes, the

cheesecake has cooled to 150°F. If we must wait until the cheesecake has

cooled to 70° F before we eat it, how long will we have to wait?

Solution

Because the surrounding air temperature in the refrigerator is 35 degrees, the

cheesecake’s temperature will decay exponentially toward 35, following the
equation

T (t )  D0e  kt  35
Since the initial temperature is 165  T (0)  165

 k  0
165  D0e  35  D0  130

After 10 minutes  T (10)  150  150  130e    35

 k 10

 k 10  k 10 115

 115  130 e e 
130
Take the natural logarithmic of both sides

 115 
ln  
 115   130 
 10k  ln    k 
 130  10

Then, the equation for the cooling of the cheesecake is

 1  23  
  ln  t 
T (t )  130 e  10  26  
 35

The time the cheesecake will take for the temperature to cool to 70 degrees is
 1  23    1  23  
  ln  t    ln  t 
70  130 e  10  26  
 35  35  130 e  10  26  

61
  1  23  
35   ln  t 
  e 10  26  
130
Take the natural logarithmic of both sides

 35 
ln  
 35  1  23   130 
 ln     ln   t  t  1  107
 130  10  26   23 
 ln  
10  26 

It will take about 107 minutes for the cheesecake to cool to 70° F .

2.5 .2 application of logarithmic function

Given two values A , and B , to determine how many orders of magnitude

A is greater than B ,Difference in orders of magnitude =  A

Log   and the
B
Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS) is used for earthquakes.

Moment Magnitude Scale for Earthquakes

For an earthquake with seismic moment S , a measurement of earth movement, the

MMS value, or magnitude M of an earthquake, is:

 S 
 Where S0  10 is a baseline measure for the seismic moment.
2 16
M  Log 
3  S0 

Example (6) If one earthquake has a MMS magnitude of 6.0, and another has a
magnitude of 8.0, how much more powerful (in terms of earth movement) is
the second earthquake?

Solution

Since the first earthquake has magnitude 6.0, we can find the amount of earth
movement for that quake, which we'll denote S1 . The value of S0 is not
particularity relevant, so we will not replace it with its value

61
 2 S  2 S 
M Log    6.0  Log  1 
3  S0  3  S0 
3 S  S 
 6.0    Log  1   Log  1   9
2  S0   S0 

S1
 109   S1  109 S0
S0

9
So, first earthquake has about 10 times more earth movement than the
baseline measure, S0 . Similarly, for the second earthquake, S2 with a
magnitude of 8.0,

2 S  S  S 
8.0  Log  2   Log  2   12   2   1012
3  S0   S0   S0 

Comparing the earth movement of the second earthquake to the first,

S2 1012 S0
 S2  10 S0   9  103  1000
12

S1 10 S0

The second value's earth movement is 1000 times as large as the first
earthquake.

Example (7) If the concentration of hydrogen ions in a liquid is doubled, what

is the effect on pH?

Solution

Suppose C is the original concentration of hydrogen ions, and P is the original

pH of the liquid. Then P   Log  C  . If the concentration is doubled, the new
concentration is 2C . Then the pH of the new liquid is

PH   Log  2C 

Using product rule of logarithmic

PH    Log 2  LogC    Log 2  LogC

62
Since , P   Log  C  then, PH   Log 2  P  PH  P  0.301

Exercise (2.5)

I) One earthquake has magnitude of 3.0. If a second earthquake has twice as

much earth movement as the first earthquake, find the magnitude of the second
quake.

(II) A factory’s production of y units in a day t is governed by the

relation y  400(10  e0.8t ) .What is the rate of change of production with
respect to time on the fifth day?
III) Make report mention and explain different applications of
exponential and logarithmic Functions in our world life.

63
 Chapter three

Inverse Trigonometric, Hyperbolic and Inverse

Hyperbolic functions

3.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

When we try to find the inverse trigonometric functions, we have a

slight difficulty because the trigonometric functions are not one-to-one, they
don’t have inverse functions. The difficulty is overcome by restricting the
domains of these functions so that they become one-to-one.

You can see from (fig.3.1a) that the sine function y  sin x is not one-
to-one (use the Horizontal Line Test). However, if we restrict the domain to the

   
interval  , , then the function is one-to-one and all values in the range of
 2 2 
y  sin x are attained see (fig.3.1b). The inverse function of this restricted sine

fig.31a fig.3.1b

1
function 𝑓 exists and is denoted by sin x or arcsin. It is called the
inverse sine function or the arcsine function.

1
Since the definition of an inverse function says that f ( x)  y  f ( y )  x
 
we have sin 1 x  y  sin y  x,  y .
2 2

64
 The inverse cosine function is handled similarly. The restricted cosine
function f ( x)  cos x, 0  x   , is one-to-one see fig.3.2a and so it has an
1
inverse function denoted by cos x or arccos cos 1 x  y  cos y  x

, 0  y   . The inverse cosine function, cos 1 , has domain [1,1] and range
[0, ] . Its graph is shown in fig.3.2b.

Fig.3.2a fig.3.2b

The tangent function can be made one-to-one by restricting it to the interval

   
 2 , 2  . Thus the inverse tangent function is defined as the inverse of the

 
function f ( x)  tan x ,  x  fig.3.3a. It is denoted by tan 1 or arctan
2 2
 
tan 1 x  y  tan y  x,  y  . The inverse tangent function, has
2 2
   
domain R and range  , . Its graph is shown in fig.3.3b.
 2 2 

fig.3.3a
fig.3.3b

65
Moreover, fig.3.4 shows the graphs of all inverse trigonometric functions with
its domain and range

fig.3.4

NOTE:
but , but

but

3.1.1 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

To derive these functions, we often use implicit differentiation and

trigonometric identities, offering a unique perspective on how inverse
trigonometric functions behave and interact. Mastering these derivatives not
only enhances our calculus skills but also deepens our understanding of the
intricate relationship between angles and their trigonometric counterparts.

66
 1
Now we will find the derivatives of sin x

Let y  sin 1 x this mean that sin y  x

Differentiating sin y  x implicitly with respect to x, we obtain

dy dy 1
cos y 1 
dx dx cos y

cos y  1  sin 2 y as sin 2 y  cos 2 y  1

dy 1 1 1
    
dx cos y 1  sin 2 y 1  x2

d 1
Therefore (sin 1 x) 
dx 1  x2

The formula for the derivative of the arctangent function is derived in a

1
similar way. If y  tan x , then tan y  x . Differentiating tan y  x implicitly
with respect to x, we have

dy dy 1
sec2 y 1 
dx dx sec2 y

sec 2 y  1  tan 2 y

dy 1 1 1
   
dx sec y 1  tan y 1  x 2
2 2

d 1
Therefore (tan 1 x) 
dx 1  x2

1 1
The inverse trigonometric functions sin x and tan x occur most
frequently. The derivatives of the remaining four are given in the following
table. The proofs of the formulas are left as exercises.

67
 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions as u  f ( x) :
d 1 du d 1 du
(sin 1 u )  (cos1 u ) 
dx 1  u 2 dx dx 1  u 2 dx
d 1 du d 1 du
(tan 1 u)  (cot 1 u) 
dx 1  u 2 dx dx 1  u 2 dx
d 1 du d 1 du
(sec1 u )  (csc1 u ) 
dx u u 2  1 dx dx u u 2  1 dx

EXAMPLE 2 Differentiate

1
i) y  ii ) y  sec 1 x 5
sin 1 x
iii ) y  ln(cos 1 2 x ) iv) y  tan 1 1  x

 sin 1 x     sin 1 x  
dy 1 2 1
Solution: i)
dx 1  x2
1

 sin 1 x  1  x2
2

ii )
dy
 sec1 x5  
1
 5x4
dx x x 1
5 10

5

x x10  1

1
iii)
dy
 ln(cos 1 2 x )  
1
1 x
  2 x ln 2
dx cos 2 1  22 x
2 x ln 2

cos 1 (2 x )  1  22 x

1
iv)
dy

tan 1 1  x   1

  2 1 x
2
dx 1 1 x
1

2 2  x 1  x

68
EXAMPLE 3

 
tan 1 x
Find y for y  cot 1 log(sin x)

Solution: take ln to both sides ln y  tan 1 x  ln cot 1 log(sin x)  

y
 ln  cot 1 log(sin x) 
1

y 1 x 2

1 1 cos x
 tan 1 x  1    ln(10)
cot log(sin x) 1   log(sin x) 2 sin x
 ln  cot 1 log(sin x) 
y   cot log(sin x)  1 tan 1 x

 1  x2

tan 1 x  ln(10)  cot x 

 1  
cot log(sin x) 1   log(sin x) 2 

EXAMPLE 4
1
Find y for y  xsin  tan 1 x note x x  eln x  e x ln x
x
x

1
xln x
Solution: y  esin  tan 1 x

1  ln x sin 1 x  1
y  esin xln x
   
 1 x
2 x  1  x2

3.1.2 Integration of Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

Integration of inverse trigonometric functions is an intriguing and

essential topic in calculus that extends our ability to solve a wide range of
1 1 1
problems. Inverse trigonometric functions, such as sin x, tan x andsec x
are not only fundamental in solving equations involving angles but also in
various applications that require integration techniques. Integrating these
functions often involves leveraging their derivatives and applying integration
by parts or trigonometric identities. The process can reveal elegant solutions to
otherwise complex integrals and help in solving problems related to areas,

69
volumes, and other applications in mathematics and physics. For instance, the
1
integral of tan x can be used to find areas under curves and solve differential
equations. Similarly, integrals involving sin 1 x and cos 1 x frequently appear
in problems related to probability, engineering, and mathematical modeling. By
mastering the techniques for integrating inverse trigonometric functions, one
gains powerful tools for tackling a wide variety of integrals, enhances problem-
solving skills, and deepens the understanding of the interplay between inverse
trigonometric functions and their applications. The above formulas for the
derivatives imply the following formulas for the integrals of inverse
trigonometric functions.

Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions as u  f ( x) :

u
 1  u2
du  sin 1 u  c

u
 1  u 2 du  tan u  c
1

u
 u u 2  1 du  sec u  c
1

EXAMPLE 5

Evaluate the following integrals:

e x dx dx
i)  ii) 
1  e2 x x (1  x)
dx dx
iii)  iv) 
x x6  1 a2  x2

e x dx e x dx
Solution: i)    sin 1 e x  c
1  e2 x 1  (e x ) 2

1
ii) 
dx
x (1  x)
 2 2 x 2 dx  2 tan 1
1 ( x)
 xc

71
  sec1  x3   x
1 dx 3x 2dx 1
iii)   
x x 6  1 3 x3 ( x3 )2  1 3

1
dx
dx dx x
iv)  a x
2 2

x2
 a
2
 sin 1    c
a
a 1 2  x
1  
a a

Hence from example 5 (iv) the general form of integrals of inverse

trigonometric functions will be.

Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions as u  f ( x) :

u u
 a u 2
du  sin 1    c
2
a
u 1 1  u 
 a2  u 2 du 
a
tan  c
a
u 1 1  u 
 u u 2  a 2 du  a sec  a   c

EXAMPLE 6

Evaluate the following integrals:

dx dx
i)  ii ) 
e  4e  x
x
x 9  (ln x) 2
tan(sec 1 x)dx sin 1 dx
iii )  iv) 
x x 1 2
1  x2

e x dx e x dx 1  e 
x
dx 1
Solution: i )  x
e  4e  x  e 2 x  4  (e x ) 2  4 2
   tan    c
2

1
dx
dx  ln x 
ii )   x  sin 1  c
x 9  (ln x) 2 9  (ln x) 2  2 

71
 tan(sec 1 x)dx 1
iii )   tan(sec1 x)dx  ln sec(sec 1 x)  c  ln x  c
x x 1 2
x x 1 2
f ( x)
f ( x )

sin x  1 2
sin 1 x dx 1
iv)   sin 1 x dx  c
1 x 2
1 x 2
f ( x) 2
f ( x )

Exercises (3.1)

I) Find y for the following function:

1
1 1
1) y  tan ln( x)  esin 2) y  ln ln sec x
x 3

1
3) y  tan(4cos x )  ln tan 1 (e x ) x
4) e sin
1
y  e y sin 1 x  y
1
1
5) y  cos(2ln x )  ecot (ln x )
6) y  (sec x )(cos x )
2 2 3

1
7) y  ln ln csc x
2
8) y  sin(4
ln x
)  ln sec1 (e x )
sin 1 x 1
9) y  (1  ln x) 10) y  log 2 tan 3
x

1
y  x tan  lnsin (e x ) 12) y  4cos
x 1
(ln x2 )
11)

1 x
13) (tanh1 x  sec2 x) x  y 14) y  (sin x)cos  csc1 3x

15) y   sec x 
1 cos 2 x
 lntan1 x 16) y  tanh 3x2

17) (tanh 1 x  sech x3 ) x2  y 18) y  cos( )   cos(x )  cos1 x

1 1

II) Evaluate the following integrals:

x
csc2 (tan 1 ) sin 1 x
1) 3 dx 2)  2 dx
 4  x2
9 x 2

72
3) 
1 dx 4) 
dx
52 x  9 sinh x tanh x 25  csch 2 x

5) 
1 dx 6) 
1 dx
x  25  x  ( x4  x2 )  sec1 x

sec(tan 1 x )  tan(tan 1 x ) cos1 x

7)  6 6 dx 8)  2 dx
36  x2 4  x2

9) 
5x dx 10) 
dx
9  52 x cos2 x 100 tan 2 x

tan 1 x x
11)  2 dx 12)  dx
x 4
2
( x  x ) sin x
2 4 1

csc(tan 1 x )cot(tan 1 x ) dx
13)  4 4 dx 14) 
x 16
2
x(4 (ln x 4 ) 2

2x e2 x dx
15)  5 dx 16) 
9  54 x e4 x e4 x

dx se c2 (tan 1 2 x )
17)  18)  3 dx
sin 1 x 16  x2 4 x2  9
4

19) 
dx 20) 
dx
tan x  sin 2 x 1 (4csc x  cot x cos x)

73
3.2 Hyperbolic Function

In Mathematic, the hyperbolic functions are similar to the

trigonometric functions (circular functions) and defined through algebraic
x
expressions that included the exponential functions e and its inverse

x e x  e x e x  e x
exponential functions e as or . The hyperbolic functions
2 2
are useful in various areas of mathematics such as calculus, geometry, and
differential equations.

3.2 .1 Definition of hyperbolic functions:

The basic hyperbolic functions are discussed as following:

e x  e x
Hyperbolic sine : (shin x)  shin x 
2

e x  e x
Hyperbolic cosine: (cosh x)  cosh x 
2

sinh x e x  e  x
Hyperbolic tangent: ( tanh x)   , x0
cos h x e x  e  x

From these three basic functions, the other functions such as hyperbolic
cosecant (cosech), hyperbolic secant (sech) and hyperbolic cotangent (coth)
functions are derived as following:

1 2
Hyperbolic cosecant: (csc h x)   x x , x  0 .
shin x e  e

1 2
Hyperbolic secant: (sec h x)   x x , x  0 .
cosh x e  e

cos h x e x  e  x
hyperbolic cotangent (coth x)   , x  0.
sinh x e x  e  x

74
 The basic hyperbolic functions formulas along with its graph functions are
given below

Hyperbolic identities

(1) sinh( x)   sinh x (2) cosh( x)  cosh x

(3)cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1 (4) 1-tanh 2 x  sec h 2 x

(5)coth 2 x  1  csc h 2 x (6)cosh 2 x  2sinh 2 x  1

1
(7)sinh 2 x  2sinh x cosh x (8)cosh 2 x  (cosh 2 x  1)
2
1
(9)sinh 2 x  (cosh 2 x  1) (10)sinh( x  y)  shin x cosh y  cosh x shin y
2
tanh x  tanh y
(11)cosh( x  y )  cosh x cosh y  shinx shin y (12) tanh( x  y ) 
1  tanh x tanh y

75
Example (1) Approximate the following to four decimal places:

(i) cosh(5) (ii ) csc h(1)

(iii) tanh(4) (iv )coth(7)

Solution

e5  e5
(i) cosh(5)   74.20995
2
1 2
(ii ) csc h(1)   1 1  0.8509181
sinh(1) e  e

sinh(4) e4  e4
(iii ) tanh(4)    0.9993293
cosh(4) e4  e4

1 cosh(3) e3  e ( 3)

(iv)coth(3)     1.0049698
tanh(3) sinh(3) e3  e ( 3)

3.3 .2 Derivatives of hyperbolic functions:

The derivatives of hyperbolic functions are similar to those of trigonometric

functions, but with differences in their signs. For six primary hyperbolic
functions

d d
(1) sinh x  cosh x (2) cosh x  sinh x
dx dx
d d
(3) tanh x  sec h2 x (4) coth x   csc h2 x
dx dx
d d
(5) sec h x   sec hx tanh x (6) csc h x   csc h x coth x
dx dx

Proof

d  e x  e x  1 x
   e  e   cosh x
d x
(1) sinh x  
dx dx  2  2

d  e x  e x  1 x  x
   e  e   sinh x
d
(2) cosh x  
dx dx  2  2

76
 d d  sinh x  cosh x cosh x  sinh x sinh x
(3) tanh x   
dx dx  cosh x  cosh 2 x
cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x 1
 2
 2
 sec h 2 x
cosh x cosh x

d d  cosh x  sinh x sinh x  cosh x cosh x

(4) coth x   
dx dx  sinh x  sinh x
sinh 2 x  cosh 2 x 1
 2
 2
  csc h 2 x
sinh x sinh x

d d  1   sinh x 1 sinh x
(5) sec h x    
dx dx  cosh x  cosh x
2
cosh x cosh x

  sec h x tanh x

d d  1   cosh x
(6) csc h x      csc h x coth x
dx dx  sinh x  sinh 2 x
1 cosh x

sinh x sinh x
In General, if u  f ( x) is differentiable, then

d du d du
(1) sinh u  cosh u (2) cosh u  sinh x
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
(3) tanh u  sec h2u (4) coth u   csc h2u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
(5) sec h u   sec hu tanh u (6) csc h u   csc h u coth u
dx dx dx dx

dy
Example (2) Find for the following functions
dx

(i ) y  cosh( x 4 ) (ii) y  csc h(e x ) (iii ) y  tanh(ln x)

2

1
(iv) y  sinh( x 2  1) (v) y  sec h( ) (vi ) y  coth( x )
x

77
Solution

dy d d
(i)  cosh x 4  sinh x 4 x 4  4 x3 sinh x 4
dx dx dx
dy d d 2
 csc h(e x )   csc h(e x )cot h(e x ) e x
2 2 2
(ii)
dx dx dx
 2 x e x csc h(e x )cot h(e x )
2 2 2

dy d 1
(iii)  sec h2 (ln x) (ln x)  sec h2 (ln x)
dx dx x
dy d
(iv)  sinh( x 2  1)  2 x cosh( x 2  1)
dx dx
dy d 1  1  1 1 1 1 1
(v)  sec h( )    2  sec h( ) tanh( )   2  sec h( ) tanh( )
dx dx x x  x x x  x x

dy d 1
(vi )  coth( x )   csc h 2 ( x )
dx dx 2 x

dy
Example (3) Find for the following functions
dx

(i) y  sec h( x4  1) (ii) y  coth(e x ) (iii) y  tanh(sin 1 x)

1
(iv) y  cos1 (cosh x) (v) y  sinh( ) (vi ) y  csc h(e x )
sin x
Solution

(i)
dy d
 sec h( x  1)  
dx dx
4 4 x3
2 x 14 
sec h x 4  1 tanh x 4  1   
dy d
(ii)  coth(e x )  e x csc h2e x
dx dx
dy d
(iii)  tanh(sin 1 x) =sech 2 sin 1 x 
d

sin 1 x 
1
sech 2 sin 1 x  
dx dx dx 1  x2

dy d 1 d  sinh x
(iv)  cos 1 (cosh x)  cosh x 
dx dx 1  cosh 2 x dx 1  cosh 2 x
dy d  1   1 d
  sin x 
1
(v)  sinh    cosh 
dx dx  sin x   sin x  dx

78
  1 
 cosh     sin x  
 sin x 
2
  cos x
2
sin x
 1 
cosh  
 sin x 
  csc x cot x cosh  sin x 
1

dy d 1
(vi )  csc h(e x )   e x csc h(e x )cot h(e x )
dx dx 2 x

3.2 .3 integration of hyperbolic functions:

The integrals of the standard hyperbolic functions are:

(1)  sinh x dx  cosh x +c. (2)  cosh x dx  sinh x +c

(3)  sech 2 x dx  tanh x +c. (4)  csch 2 x dx   coth x +c
(5)  sech x tanh x dx   sech x +c. (6)  csch x coth x dx   csch x +c

Example (4): Evaluate the following integrals

x (ii )  csc h 2 2 x dx
3
(i) sinh x 4dx

 sinh (iv)  cosh x csc h 2 x dx

2
(iii) 6 x dx

Solution

1
(i)  x3 sinh x 4dx   4x
3
sinh x 4dx  cosh x 4  c.
4
1
(ii)  csc h 2 2 x dx   2 csc h 2 2 x dx   coth 2 x  c.
2
1 1
 sinh 6 x dx   (cosh 2(6 x)  1) dx   (cosh(12 x)  1) dx
2
(iii )
2 2

1 1  1 1 
  12 cosh(12x )dx  1 dx    sinh12 x  x   c
2  12  2  12 
1
 sinh12 x  12 x   c
24

79
 1
(iv)  cosh x csc h2 x dx   cosh x dx  csc h x coth x dx   csc hx  c.
sinh 2 x

Remember:
1
cosh 2 x   cosh 2 x  1
2
1
sinh 2 x   cosh 2 x  1
2
cosh 2 x  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
 2cosh 2 x  1
 1  2sinh 2 x

Example (5): Evaluate the following integrals

1
(i) cosh 3 4 x dx (ii ) dx
cosh 2 4 x

(iii)  e x cosh x dx (iv ) 2 e2 x sinh e2 x dx

Solution

(i)  cosh 3 4 x dx   cosh4 x cosh 2 4 x dx   cosh4 x sinh 2 4 x  1 dx

  cosh4 x dx    cosh 4 x sinh 2 4 x  dx

4 cosh4 x dx    4 cosh 4 x sinh 2 4 x  dx  sinh 4 x  sinh 3 4 x  c

1 1 1 1

4  4 4 12

1 1 1
(ii) 
2
dx  2 sec h 2
2 x dx  tanh 2 x  c.
cosh 2 2 x 2

(e x  e  x )
dx    e2 x +1  dx  e2 x  x  c
1 1 1
(iii)  e x cosh x dx   e x
2 2 4 2

(e2 x  e2 x )
dx    e4 x +1  dx  e2 x  x  c
1
(iv)  2 e sinh e dx =2 e
2x 2x 2x

2 4

81
 Exercise (3.2)

( I ) Approximate the following to four decimal places:

(1) sech(5) (2) csc h(1.2) (3) tanh(1) (4)coth(7) (5) cosh(3)

(6) sinh(5) (7) tanh(0) (8)sec h(1) (9)csch(3.4) (10)coth(3)

(1) coth(1.4) (2) tanh(1) (3)sinh(4.2) (4)sec h(6) (5)cosh(ln 7)

dy
( II ) Find for the following functions
dx
(1) y  cosh( x3 ) (2) y  csc h( x 4 ) ( 3) y  x 2 tanh x

(4) y  ln  cosh x3  (5) y  x coth x (6) y  sec h(ln x)

(7) y  cosh(tan 1 x ) (8) y  tan 1 (sinh x) (9) y  sec1 (coth x 2 )

(10) y  e x sinh x (11) y  sec h2 x tan 1 x (12) y  sec1(lnsec h x)

(13) y  cosh(coth x 2 ) (14) y  ln x 2 csc h 1x 4 (15) y  ln(coth x 2 )

(16) y  ecoth x cosh(ln x3 ) (17) y  sinh 3 lnx (18) y  sin 1 (cosh e x )

2 2

( III ) Evaluate the following integrals

sinh 4 x
(1) x5 sec h2 x6 dx (2) csc h2 (5x  1) dx (3) dx
cosh 4 x  1

cosh x
(4)  dx (5) 3e3 x sinh3x dx (6)  e x cosh x dx
x
1
(7)  sinh 3 x cosh 2 x dx (8) tanh5x dx (9)  dx
sinh 2 7 x

81
 1
(10) (cosh 2 x  sinh 4 x) dx (11)  dx (12) x csc h2 (1  x 2 ) dx
cosh 2 5x
1 1 sec h 2 (ln x)
(13)  sec h x tanh x dx (14)  coth 3x csc h3x dx (15)  dx
4 4 x
cosh x cosh x
(16) dx (17)  dx (18)  coth5 x dx
cosh 2 x  1 2  3sinh x

82
3.3 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

The hyperbolic sine function is continuous and increasing for every 𝑥

and has a continuous increasing inverse function denoted by sinh−1 . Since
sinh 𝑥 is defined in terms of 𝑒 𝑥 , we might expect that sinh−1 can be expressed
in terms of the inverse ln 𝑥 of the natural exponential function.

3.4.1 Theorem

(i) sinh−1 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)

(ii) cosh−1 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1), 𝑥 ≥ 1
1 1+𝑥
(iii) tanh−1 𝑥 = ln , |𝑥| < 1
2 1−𝑥
−1 1+√1−𝑥 2
(iv) sech 𝑥 = ln , 0<𝑥≤1
𝑥

To prove (i),

𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦
𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦
𝑥=
2
𝑒 𝑦 − 2𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑦 = 0

𝑒 2𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 − 1 = 0

𝑦
2𝑥 ± √4𝑥 2 + 4
𝑒 =
2

𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 + 1

Since 𝑥 − √𝑥 2 + 1 < 0 and 𝑒 𝑥 is never negative, we must have

𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1

𝑦 = ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)

that is, sinh−1 𝑥 = ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)

In the next theorem 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥 ) , where 𝑔 is differentiable and 𝑥 is suitably

restricted.

83
 3.3.2 Theorem
1
(i) 𝐷𝑥 sinh−1 𝑢 = 𝐷𝑥 𝑢
√𝑢2 +1
1
(ii) 𝐷𝑥 cosh−1 𝑢 = 𝐷𝑥 𝑢, 𝑢>1
√𝑢 2 −1
1
(iii) 𝐷𝑥 tanh−1 𝑢 = 𝐷𝑥 𝑢, |𝑢| < 1
1−𝑢2
−1
(iv) 𝐷𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ−1 𝑢 = 𝐷𝑥 𝑢, 0<𝑢<1
𝑢√1−𝑢2

Example (1) Prove that

1
𝐷𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 =
√𝑥 2 + 1
Solution

𝐷𝑥 sinh−1 𝑥 = 𝐷𝑥 ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)

1 𝑥
= (1 + )
𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1

√𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝑥
=
(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)√𝑥 2 + 1

1
=
√𝑥 2 + 1
This formula can be extended to 𝐷𝑥 sinh−1 𝑢 by applying the chain rule.

Example (2) Find 𝑑𝑦 ⁄𝑑𝑥.

If (i) 𝑦 = sinh−1(tan 𝑥 ) (ii) 𝑦 = √cosh−1 𝑥

(iii) 𝑦 = tanh−1 sin 3𝑥 (iv) 𝑦 = sech−1 √1 − 𝑥

(v) 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑒 𝑥 (vi) 𝑦 = cosh−1 √𝑥

Solution (i): 𝑦 = sinh−1 (tan 𝑥 )

𝑑𝑦 1 1
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 √𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 1
2 2
√𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
1
= |sec 𝑥|2 = |sec 𝑥|
|sec 𝑥|

84
(ii): 𝑦 = √cosh−1 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 1
=
𝑑𝑥 2√cosh−1 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1

(iii): 𝑦 = tanh−1 sin 3𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
= (cos 3𝑥 )(3)
𝑑𝑥 1 − (sin 3𝑥 )2
3 cos 3𝑥 3
= 2
= = 3 sec 3x
cos 3x cos 3x

(iv): 𝑦 = sech−1 √1 − 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 −1 1
= (−1)
𝑑𝑥 2 2√1 −𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 √1 − (√1 − 𝑥)

1
=
2(1 − 𝑥 )√𝑥

(v): 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑒 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥 √(𝑒 ) + 1
𝑥 2

𝑒𝑥
=
√𝑒 2𝑥 + 1

(vi): 𝑦 = cosh−1 √𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 1
=
𝑑𝑥 2 2√𝑥
√(√𝑥) − 1

1
=
2√𝑥√𝑥 − 1

85
3.3.3 Theorem

1 𝑢
(i) ∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑢 = sinh−1 + 𝐶, 𝑎>0
√𝑎 +𝑢 𝑎
1 𝑢
(ii) ∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑢 = cosh−1 + 𝐶, 0<𝑎<𝑢
𝑢 −𝑎 𝑎
1 1 −1 𝑢
(iii) ∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑢 = tanh + 𝐶, |𝑢| < 𝑎
𝑎 −𝑢 𝑎 𝑎
1 1 |𝑢|
(iv) ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = − sech−1 , 0 < |𝑢| < 𝑎
𝑢√𝑎 2 −𝑢2 𝑎 𝑎

Example (3) Evaluate the following integrals:

1 𝑒𝑥
(i) ∫ √25+9𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 (ii) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
16−𝑒 2𝑥

1 1
(iii) ∫ √16𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 (iv) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
−9 𝑥√9−𝑥 4

Solution (i):
1 1 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ dx
√25 + 9𝑥 2 3 √52 + (3x)2

1 3𝑥
= sinh−1 +𝐶
3 5
(ii):

𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 1 −1
𝑒𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = tanh +𝐶
16 − 𝑒 2𝑥 42 − (𝑒 𝑥 )2 4 4

for |𝑢| < 𝑎 (that is, 𝑒 𝑥 < 4).

(iii):
1 1 4 1 4𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = cosh−1 +𝐶
√16𝑥 2 − 9 4 √(4𝑥)2 − 32 4 3

(iv):
1 1 2𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥√9 − 𝑥 4 2 𝑥 2 √32 − (𝑥 2 )2

11 𝑥2 1 𝑥2
=− sech−1 + 𝐶 = − sech−1 + 𝐶
23 3 6 3

86
 Exercise (3.3)

dy
(I) Find for the following functions
dx
(1) 𝑦 = sinh−1 5𝑥 (2) 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑒 𝑥

(3) 𝑦 = cosh−1 √𝑥 (4) 𝑦 = √cosh−1 𝑥

(5) tanh−1(−4𝑥 ) (6) 𝑦 = tanh−1 sin 3𝑥

(7) 𝑦 = sech−1 𝑥 2 (8) 𝑦 = sech−1 √1 − 𝑥

1 1
(9) 𝑦 = 𝑥 sinh−1 (10) 𝑦 = ∈
𝑥 sinh−1 𝑥 2

(11) 𝑦 = ln cosh−1 4𝑥 (12) 𝑦 = cosh−1 ln 4𝑥

(13) 𝑦 = tanh−1(𝑥 + 1) (14) 𝑦 = tanh−1 𝑥 3

(15) 𝑦 = sech−1 √𝑥 (16) 𝑦 = (sech−1 𝑥 )−1

(II) Evaluate the following integrls

1 1
(1) ∫ √81+16𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 (2) ∫ √16𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
−9

1 sin 𝑥
(3) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (4) ∫ √1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑑𝑥
49−4𝑥 2 𝑥

𝑒𝑥 2
(5) ∫ √𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (6) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
−16 5−3𝑥 2

1 1
(7) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (8) ∫ √5−𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥√9−𝑥 4

1 1
(9) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (10) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3−9𝑥 2 2𝑥√1−4𝑥 2

1 𝑥
(11) ∫ √1+𝑒2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (12) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
9−𝑥 4

1 √𝑥
(13) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (14) ∫ √1+𝑥3 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥√1+𝑥

−1 𝑑𝑥
(15) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (16) ∫
4𝑥−𝑥 2 (𝑥+2)√𝑥 2 +4𝑥+8

87
 Chapter four
Techniques of Integration
With several integration techniques at our disposal, the main task of
evaluating integration is deciding which technique to use.

4.1. Integration By Parts

This technique :is used to integrate a product of two functions, such as in these
examples:

e
1
2x
 sin xdx ,  x e dx ,  Ln x dx , cos x dx .
1 3 2x

Let u  f ( x ) and v  g( x ) be functions with continuous derivatives. Then the

integration by parts formula for the integral involving these two functions is:

 u dv  uv   v du (4.1)

3x
Example 1 Evaluate  xe dx

Solution: The possible choices for dv :

dx , x dx , e3x dx , x e3x dx . Thus, we let :

ux , dv  e3x dx
1
du  dx , v  e3 x
3
Then ,

e3 x e3 x
I  x 3x
e dx  x  dx
u dv
u 3 3 du
v v

88
 1 3x 1 3x 1 1
 xe   e dx  xe3 x  e3 x  c
3 3 3 9

NOTE: Our aim in using integration by parts is to obtain a simpler integral

than the one we started with. In example 1, if we assume

u  e3x , dv  xdx

1 2
du  e3x dx , v x
2

so integrating by parts (4.1) gives

1 2 3x
 xe dx  x e   x 2 e3 x dx .
3x

x e
2 3x
dx is a more difficult integral than the one we started with.
 /3

Example 2 Evaluate: 
o
x tan 2 x dx

 /3  /3  /3

 x tan x dx   x sec x dx  
2 2
Solution: x dx
o o o

 /3

Let I   x sec
2
x dx
o

ux , dv  sec 2 xdx

du  dx , v  tan x
 /3
 /3
x sec 2 x dx   x tan x 0  
 /3
I o
0
tan xdx

 /3
 sin x
 0
 /3
  x tan x 0
 /3
  dx  x tan x  ln | cos x |
0
cos x

89
  /3  /3  3
I  x sec 2 x dx   x.tan x   tan xdx    ln 2  1.2
 0 2
o

 /3


o
x tan 2 x dx  0.652

Example 3 Evaluate:  x ln x dx

Solution: In this example, if we choose u  x and dv  ln x dx , then dv

is not integrable, so we choose

u  ln x , dv  x dx
3
2
1 2x
du  dx , v 
x 3

2 32 2 32 1 2 32 2
 x ln x dx  x ln x   x
3 3 x
dx  x ln x   x dx
3 3

2 32 4 3
 x ln x  x 2  c .
3 9

 tan
1
Example 4 Evaluate: x dx

Solution: Suppose

u  tan 1 x , dv  dx

du 
1
dx , vx
x 1
2

1 2x
 tan 
1
x dx  x tan 1 x  dx
2 x 1
2

 x tan 1 x  Ln x 2  1  c

91
  sin x dx
x
Example 5 Evaluate e

Solution: Let u  ex , dv  sin x dx

du  e x dx , v   cos x

I   e xsin x dx  e x cos x   e x cos x dx (*)

I
1

Now,

Let u1  e x , dv1  cos x dx

du  e x dx , v1  sin x
Then ,

(**) I   e x cos x dx  e x sin x   e x sin x dx

1
I
Use (**) in (*) we get :

 e x cos x  e x sin x  I

 2 I  e x sin x  e x cos x

1 x
I   e xsin x dx  e  sin x  cos x   c
2

NOTE: To facilities the choice of u and dv. The following priorities must
apply

First Priority

If the integration contains either one of the following functions

logarithmic functions ( ln x , log a x ), Inverse trigonometric or
hyperbolic functions ( sin 1 x,..,sech 1 x ) Then we chose it as a u and the

91
 x
2
other integrand function as dv (See Examples 3,4) , (e.g. , log 3 x dx ,
u

x
2 1
tanh x dx ).
u

Second Priority

If the integration contains Polynomial function or algebraic functions we

chose as a u the other integrand function as dv ( See example 1)

Third Priority

If the integration contains Exponential function we chose as a u the other

integrand function as dv ( See example 5)

x
2
Example 6 Evaluate e5x dx .

Solution: Let : u  x2 , dv  e5x dx .

1
du  2 x dx , v  e5 x
5
Then :

1 2 5x 2
I   x 2 e5 x dx  x e   x e5 x dx . (***)
5 5
I1

we use integration by parts again to calculate I1 , ( As in example 1) then the

equation (***) becomes

1 2 5x 2  1 5x 1 
I   x 2 e5 x dx  x e   x e  e5 x 
5 5 5 25 

1 2 5x 2 5x 2 5x
 x e  xe  e c.
5 25 125

92
 x
5
Example 7 Evaluate sin x 3 dx

x sin x3 dx   x3 ( x 2 sin x3 ) dx
5
Solution:

Let u  x3 , dv  x 2 sin x 3 dx

1
du  3 x 2 dx , v  cos x 3
3

1 3
 dx  x cos x3   x 2 cos x3 dx
5 3
x sin x
3

1 3 1
 x cos x 3  sin x 3  c
3 3

 sinh
1
Example 8 Evaluate x dx .

Solution: Let u  sinh 1 x , dv  dx .

du 
1
dx , vx
1  x2

x
 sinh 1 x dx  x sinh 1 x   1  x2
dx

 x sinh 1 x  1  x 2  c .

3
Example 9 Evaluate  sec x dx

Solution: Let u  sec x , dv  sec 2 xdx

du  sec x. tan xdx , v  tan x and

integrate by parts as follows:

93
  sec x dx   sec x
3
sec 2 x dx
u dv

 sec x tan x   tan x  sec x tan x dx 

u .v v .du

 sec x tan x   sec x tan 2 x dx

2 2
Since tan x  sec x  1 , we obtain

I  sec x tan x   sec x sec 2

x -1 dx

 
 -  secxdx 
I   sec 3 x dx  sec x tan x    sec
3
xdx

 I 

 2 I  2  sec3 x dx  sec x tan x   sec xdx

1
I   sec3 x dx   sec x tan x  ln | sec x  tan x |  c
2

Example 10 First make a substitution and then use integration by parts to

evaluate the integrals

 

(a) e
cos t
sin 2t dt (b)   3 cos  2  d
0  2

Solution: (a) We choose x  cos t , dx   sin t dt

 

e
cos t
sin 2t dt  2  ecos t   sin t  cos t dt
0 0

Let u  x , dv  e x dx

du  dx , v  ex
94
   1 1

e
cos t
sin 2t dt  2  e cos t
  sin t  cos t dt  2  xe x
dx  2  xe x dx
0 0 1 1

1
2
 xe dx   xe    e dx 
1 1
x x x
1 1 e
1


4
 e sin 2t dt 
cos t

0
e .

(b) We choose x   2 , dx  2 d

  3 cos  2  d
 2

Let u  x , dv  cos x dx

du  dx , v  sin x
 

  cos   3
d  
1

2 2
2
x cos x dx
 2



x cos x dx   x sin x  2   sin x dx   1   2 


 2
 2


2  
  3 cos  2  d 
 2
4

Example 11 Evaluate the following integral with two different methods

 1  cos x dx

Solution:

First method: Let u  cos x  x  cos 1 u ,

1 1
dx  du  du
1 u 2
1 u 1 u

95
 du
Then  1  cos x dx   
1 u
 2 1  u  c  2 1  cos x  c

Second method: Multiply with the conjugate of 1  cos x in the numerator

and dominator inside the square root,

1  cos x 1  cos 2 x
Then  1  cos x dx   1  cos x  dx   dx
1  cos x 1  cos x
sin x
 dx  2 1  cos x  c
1  cos x

  x    x 
[Hint: cos x   2cos  2    1, sin x  1   2cos  2  
2 2

     
Try by yourself

I- Evaluate the following integrals

 x csc x cot x dx  (3)  cosh x dx

1
3
II- (1) (2) csc x dx

(4)  cos x dx 
(5) sin x ln cos x dx 
2
(6) x csc 3 x dx

  x  1  x  2  dx
10
(7)

II- If f ( x)  sin x , find the area of the region under the graph of f from

x=0 to x  
2

III- The region bounded by y  ln x, y  0 and x  e is revolved about y-

axis. Find the volume of the resulted solid.

4.1.1. Tabular integration (DI Method)

Tabular integration, also called the DI (Differentiate-Integrate) method, is

a way to integrate a function by repeatedly differentiating and integrating parts
of it. For this method to work, the term you pick for “u” has to eventually
become zero when you take successive derivatives.

96
Example 12 Find the integrals

 x cos x dx
2
a)  xe3x dx  x sec x dx ,
2
b) c)

Solution:

a) x e3x

1 3x
1 e
3

1 3x
0 e
9
3x 1 3x 1 3x
 xe dx  xe  e  c .
3 9
b) x sec2 x

1 tan x

0 Ln sec x

 x sec x dx  x tan x  Ln sec x  c  x tan x  Ln cos x  c .

2

1 1
x  cos 2 x
2 2

x 1
c) 1  sin 2 x
2 4

x2 1
0  cos 2 x
4 8

1 1  x2 x 1
 x cos x dx   x   cos 2 x  dx   sin 2 x  cos 2 x  c.
2

2 2  4 4 8
Try By your Self Evaluate the integrals


4 1
1

 x tan 3x
(i)  x 2 dx , (ii) x
2 3
(iii) x dx , sinh 2x dx
0 0 0

97
4.1.2. Reduction formulas for integrals

Sometimes the integrand is not only a function of the independent

variable, but also depends upon a number n (usually an integer). For example,
in  sin m x dx the integrand sin m x depends on x and m. Similarly, in  e x cos nx dx

, the integrand e x cos nx depends on x and n. The numbers n and m in these two
examples are called parameters. We shall discuss only integer parameter here.

 sin
m
Example 13 Find a reduction formula for x dx , hence use reduction

 sin
3
formula to evaluate x dx

Solution: Let

u  sin m 1 x , dv  sin xdx

du  (m  1)sin m  2 x cos x dx , v   cos x

I m   sin m x dx   cos x sin m1 x   m  1  sin m2 x cos2 x dx

Now, with the Pythagorean Identity, the cos-squared term can be rewritten as

 cos 2
x  1  sin 2 x  , then

I m   sin m x dx   cos x sin m1 x   m  1  sin m2 x 1-sin 2 x dx  

  cos x sin m1 x   m  1   sin m2 x dx   m  1   sin m x dx
Im

m1 x   m  1  sin m2 x dx

 sin x dx   m  1   sin x dx   cos x sin
m m


m x dx   1 cos x sin m1 x  m  1 sin m2 x dx

 sin  .
m m
Im I
m2

98
 Through the reduction formula for n= 3,

 1  2 2
      sin x dx
3
sin x dx   sin x cos x
 3 3

1 2 2
 sin x cos x  cos x  c
3 3

 tan
n
Example 14 Find a reduction formula for x dx .

 tan x dx   tan n  2 x tan 2 x dx

n
Solution:

Now, with the Pythagorean Identity, the tan-squared term can be rewritten as

tan 2 x dx   sec 2 x  1 and thus, the integral becomes

tan n 1 x
 tan
n2
x tan x dx   tan
2 n2
x  sec x  1 dx 
2
  tan n  2 x dx .
n 1

e
x
Example 15 Find a reduction formula for cos nx dx

Solution:

I   e x cos nx dx Let u  ex , dv  cos nx dx

sin nx
du  e x dx , v
n

1 x 1
I   e x cos nx dx  e sin nx   e x sin nx dx
n n
I1

I1   e x sin nx dx Let u  ex , dv  sin nx dx

 cos nx
du  e x dx , v
n
99
 1 x 1
. I1   e sin nx dx  e cos nx   e x cos nx dx
x

n n
I

Then
n 1
I e x sin nx  2 e x cos nx  C
n 12
n 1
1
I 2 e x  n sin nx  cos nx   C
n 1

x
n
Example 16 Find a reduction formula for cos mx dx , hence evaluate

 x cos3x dx
Solution: Let u  xn , dv  cos mx dx

sin mx
du  nx n 1 dx , v
m

1 n n
 x cos mx dx  x sin mx   x n 1 sin mx dx
n
, from the
m m
reduction formula (for n=1, m=3)

1 1
 x cos 3x dx  3
x sin 3 x   sin 3 x dx
3
1 1
 x sin 3 x  cos 3 x  c
3 9

x
n
Example 17 Find a reduction formula for sin mx dx , hence evaluate

x
2
sin 3x dx

Solution: Let u  xn , dv  sin mx dx

 cos mx
du  nx n 1 dx , v
m

111
 1 n n
 x sin mx dx  x cos mx   x n 1 cos mx dx ,
n

m m

from the reduction formula (for n=2, m=3)

1 2 2
x sin 3 x dx  x cos3 x   x cos3 x dx
2

3 3
1 2 2 2
 x cos3 x  x sin 3 x  cos3 x  c
3 9 27
Try By your Self Use integration by parts to derive the reduction formula
1 n2
(1)  
n2
sec n
x dx  tan x sec x  sec n  2 x dx, n  2 , hence evaluate
n 1 n 1
 sec x dx
3

 1  n 1  n 1
   cos x dx
n2
(2)
cos n
x dx    cos sin x   , hence evaluate
n  n 

2

 cos
5
x dx
0

Exercise (4-1)

(a) Evaluate the following integrals

ln x
 ye (2)  x 2 sin 4xdx 
y
(1) dy (3) dx
x2

(4) x
2
ln x dx (5)  e  x sin x dx (6) e
3x
cos 2 xdx .

(7)  1  sin x dx (8)  sin (ln x )dx (9)  x 3 cos(x 2 )dx .

(10)  x (2x  3) 99 dx (11)  tan -1 2t dt (12)  (ln x ) 2 dx .

x3
1 1

x e
3 x2
(13)  x 3x dx (14) dx (15)  dx .
2
0 0 x 1

111
(b) Use integration by parts to derive the reduction formula

n x n x n 1 x
(1)  x e dx  x e  n  x e dx .

(2)  (ln x ) n dx  x (ln x ) n  n  (ln x ) n 1 dx .

(c) Use reduction formula in Example (13) to show that

x sin 2 x
 sin x dx   c.
2
(1)
2 4

 
2
n  1 2 m2
0 
n 0
m
(2) sin x dx sin x dx .

(d) First make a substitution and then use integration by parts to evaluate the
integral

e  cos(ln x)dx .
x
(1) dx (2)

arcsin(ln x)
(3)  x ln 1  x  dx (4)  x
dx .

112
4.2. Trigonometric Integrals

In this section, we use trigonometric identities to integrate certain

combinations of trigo-nometric functions.

4.2.1 Integrals of Powers of Sine and Cosine

I- Strategy For Evaluating

 sin x dx &  cos n x dx

n

(a) If the power of both sine and cosine are odd save one sine or cosine factor

and use cos x  1  sin x, sin x  1  cos x , then use the rule of integration
2 2 2 2

u n 1
 u u dx  n  1  c .
n /

(b) If the power of both sine and cosine are even use the half-angle identities
1 1
cos2 x  1  cos 2 x  , sin 2 x  1  cos 2 x  .
2 2

It is sometimes helpful to use the identity

1
sin x cos x  sin 2 x
2

3
Example 1 Evaluate  cos x dx

Solution: Here we can separate one cosine factor and convert the remaining
cos2 x factor to an expression involving sine using the identity
cos 2 x  1  sin 2 x

 
cos3 x  cos2 x cos x  1  sin 2 x cos x . Then

3
 2
  2
 cos x dx   1  sin x cos x dx   cos x  cos x sin x dx 
1
 sin x  sin 3 x  c
3
113
 5 x dx
Example 2 Evaluate  sin

Solution: Here we can separate one cosine factor and convert the remaining
sin 4 x factor to an expression involving sine using the identity
sin x  1  cos x
2 2

 
2
sin5 x  sin 4 x sin x  1  cos2 x sin 3 x . Then

5 xdx  sin 4 x sinx dx  (1  cos 2 x) 2 sinx dx

 sin  
  (1  2 cos 2 x  cos 4 x) sinx dx

  sin x dx  2   cos x    sin x  dx    cos x    sin x  dx

2 4

Then

 cos3 x   cos5 x 
5
 sin x dx   cos x  2  
 3   5 
c .
   

Example 3 Evaluate  cos 4 x dx

 1  cos 2 x 
2

Solution:       2  dx
4 2 2
cos x dx (cos x ) dx

1
  (1  2 cos2x  cos 2 2x ) dx
4


1
4 4

 (1  2 cos2x ) dx  1  cos 2 2x dx 
2  1  cos 4x 
as cos 2 x    , we obtain
 2 

4 1 sin 2 x  1   1  cos4x  
  cos x dx   x  2      dx 
4 2  4  2  

114
  x  sin 2 x   x  sin 4 x   C
1 1 1

4 8 4 
 3 sin 2 x sin 4 x .
 x  C
8 4 32

 sin
m
II- Strategy For Evaluating x cos n x dx

(a) If the power cosine is odd  n  2k  1 , save one cosine factor and use
cos2 x  1  sin 2 x to express the remaining factors in terms of sine:

 sin x cos 2 k 1 x dx   sin m x  cos 2 x  cos x dx

m k

  sin m x 1  sin 2 x  cos x dx

k

Then substitute u  sin x.

(b) If the power sine is odd  m  2k  1 , save one sine factor and use

sin 2 x  1  cos2 x to express the remaining factors in terms of cosine:

 sin x cos x dx    sin x  cos x sin x dx

2 k 1 n 2 n k

  1  cos 2 x  cos n x cos x dx

k

Then substitute u  cos x.

NOTE: If the powers of both sine and cosine are odd, either (a) or (b) can be
used. The best choice is the smallest odd power.

(c) If the powers of both sine and cosine are even, use the half-angle identities

1 1
sin 2 x  1  cos2 x  & cos2 x  1  cos2 x 
2 2

1
It is sometimes helpful to use the identity cos x sin x  sin 2 x
2

115
 
3 4
Example 4 Evaluate sin x cos x dx

 cos x 
n 1

{ Hint :   cos x    sin x  dx  c}

n

n 1

 sin x cos 4 x dx   (sin 2 x)cos 4 x sin x dx

3
Solution:

Use the identity sin 2 x  1  cos 2 x , then :

 (sin
2
x)cos 4 x sin x dx  1  cos 2 x  cos 4 x sin x dx
  cos 4 x sin x dx - cos6 x sin x dx

   (cos x) 4   sin x  dx +  (cos x)6   sin x  dx

1 5 1
 cos x  cos7 x  c
5 7

 sin
2
Example 5 Evaluate x cos5 x dx

 sin x 
n 1

  sin x   cos x  dx  c
n

n 1

 cos x sin x dx    cos x 

5 2 2 2
Solution: sin 2 x cos x dx

  1 sin 2 x  sin 2 x cos x dx

2

  1 2sin x  sin x  sin x cos x dx

2 4 2

   sin x  2sin x  sin x  cos x dx

2 4 6

1 2 1
 sin 3 x  sin 5 x  sin 7 x  c.
3 5 7

 sin
3
Example 6 Evaluate x cos5 x dx

 cos x sin 3 x dx   cos

5 5
Solution: x sin 2 x sin x dx

116
   cos5 x  1  cos 2 x  sin x dx

   cos5 x  cos7 x    sin x  dx

1 6 1
 cos x  cos8 x  c.
6 8

 sin
2
Example 7 Evaluate x cos 2 x dx
1 1
Solution:  sin
2
x cos 2 x dx   1  cos 2 x  1  cos 2 x  dx
2 2
1 1
  1  cos 2 x  1  cos 2 x  dx
2 2
  1  cos 2 2 x  dx
1
4
1  1 
   1   1  cos 4 x    dx
4  2 
1 1 1 
    cos 4 x  dx
4 2 2 
x 1
  sin 4 x  c.
8 32
Example 8 Evaluate  sin x cos3 x dx

Solution:  sin x cos3x dx   sin x 

1/2
cos2x  cos x dx
   sin x 
1/2
1-sin x  cos x dx
2

   sin x  cos x dx    sin x 

1/ 2 5/ 2
cos x dx

2 2
  sin x    sin x   c
3/2 7/2

3 7

NOTE: The following product identities are useful in evaluating certain

trigonometric integrals.

117
 To evaluate the integrals

(a)  cos mx cos nx dx , (b)  sin mx sin nx dx , (c)  sin mx cos nx dx

use the corresponding identities

1
cos mx cos nx  [cos(m  n)x  cos(m  n)x]
2

1
sin mx sin nx  [cos(m  n)x  cos(m  n)x]
2

1
sin mx cos nx  [sin(m  n)x  sin(m  n)x]
2

Example 9 Evaluate  cos5 x cos 4 x dx

Solution: Use the transform identity (1) as m=4 and n  5 , we get :
1
 cos5x cos 4xdx 
2
 cos(x)  (cos9x) dx
1 1
  cos(x)dx   cos(9x)dx
2 2

1 1
 sin x  sin(9x)  c .
2 18

Example 10 Evaluate  sin 5x sin 4 x dx

Solution: Use the transform identity (2) as m=4 and n  5 , we get :
1
 sin 4x sin 5xdx 
2
 cos(x)  (cos9x) dx
1 1
  cos(x)dx   cos(9x)dx
2 2

1 1
 sin x  sin(9x)  c .
2 18

Example 11 Evaluate  cos5x sin 4 x dx


Solution: cos5 x sin 4 x dx   sin 4x cos5xdx

118
Use the transform identity (3) as m=4 and n  5 , we get :

1
 sin 4x cos5xdx 
2
 sin(x)  (sin 9x) dx

1 1
 
2
 sin(x)dx   sin(9x)dx
2

1 1
 cos x  cos(9x)  c .
2 18
Try By your Self Evaluate the integrals

1 3 t  3 t 
 cos x sin x dx  cos   sin   dt
2 2 2

3

 cos t 1  3 sin x dt  2 4
 tan x  tan x dx 
4.2.2. Integrals of Powers of tan and Sec

 tan x dx &  sec n x dx

n
I- Strategy For Evaluating

(a) If the power of tangent is odd or even, separate tan 2 x and use
tan 2 x   sec2 x   1 , we can express the remaining tan n  2 x factor then use

u n 1
the rule of integration  u u dx  c.
n /

n 1

2
(b) If the power of secant is even, separate sec x , we can express the

remaining tan n  2 x factor, using the identity sec x  1  tan x , then use the rule
2 2

u n 1
of integration  u u dx  c.
n /

n 1

119
(c) If the power of secant is odd, then using the integration by parts as in
example 9.

 tan
3
Example 12 Evaluate x dx

3
Solution:  tan x dx   tan x tan 2 x dx   tan x sec2 x 1 dx
 tan x sec x dx - tan x dx
2

1 2
 tan x  Ln cos x  c
2

 tan
4
Example 13 Evaluate x dx

Solution:  tan
4
x dx   tan 2 x tan 2 x dx   tan
2

x sec 2 x  1 dx 
 tan x sec x dx - tan x dx
2 2 2


  tan 2 x sec2 x dx -  sec 2 x  1 dx

1
 tan 3 x - tan x  x  c. .
3

 sec x dx
4
Example 14 Evaluate


4 2 2

Solution: sec x dx  sec x sec x dx   sec
2

x tan 2 x  1 dx 
 tan x sec2 x dx +  sec 2 x dx
2

1
 tan 3 x  tan x  c.
3

 tan
m
II- Strategy For Evaluating x sec n x dx

111
(a) If the power secant is even  n  2k , k  2 , save a factor of sec2 x and use
sec2 x  1  tan 2 x to express the remaining factors in terms of tan x:

x sec 2 k x dx   tan m x  sec 2 x 

k 1
 tan
m
sec 2 x dx

  tan m x 1  tan 2 x  sec 2 x dx

k

Then substitute u  tan x.

(b) If the power tangent is odd  m  2k  1 , save a factor of sec x tan x and use
tan 2 x  sec2 x  1 to express the remaining factors in terms of sec x:

 tan x sec n x dx   sec n 1 x  tan 2 x  sec x tan x dx

2 k 1 k

  sec n 1 x  sec 2 x  1
k
sec x tan x dx

Then substitute u  sec x.

(c) If the power secant is odd, the power tangent is even there is no standard
method of evaluation. We may use integration by parts.

NOTE: Integrals of the form  cot m x csc n x dx may be evaluated in similar

fashion as in  tan m x secn x dx .

Example 15 Evaluate  tan5 x sec3 x dx

Solution:

Use the transform identity (b) as m  5 and n  3 , we get :

 
5 2
 tan x sec x dx   tan x sec x tan x sec x dx   tan x sec x sec x sec x  1 dx
3 4 2 2 2

 tan x sec x  sec 

6
 x  2sec 4 x  sec 2 x dx

1 2 1
 sec7 x  sec5 x  sec3 x  c.
7 5 3

111
 2 4
Example 16 Evaluate  tan x sec x dx
Solution:

Use the transform identity (a) as m  2 and n  4 , we get :

 tan x sec4 x dx   tan 2 x sec2 x sec2 x dx

2

  tan 2 x (tan 2 x  1) sec 2 x dx

  (tan 4 x  tan 2 x ) sec 2 x dx

  tan 4 x sec2 x dx   tan 2 x sec 2 x dx

tan 5 x tan 3 x
   c.
5 3
sin t  tan t
Example 17 Evaluate  cos3 t
dt

sin t  tan t sin t tan t

Solution:  dt   dt   dt
cos3 t cos3 t cos3 t

  tan t sec2 t dt   tan t sec3 t dt

  tan t sec2 t dt   tan t sec t sec2 t dt

1 1
 tan 2 t  sec3 t  c.
2 3


4
sin 3 t
Example 18 Evaluate 
0
cos t
dt

Solution:

   
 
4 sin3 t 4 sin t 2 4 sin t 2 t dt  4 tan t  sin t cos t dt
 dt   sin t dt   1  cos 
0 cos t 0 cos t 0 cos t 0

112
 
1 4 1 1
  Ln cos t   sin t   Ln 2   1.136
2

2 0 2 4

1  tan 2 t
Example 19 Evaluate  dt
sec 2 t
Solution:

1  tan 2 t 1
 sec2 t     sin 2t  c.
2 2
dt cos t sin t dt
2

 x  dx
sin 2 1
Try By your Self Evaluate the integrals  x2

Exercise (4-2)

(a) Evaluate the following integrals:

(1)  sin 7 x dx (2)  cos 3 x dx (3)  sin 6 x dx

(4)  sin 5 x cos 3 x dx (5)  tan 5 x secx dx (6)  tan 3 x sec 4 x dx

cos x
(7)  sin 5x sin10x dx (8)  csc5t cot5t dt (9) 
2  sin x
dx

cos 3 x
(10)  dx (11)  (1  cosx ) 2 sin x dx (12)  (tan x  cot x ) 2 dx
sin x

sec 2 x 2
(13)  dx (14)  tan x  1 dx (15)  sec2 y cos3  tan y  dy
2
(1  tan x ) 2
sec x

2 4 4
(16)  csc t cot t dt

4

(b) Evaluate  sin x cos x dx by four methods:

1) The substitution u  cos x.

2) The substitution u  sin x.

3) The substitution sin 2 x  2sin x cos x.

113
 4) Integration by parts

(c) Find the volume obtained by rotating the region bounded by the curves

1) y  sin x, y  0,  2  x   , about x-axis

2) y  sin x, y  cos x,0  x   4 ; about y=1

3) y  sec x, y  cos x,0  x   3 ; about y=-1

4.3. Trigonometric Substitution

The technique here is useful for eliminating radicals from certain types
of integrals. The substitutions are listed in the following table:

Expression Substitution Identity

 
a2  x2 x  a sin  ,   1  sin 2   cos 2 
2 2

 
a2  x2 x  a tan  ,   1  tan 2   sec 2 
2 2

 3
x2  a2 x  a sec , 0    ,    sec 2   1  tan 2 
2 2

We shall assume that  is in the range of the corresponding inverse

trigonometric function.

x  a sin  x  a tan  x  a sec 

114
 a 2  x 2  a cos  x 2  a 2  a tan  a 2  x 2  a sec 

1
Example 1 Evaluate x 2
16  x 2
dx

Solution: Let x  4 sin   dx  4 cos  d ,  / 2     / 2

1 4cos d
x dx  
2
16  x 2 16sin  2
16  16sin 2 
4cos d 4cos d
 =
16sin   4
2
1  sin 
2
16sin 2   4cos
1
 4cos d .
(16sin  ) . 4cos 
2

1 1 1 1
Then, x 2
16  x 2
dx  
16 sin 
2
d   csc 2  d
16

1
 cot   C
16 4 x

x
since x  4sin   sin 
4 16  x 2

16  x 2
cot   .
x

1 1 16  x 2
Then ,  dx    C.
x 2 16  x 2 16 x

x2  9
Example 2 Evaluate  x
dx

x
Solution: Let x  3sec  dx  3 sec tan  d and x2  9

x 2  9  9 sec 2   9  3 sec 2   1  3 tan  . 3

115
 x2  9 3tan 
 x
dx  
3sec
3sec tan  d

 3  tan 2  d  3  (sec 2   1) d

 3 tan   3   c

 x
 x 2  9  3 sec 1    c.
3

(1  x 2 ) 3 / 2
Example 3 Evaluate  dx
x6 1 x
Solution: Let x  sin   dx  cos  d

(1  x 2 )3/2 (1  sin 2  )3/2

 x6 dx   sin 6  cos d 1  x2

cos 4  cos 4  1
  6 d   4 d   cot 4  csc2  d
sin  sin  sin 
2

5
cot 5  1  1  x 
2
   cot  ( csc  d )  
4 2
c     c.
5 5 x 
 

x3
Example 4 Evaluate 
9 x  49 2
dx

7 7 2
Solution: Let x  tan   dx  sec  d 9x 2  49 3x
3 3

7
then , 9x 2  49  49 tan 2   49  7 tan 2   1

 7 sec 2   7 sec 

116
 3
7 
 tan   4
7 1
3
dx    
x 3 7 2
 9 x  49
2 7sec 3
sec  d     tan 3  sec d
3 7

thus,

x3 73 73  1 3 
 dx  4   sec   1 tan sec d   sec   sec   C
2

9 x 2  49 3 81  3 

x3

1
 9 x 2  49  
49
3/2
dx  9 x 2  49  C .
9 x 2  49 243 81

x2 y 2
Try By your Self (1) Find the area enclosed by the ellipse 2  2  1
a b

x
(2) Evaluate  dx
3  2 x  x2

 3 Ln  tan x  Cos x
(3) Evaluate  dx [Hint: Multiply with ]
4 sin x cos x Cos x

Exercise (4-3)

Evaluate the following integrals

1 1 x 1
(1)  dx (2)  dx (3)  2
dx (4)  dx
x 9  x2 x 4 - x2 x 9 x 2 x 2  25

3 dx 1 1 1 dx
(5)  (6)  dx (7)  dx (8) 
2 ( x 2  1)3/2 4x 2  25 9 - 4x 2

0 1  x2 2

1 1 (4  x 2 ) 2
(9)  dx (10)  dx (11)  dx
x 4
x 32
x 25x  16 2 x3

x2 3x  5 1
(12)  dx (13)  dx (14)  dx
(1 - 9x ) 2 3/ 2
1 x2 (16 - x 2 ) 5 / 2
a 0.3
x
 a  x dx  (9-25x
2 2 2
(15) x (16) 2 3/ 2
dx
0 0
)

117
4.4. Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

Partial fractions used to integrate any rational function (ratio of two

polynomials) by expressing it as a sum of simpler fractions. Let's consider a
rational function f ( x)  P( x) / Q( x) where P and Q are polynomials. If the
degree of P is less than the degree of Q, rational fraction is called proper.
Before start to re-writing the complicated fraction as a sum of simpler
fractions process we must be sure that the numerator degree is of order less
than the denominator degree ( i.e. if a rational fraction f ( x)  P( x) / Q( x) then
degree of P( x) less than degree of Q( x) ).

NOTE: If f is improper, deg  P( x)   deg  Q( x)  , use long division to obtain a

function of the form, f ( x)  S ( x)  R( x) / Q( x) , where the degree of R( x) now
is less than the degree of Q( x) .
Strategy For Using Partial Fractions

P( x) A1 A2 An
   ... 
(a1 x  b1 )(a2 x  b2 )...(an x  bn ) (a1 x  b1 ) (a2 x  b2 ) (an x  bn )

(1) Denominator is in the first degree

P( x) An An 1 A2 A1
  n 1
 ...  
(ax  b) n
(ax  b) (ax  b)
n
(ax  b) 2
ax  b

(2) Denominator is in the first degree with power n

n means number of repeated fraction.
(3) Denominator is in the second degree

P( x)

(a1 x  b1x  c1 )(a2 x  b2 x  c2 )...(an x 2  bn x  cn )
2 2

A1 x  B1 A2 x  B2 An x  Bn
  ... 
(a1 x  b1x  c1 ) (a2 x  b2 x  c2 )
2 2
(an x 2  bn x  cn )

118
(4) Denominator is in the second degree with power m

P( x) A x  Bm A x  Bm 1 A x  B2 A1 x  B1
 2m  m21 m 1
 ...  22 
(ax  bx  c)
2 m
(ax  bx  c) (ax  bx  c)
m
(ax  bx  c) 2
ax 2  bx  c

m means number of repeated fraction, where A1 , A 2 , . . . , A n , B1 , B 2 , . . . , B n ,

are constants to be determined.
NOTE:
1) To find the constants A,B,C,D,.. substitute by the zeros of
denominator of exists.
2) The result of integration of partial fraction if the denominator in the
simplest form one of the following (a) Logarithm of denominator
Ln f  x 

f / ( x)
Hint: use basic integral rule  f ( x)
dx  ln | f ( x) | c

u
(b) arc tangent tan 1
a

au / 1 u
Hint: use basic integral rule  a 2  u 2 dx  tan a  c .

n 1
(c)
 f  x 
n 1

 f  x 
n 1

  f ( x)  ( x) dx  c.
n /
Hint: use basic integral rule f
n 1

x3  x
Example 1 Evaluate  dx
x 1

119
Solution:
In this example the numerator has degree 3 and the denominator has degree
1. Thus,

we first perform a long division to obtain :

x3  x  2 2 
 x  1 dx    x  x  2  x  1  dx
x3 x 2
   2 x  2 Ln x  1  C
3 2
3x 4  3 x 3  5 x 2  x  1
Example 2 Evaluate  x2  x  2
dx

Solution:
In this example the numerator has degree 4 and the denominator has degree 2.
Thus,

we first perform a long division to obtain

3 x 4  3 x 3  5 x 2  x 1  1 
 x  x2
2
dx    (3 x 2 1)  2

 dx
x  x2 
1
  (3 x 2  1)dx   dx
x2  x 2
Then, using partial fractions for the second part,
3x 4  3 x3  5 x 2  x  1 1 1
 x  x2
2
dx  x3  x  ln x 1  ln x  2  c.
3 3
x2  x  5
Example 3 Evaluate  x2  x  2
dx

Solution:
In this example degree of the numerator = degree of the denominator=1. Thus,

we first perform a long division to obtain :

x2  x  5  2 
 x2  x  2 dx   1  x2  x  2  dx
Then, using partial fractions for the second part,
 2  A B
 1  x 2  dx  x  
 x2  x2
dx  
x 1
dx

 x  A Ln x  2  B Ln x  1  C
To find A, B
2 2 A B A  x  1  B  x  2 
   
x  x  2  x  2  x  1 x  2 x  1
2
 x  2  x  1
2  A  x  1  B  x  2 

121
 Let x  1  2  A 1  1  B 1  2   2  3B i.e. B  .
2
3
2
Let x  2  2  A  2  1  B  2  2   2  3 A i.e. A  .
3
Therefore
x2  x  5 2 2
 x  x2
2
dx  x  Ln x  2  Ln x  1  C
3 3

5x  10
Example 4 Evaluate  x2  3 x  4 dx
Solution:
5 x  10 5 x  10 A B
  
x  3x  4
2
( x  4)( x  1) x  4 x  1

A( x  1)  B ( x  4)

( x  4)( x  1)

To find A, B
5 x  10  A ( x 1)  B ( x  4)

Let x   1   15   5 B i.e. B  3. Let x  4 10  5 A i.e. A  2.

Therefore
5 x  10  2 3 
x 2
 3x  4
dx   
x4
  dx
x  1

 2 ln x  4  3 ln x  1  c.

1
Example 5 Evaluate  dx
x2  x  2
Solution:
1 1 A B
  
x x2
2
( x  1)( x  2) x 1 x  2

1  A( x  2)  B( x  1)

1 1
Let x   2  1   3 B i.e. B  . Let x  1 1  3 A i.e. A  .
3 3
Then
1 1/ 3 1/ 3
x 2
 x 2
dx   
x 1 x  2
dx

1 1
 ln x  1  ln x  2  c.
3 3

121
 2x  4
Example 6 Evaluate  x3  2x 2
dx

Solution:
2x  4 2x  4 A B C
 2  2  
x  2x
3 2
x ( x  2) x x x2
2 x  4  A( x  2)  Bx( x  2)  C x 2 .

Let x  2  8  4C i.e. C  2 . Let x  0  4   2A i.e. A  2

Let x  1  6   A  B  C  6  2  B  2 i.e. B  2 .
Then
2x  4  2 2 2 
x 3
 2x 2
dx      2 
 x x
 dx
x 2 

2
  2 ln x   2 ln x  1  c.
x
1 2
 Ln   Ln x  1  c.
2
2
x x

3x 3  18x 2  29x  4
Example 7 Evaluate  (x  1) (x  2)3
dx

Solution:
3x3 18 x 2  29 x  4 A B C D
   
( x 1)( x  2) 3
x  1 ( x  2) 3
( x  2) 2
x2

A ( x  2)3  B( x 1)  C ( x 1)( x  2)  D ( x 1)( x  2) 2

 .
( x  1)( x  2)3

Then
3x3 18 x 2  29 x  4  A ( x  2)3  B( x 1)  C ( x 1)( x  2)  D ( x 1)( x  2) 2 .

Solve as before we obtain A  2, B  2, C   3, D  1.

Then
3 x3  18 x 2  29 x  4  2 2 3 1 
 ( x  1) ( x  2)3 dx    x  1  ( x  2) 3

( x  2) 2
  dx
x2 

1 3
 2 ln x 1    ln x  2  c.
( x  2) x  2
2

4 x 2  13x  9
Example 8 Evaluate  x3  2 x 2  3x dx

122
Solution:

4 x 2  13x  9 A B C
  
3
x  2x  3x2 x ( x  3) ( x  1)

4 x 2  13x  9  A( x  3)( x  1)  B x ( x  1)  C x ( x  3)

Thus, A  3 , B  1 , C  2 and so

4 x 2  13x  9 dx dx dx
 x3  2 x 2  3x dx  3 x   ( x  3)  2 ( x  1)
 3ln | x |  ln | x  3 | 2 ln | x  1| c

 ln | x 3 |  ln | x  3 |  ln | (x  1) 2 | c

x 3 ( x  1) 2
 ln c .
( x  3)
5 x3  3x 2  7 x  3
Example 9 Evaluate  ( x 2  1)2 dx

Solution:

5x 3  3x 2  7 x  3 5x 3  3x 2  7 x  3  A x  B  Cx  D

( x 2  1) 2 ( x 2  1) 2 ( x 2  1) 2 ( x 2  1)

5 x3  3x 2  7 x  3   A x  B   x 2  1   Cx  D   x 2  1
2

Solve as before we obtain A  2 , B  0, C  5 , D  3.

5 x3  3x 2  7 x  3 2x 5x  3
Then  ( x 2  1)2 dx  
( x  1)
2 2
dx 
( x 2  1)
dx
2x 5x 3
 dx   2 dx   2 dx
( x  1)
2 2
( x  1) ( x  1)

x 5
  ln(x 2  1)  3 tan 1 x  c .
(x 2  1) 2

123
 x2  1
Example 10 Evaluate  x( x 2  3) dx

Solution:

This example can be solved by another procedure other partial fraction

Since x  x 2  3  x3  3x,  x  3x   3x 2  3  3  x 2  1
d 3
dx

1 3  x  1
2
x2  1 x2  1 1
 x( x 2  3) dx   x3  3x dx  3  x3  3x dx  3 Ln x  3x  C.
3

NOTE: Some irrational functions can be changed into rational functions by

means of appropriate substitutions.
x3
Example 11 Evaluate  x
dx

Solution:

Let u  x  3. Then u 2  x  3  x  u 2  4  dx  2u du.

x3 u u2
Therefore,  x
dx   2
u 4
2u du  2 2
u 4
du

 2
u 2
 4  4 
du  2  1  2
4 
 du
u 42
 u 4
2 u
 2 du  2  du  2u  2 tanh 1  C
u 2
2 2
2

x3 x3
Then,  x
dx  2 x  3  2 tanh 1
2
C

au / 1 u
Hint: use basic integral rule  a 2  u 2 dx  tanh a  c .

dx
Example 12 Evaluate  x3x

Solution: Let u  6 x Then u 6  x  dx  6u 5 du.

124
 dx 6u 5 du u 3 du
Therefore,  x3x
  u3  u 2  u  1
 6

u 3 du  u  1  1 du
3

 u  u  1 du +
du
Although 
u 1   u 1
2
= =
u 1
u 3 du u 3 u 2
 u  1 = 3 + 2 +u+Ln u  1  C
u 3 du x 3x 6
 u  1 3 + 2 + x +Ln x  1  C . So
6
=

dx 6

  2 x +3 3 x +6 6 x +Ln x  1 +c.
6

x3x

1 x
Example 13 Show that  dx  sin 1 x  1  x 2  C.
1 x

1 x 1 x 1 x 
Solution:  dx    dx
1 x 1 x 1 x 

1 x 1 1 2 x
 dx  
2  1  x2
dx  dx
1  x2 1  x2

1 x
Then  dx  sin 1 x  1  x 2  C.
1 x

Try By your Self

dx 1 xa
(1) Show that   Ln  c, a  0.
x 2  a 2 2a xa

(2) Evaluate

4 x 2  3x  2 x dx x3  4
(a)   dx (b)  (c)  dx
2
4x  4x  3 x 6 x  x3
6 x2  4

ds t4 1 dx
(d)  (e)  dt (f) 
s 2  s  1
2 t 5  4t 3 1  cos x

(3) Find the area of the region under the given curve from 1 to

1 x2  1
(a) y  (b) y 
x3  x 3x  x 2

125
 (4) Find the volume of the resulting solid if the region under the curve

1
y is rotated about (a) x  axis (b) y  axis
x 2  3x  2

(5) Show that  sin 1 x  1  x 2  C.

1  x2
3
dx x dx
(6) Evaluate (a) 
x 3 x
(b) 
1 x 3
(c)  x e x dx (d) 
1
x2
dx

Exercise (4-4)

(I) Evaluate the following integrals

x2 cos x e2 x
(1)  x+4 dx (2)  sin 2 x  sin x dx (3)  e2 x  3e x  2 dx

x3 x 3  3x - 2 2x 2  7x - 8
(4)  3 dx (5)  dx (6)  dx .
x 1 x2  x x 2  6x  9

x6  x3 1 x 2 +x+1 ex
(7) 
x 4  9x 2
dx (8)  (x 2 +1)2 dx (9)   e2 x  1 e x  2  dx

dx x 2 -2x-1 sec 2 x
(10)  x 3 -1 (11)  ( x  1)2 ( x 2  1) dx (12)  tan 2 t  3tan t  2 dx

1
x 1 x 2  3x  7 1
x
(13) 0 x 2  3x  2 dx (14)  dx (15) x dx
x  4x  6  4 x  13
2 2 2
0

x3  2 x
1
5x 2 - 10x - 8 5x 2  30x  43
(16)  4 dx (17)  dx (18)  dx
0
x  4 x2  3 x 3  4x ( x  3) 3

x  16 37 - 11x 10x 2  9x  1
(19)  dx (20)  dx (21)  dx
x 2  2x  8 (x  1)(x - 2)(x - 3) 2x 3  3x 2  x

126
(II) Make a substitution to express the integrand as a rational function and
then evaluate the integral
3 1
dx dx x dx x 3 dx dx
(1) 
x x 1
(2) 
2 x3 x
(3) 
1 x x
2
(4)  3
x 1
2
(5) 1
0
3
x
3

4.5. Integrals Involving Quadratic Expressions

Quadratic functions are functions in the form a x 2  b x  c . Integrating

functions that include a quadratic can sometimes be a little difficult. Most
2
often, complete the square as a x2  b x  c  b  b2 ,
 a x    c
 2a  4a

where a  0 and b  0 . There are three methods we’ll use to evaluate

quadratic integrals:

Substitution
Partial fractions
Trigonometric substitution
dx
Example 1 Evaluate x 2
 2x

Solution: Completing the square yields

x 2  2 x   x  1  12 ,
2

then
dx dx dx
x 2

 2 x  x  1  12
2
   12   x  1
2

  tanh 1  x  1  C.

2x 1
Example 2 Evaluate x 2
 6 x  13
dx

Solution: Completing the square yields

2 2
x2  6 x  13   x  3  32  13   x  3  4
2
  x  3   22 ,

127
then
2x 1 2x 1
x 2
 6 x  13
dx  
2
dx
 x  3  22


 2 x  6   6  1 dx  2  x  3 5
2  2
dx  
2
dx
 x  3  22  x  3  22  x  3  22
2 5
 Ln  x  3  22  tan 1
 x  3  C.
2 2

dx
Example 3 Evaluate  2 x  x2  8

Solution: Completing the square yields

2 x  x 2  8    x 2  2 x  8     x  1  12  8
2
 

   x  1  9   32   x  1 .
2 2
 

Thus

dx dx ( x  1)
   sin 1 C.
2x  x  8 3   x  1
2 2
2 3

dx
Example 4 Evaluate 
x  8 x  25
2

Solution: Completing the square yields

x 2  8 x  25   x  4   16  25  ( x  4) 2  9 .
2

Thus  dx 1  x  4
 dx  sinh 1    C.
x  8 x  25
2
( x  4)  9 2
 3 

128
 Exercise (4-5)

Evaluate the following integrals,

(1)  x (2)  1 (3)  1

dx dx dx
2
x  4x  5 4x  x 2 x 2  6x  13

2
(4)  x
dx (5)  x  4 x  8 dx (6)  1
dx
2
 6 x  10 2
x  4x  8
x x 2  6 x  10

(7)  x 3 16  x 2 dx (8) x2  2 x  9 (9)  4  x 2 dx

 2 dx
x  4 x  13

(10)  1 (11)  x2 (12)  dx

dx dx
x2  4 x  5 4x 2 8  2 x  x2

(13)  1 (14)  x2  4 x  5 dx .
dx
9  8x  x 2

129
 Chapter five
Application of Definite Integration
Definite integration is a fundamental concept in calculus hat plays a crucial
role in various fields of mathematics and beyond. At its core, definite
integration represents the accumulation of quantities over an interval, providing
a precise method to determine total amounts or measures. One of the most
intuitive applications of definite integration is in the calculation of area under
curves. The relationship between definite integration and area not only
simplifies geometric calculations but also extends to practical applications in
physics, engineering, and economics, where precise area calculations are
essential. Moreover, definite integration extends its utility beyond two-
dimensional areas to three-dimensional volumes. By considering the integral of
a function of two variables over a region in the plane, we can determine the
volume of a solid bounded by surfaces described by the function. Furthermore,
definite integration also finds application in computing other geometrical
measures such as arc length and surface area. For instance, the arc length of a
curve can be determined by integrating the square root of the sum of squared
derivatives of the curve's parametric equations. Similarly, surface area
calculations of three-dimensional objects involve integrating suitable functions
over the surface of the object, reflecting the accumulated area of infinitesimal.
elements that make up the surface. Finally, definite integration serves as a
powerful tool that connects pure mathematical concepts with real-world
applications, enabling precise calculations of quantities that are crucial in
diverse scientific and engineering disciplines. Its ability to handle complex
shapes and irregular boundaries makes it an indispensable technique for solving
a wide range of problems, from basic geometric measurements to advanced
physics and engineering analyses. Thus, the study and of definite integration
not only deepen our understanding of calculus.

131
5.1 Area between curves

In this section we will compute the area between two curves. Suppose
we want to find the area of a region that is bounded above by the curve
y  f (x ) and below by the curve y  g(x ) , where f (x ) and g(x ) are
continuous functions in the interval [a,b ] as shown in (fig. 5.1a). To find the
area between these curves using definite integration,
we divide it into small strips as shown in (fig. 5.1b). The area of the region can
b
be obtained by the definite integral
  f (x )  g(x ) dx .
a

fig. 5.1a fig. 5.1b

DEFINITION If and are continuous functions with

throughout then the area of the region between the
curves and from a to b is

EXAMPLE 1 Find the area of the region enclosed by the two curves

y  2  x 2 and y  x .

Solution: First we sketch the two curves (fig 5.2) then the limits of integration

are found by solving the two equations y  2  x 2 and

y  x so we have

131
 2  x 2  x
x2  x  2  0
(x  2)(x  1)  0
x  2, x  1

The limits of integration are x  1, x  2 fig.5.2

The area between the curves is

b 2
A   f (x )  g(x ) dx   (2  x 
)  (x ) dx
2

a 1
2
2
 x2 x3 
 2

  2  x  x ) dx  2x 
2

3
 
1   1
 4 8   1 1  9
  4      2    
 2 3  2 3 2

EXAMPLE 2 Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabolas

y  2x  x 2 and y  x 2 .

Solution: First we sketch the two curves (fig 5.3) then we find the points
of intersection of the parabolas by solving their equations
simultaneously. This gives

2x  x 2  x 2
x2  x  0
x (x  1)  0
x  0, x  1

fig.5.3

132
The area between the curves is

b 1
A  y 
 y2 dx   (2x  x 
)  (x 2 ) dx
2
1
a 0
1
1
 2 x3 
 
  2x  2x ) dx  x  2  
2

3 0
0 
 2 1
 1   
 3 3

EXAMPLE 3 Find the area of the region bounded above by y  e x , bounded

below by y x, and bounded on the sides by x  0 and
x  1.

Solution: The region is shown in (fig 5.4). The upper boundary curve is

y  e x and the lower boundary curve y  x . The limits of

integration are a  0 and b  1 .

The area between the curves is

b 1

 
A   y1  y2 dx   e x  x dx  
a 0
1
 x x2   1  3 fig.5.4
 e    e   1   e 
 2 0  2  2

EXAMPLE 4 Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y  sin x ,

y  cos x , x  0 and x  .
2
Solution: The region is shown in (fig 5.5). The points of intersection

occur when sin x  cos x that is when x  . It is observed that
4

133
 
cos x  sin x when 0  x  but sin x  cos x when   x   .
4 4 2
A  A1  A2 
 
4 2
   cos x  sin x  dx    sin x  cos x  dx
0
4
 
 sin x  cos x     cos x  sin x  2 
4
fig.5.5
0
4
 1 1   1 1 
   1    1   
 2 2   2 2
 2 2 2

Therefore the required area is

EXAMPLE 5 Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that is bounded
above by , bounded below by the x-axis y  x  2 and the

line and . y  x
Solution:

As shown in (fig 5.6) upper boundary is the graph of y x

and lower boundary changes from y  0 for 0  x  2 to y  x  2 for
2  x  4 . The limits of integration for region A1 are a  0 and b  2 . To
find the limits of integration for region A2 we solve the equations y  x and
y  x  2 then we have

x  x 2
x  (x  2)2
x 2  5x  4  0
(x  4)(x  1)  0
x  4, x  1 fig.5.6

134
 Only the value x  4 satisfies the equation

x  x  2 . Therefore the required area is

 
2 4
A  A1  A2  
0
x dx 
2
x  x  2 dx
2 4
 2 23   2 23 x 2 
 x   x   2x  
 3 0  3 2 2
2 3
 2 3
 2 3 
  (2)2    (4)2  8  8    (2)2  2  4  
3  3  3 
     
2 10
 (8)  2 
3 3
5.1.1 Integration with Respect to y

If a region’s bounding curves are described by functions of y, the

approximating rectangles are horizontal instead of vertical and the basic
formula has y in place of x. For regions like these (fig. 5.7):

fig.5.7

Thus the area of the region can be obtained by definite integral as

d

 
A   f (y )  g(y ) dx .
c

EXAMPLE 6 Find the area of the region in Example 5 by integrating with

respect to y.

135
Solution:

We first sketch the region with a horizontal rectangle based on a

partition of an interval of y-values as in (fig. 5.8). The region’s right-
hand boundary is the line x  y  2 and the left-hand boundary is

the curve x  y 2 then the limits of integration are found by solving

the two equations so we have

y2  y  2
y2  y  2  0
(y  2)(y  1)  0
y  2, y  1
fig.5.8

The upper limit of integration is y  2 , we reject the point

y  1 as it below the x-axis. Then the area of the region is

d 2
A   f (y )  g(y ) dy   (y  2  y ) dy
2

c 0
2
y 2
y  4 3
8  10
   2y      4   
2 3 0  2 3 3

EXAMPLE 7 Find the area of the region enclosed by the line y  x  1 and

the parabola y
2
 2x  6 .

Solution:

We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.9) then we find the points
of intersection of the two curves by solving the two equations,
notice that the left and right boundary curves are

1
x  y 2  3 and x  y  1 then we have
2

136
 1 2
y 3  y 1
2
y 2  2y  8  0
(y  4)(y  2)  0
y  4, y  2 fig.5.9

The limits of integration are c  2 andd  4 . Then the area of

the region is

d
 4
1 2 
A
c
 x1  
 x 2 dy 

2 
(y  1 
2
y  3)  dy

4
y 2
y 
3
 64   8
   4y     8  16     2  8    18
2 6  2  6   6

NOTE: We could have found the area in Example 7 by integrating with respect
to x instead of y, but the calculations increase because the bottom boundary
consists of two different curves. This requires splitting the region in two and
computing the areas labeled A1 and A2 in (fig. 5.10). The method we used in
Example 7 is much easier.

fig.5.10

137
 1
EXAMPLE 8 Find the area of the region enclosed by the curves y ,
x
y  x and y 1 using (a) x as the variable of integration
 x
4
and (b) y as the variable of integration.

Solution:

We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.11) then we find the points
of intersection of the curves as

1 1
x 
4 x
x  4
2

1
x  2, y 
2

1
x  fig.5.11a fig.5.11b
x
x 1
2

x  1, y  1

(a) If we integrate with respect to x, we must split the region into two
parts because the top boundary consists of two separate curves, as
shown in
(fig. 5.11a). We compute the area as

 1 
1 2
1 1 
A  A1  A2    x  x  dx     x  dx
0  4  1 x 4 
1 2
3   1 
  x 2    ln x  x 2   ln 2
 8 0  8 1

138
 (b) If we integrate with respect to y, we also need to divide the region
into two parts because the right boundary consists of two separate
curves, as shown in (fig. 5.11b). We compute the area as
1
2 1
1 
A  A1  A2  
0

4y  y dy    y
1
 y  dy

2
1
1
3 2  1 
  x 2    ln y  y 2   ln 2
2 0  2 1
2

Exercises (5.1)

I) Find the area of the shaded region.

139
II) Find the area of the region enclosed by the given curves.

1) y  x 2  2, y  x  1, x  0, x  1.

2) y  1  x 3, y  2  x, x  0, x  1.

1 1
3) y , y  2 , x  2.
x x

4) y  cos x, y  e x , x  .
2
5) y  x 2  4x, y  2x .

6) x  1  y 2, x  y 2  1.

7) 4x  y 2  12, y  x .

8) y  x 2, y  4x  x 2 .

9) y  x 3, y  x .

1
10) y  x, y  x.
3

11) y  cos x, y  sin 2x, 0  x  .
2
12) y  x  1, y  x  1.

13) y
2
 4x  4, 4x  y  16.

14) y  ln x, y  ln(x 2 ), x  2.

15) y  2x  x 2, y  2  x .

141
5.2 Solids of Revolution

Solids of revolution are three-dimensional shapes formed by rotating a

two-dimensional curve around an axis in space. This process typically involves
taking a region bounded by a curve (often a function of x or y) and rotating it
360 degrees around an axis to generate a solid shape. There are three main
methods to find the volume of solids (Disk Method, Washer Method and
Cylindrical Shell Method). These methods are fundamental in calculus and are
particularly useful for finding volumes of shapes like spheres, cylinders, and
more complex solids formed by rotating curves. Understanding whether to use
the disk/washer method or the cylindrical shell method depends on the
orientation of the curve and the axis of rotation.

5.2.1 Volumes using Disk Method

The solid generated by rotating (or revolving) a plane region about an

axis in its plane is called a solid of revolution. To find the volume of a solid
like the one shown in (fig. 5.12), we need only observe that the cross-sectional
area A(x) is the area of a disk of radius R(x), the distance of the planar region’s
boundary from the axis of revolution. The area is then

 
2
A(x )   (radius )2   R(x )

fig.5.12

141
So the definition of volume in this case gives

Volume by Disks for Rotation About the x-axis:

This method for calculating the volume of a solid of revolution is often called
the disk method because a cross-section is a circular disk of radius R(x).
EXAMPLE 1 Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region

under the curve y  x and y  0 from x  0 to x  1

about the x-axis.

Solution:

We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.12). When we slice

through the point x, we get a disk with radius R(x )  x

then the volume is
1

   1  
b 1

  R(x )
2 2
V  dx  x dx    x 2  
a 0 2 0 2

EXAMPLE 2 Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region

bounded by y  x and the lines y  1 , x  4 about the

line y  1 .

Solution: We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.13). When we slice

through the point x, we get a disk with radius
R(x )  x  1.

fig.5.13

142
 Then the volume is,

 
b 4

 
2 2
V    R(x ) dx    x  1 dx
a 1
4

 
 x 2 4 23  7
4
   x  2 x  1 dx     x  x 
1 2 3 1 6

To find the volume of a solid generated by revolving a region between

the y-axis and a curve as shown in (fig. 5.14), we use the same method with x
replaced by y. In this case, the area of the circular cross-section is

 
2
A(y )   (radius )2   R(y ) .

fig.5.14

Then the definition of volume gives:

Volume by Disks for Rotation About the x-axis:

143
EXAMPLE 3 Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region

between the y-axis and the curve x  2 , 1  y  4 about y-

y
axis
Solution:
We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.14). When we slice

through the point y, we get a disk with radius R(y )  2 .

y
Then the volume is,
2 4
d
2 44
4  1
 
2
V    R(y ) dy      dy    2 dy  4     3
c 1 y  1 y  y 1

EXAMPLE 4 Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region

between the parabola x  y 2  1 and the line x  3 about

the line x  3.

Solution:
We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.15). Note that the cross-
sections are perpendicular to the line x  3 . When we slice
through the point y, we get a disk with radius
R(y)  3  (y 2  1)  2  y 2 .

fig.5.15

Then the limits of integration are found by solving the equations as

3  y2  1  y2  2  y   2

144
Then the volume is,
d 2

    
2 2
V    R(y ) dy   2  y 2 dy 
c  2
2
2
 4 3 y5 
    4  4y y  dy   4y  y  
2 4

 2  3 5  2
64
 2 
15
5.2.2 Volumes using Washer Method:

If the region we revolve to generate a solid does not border on or cross

the axis of revolution, the solid has a hole in it as in (fig 5.16). The cross-
sections perpendicular to the axis of revolution are washers instead of disks.
The dimensions of a typical washer are Outer radius R(x) and Inner radius r(x).

fig.5.16

   r(x ) 

The washer’s area is A(x )    R(x )
2 2

Then the definition of volume gives:

Volume by Washers for Rotation About the x-axis:

145
This method for calculating the volume of a solid of revolution is called the
washer method because a thin slab of the solid resembles a circular washer of
outer radius R(x) and inner radius r(x).
To find the volume of a solid formed by revolving a region about the y-axis, we
use the same procedure, but integrate with respect to y instead of x. In this
situation the line segment sweeping out a typical washer is perpendicular to the
y-axis, and the outer and inner radii of the washer are functions of y.
Then the definition of volume gives:

Volume by Washers for Rotation About the y-axis:

EXAMPLE 5 Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region

between the parabola y  x 2 and the line y  x about the x-

axis.

Solution:
We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.17). The limits of integration
are found by solving the equations of the two curves as

x 2  x  x (x  1)  0  x  0, x  1
When we slice through the point x, we get a washer with outer

radius R(x )  x and inner radius r (x )  x 2 .

fig.5.17

146
Therefore we have
b 1

   
V     R(x )  r (x )  dx    x 2  x 4  dx
2 2

 
a 0
1
x 3 x 5  2
    
 3 5 0 15
EXAMPLE 6 Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region

between the parabola y  x 2  1 and the line y  x  3

about the x-axis.

Solution:
We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.18). The limits of
integration are found by solving the equations of the two
curves as

x 2  1  x  3
x2  x  2  0
(x  2)(x  1)  0  x  2, x  1
When we slice through the point x, we get a washer with outer

R(x )  x  3 radius and inner radius r(x )  x 2  1 .

fig.5.18

147
Therefore we have
b
V     R(x )    r(x )  dx 
2 2


a
1

   

2 2
  
    
2
x 3 x 1  dx
2 
1
   8  6x  x  x 4  dx
2

2
1
 x3 x5  117
  8x  3x 
2
   
 3 5  2 5

EXAMPLE 7 Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region

between the parabola y  x 2 and the line y  2x about the y-

axis.

Solution:
We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.19). When we slice

through the point y, we get a washer with outer R(y )  y

y
radius and inner radius r (y )  . The limits of integration
2
are found by solving the equations of the two curves as
y
y   y(y  4)  0  y  0, y  4
4

fig.5.19

148
Therefore we have
d

  
V     R(y )  r (y )  dy  
2 2

 
c
 y  
2

 
4 2
    y     dy
  2  
0

4
 y2 
   y   dy
0  4
4
y2 y 3  8
    
 2 12  0 3
EXAMPLE 8 Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region in
Example 5 about the line y  2 .

Solution:
We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.20). When we slice
through the point x, we get a washer with outer

R(x )  2  x 2 radius and inner radius r (x )  2x.

fig.5.20

149
Therefore we have
b

  
V     R(x )  r (x )  dx 
2 2

 
a
1

  
2

2
   2  x2  2  x  dx
0  
1
   x 4  5x 2  4x  dx
0
1
 x 5 5x 3  8
   2x 2   
5 3  0 15
5.2.3 Volumes using Cylindrical Shell Method:

The cylindrical shell method is a technique used to find the volume of a

solid of revolution when the cross-section is a cylindrical shell. This method is
particularly useful when the solid is formed by rotating a region around a
vertical or horizontal axis. Moreover, the use of this method is considered
easier than using the washer method.
Now let S be the solid obtained by rotating about the y-axis the region bounded
by y  f (x ) , y  0 , x  a and x  b as shown in (fig. 5.21). Let the
cylindrical shell with inner radius r1, outer radius r2, and height h. Its volume V
is calculated by subtracting

fig.5.21

151
the volume V1 of the inner cylinder from the volume V2 of the outer cylinder:

V  V2  V1   r22h   r12h   (r22  r12 )h

r  r1
  (r2  r1 )(r2  r1 )h  2 2 h(r2  r1 )
2

If we let r  r2  r1 (the thickness of the shell), r  1 (r2  r1 ) (the

2
average radius
of the shell) and h is the shell height then this formula for the volume of a
cylindrical shell becomes V  2 rh r .

DEFINITION The volume of the solid in (fig. 5.21), obtained by rotating about
the y-axis the region under the curve , , from to

where .

To find the volume of a solid generated by revolving a region about the

x-axis we use the same method with x replaced by y.

DEFINITION The volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the y-axis the
region under the curve , , from to is:

where

EXAMPLE 9 Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region

bounded by the curve y  x , x-axis and the line x  4

about y-axis.

Solution:
We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.22). Then we use a
vertical slice parallel to the y-axis so the distance between this
slice and the y-axis is x (shell radius) and the shell height is

151
 f (x )  x . The limits of integration for the shell formula are
a  0 and b  4 , The volume is then:

fig.5.22

b 4
V   2 xf (x )dx   2 x ( x )dx
a 0
4
4 3
4  25  128
  2 x dx  
2
x   
0 5  0 5
EXAMPLE 10 Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region

bounded by the curve y  2x 2  x 3 and the line y  0

about y-axis.

Solution:

We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.23). Then we use a

vertical slice parallel to the y-axis so the distance between this
slice and the y-axis is x (shell radius) and the shell height is

f (x )  2x 2  x 3 . The limits of integration for the shell

formula are a  0 and b  2 , The volume is then:

152
 b 2
V   2 xf (x )dx   2 x (2x 2  x 3 )dx
a 0
2
2
x 4 x 5 
  2 (2x  x )dx  2   
3 4

0 2 5 0
16
  fig.5.23
5
EXAMPLE 11 Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the y-

axis the region between y x and y  x2.

Solution:

We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.24). Then we use a

vertical slice parallel to the y-axis so the distance between this
slice and the y-axis is x (shell radius) and the shell height is

f (x )  x  x 2 . The limits of integration for the shell

formula are a  0 and b  1 , The volume is then:

b 1
V   2 xf (x )dx   2 x (x  x 2 )dx
a 0
1
1
x 3 x 4 
  2 (x 2  x 3 )dx  2   
0 3 4 0

 fig.5.24
6
EXAMPLE 12 Use cylindrical shells to find the volume of the solid obtained
by rotating about the x-axis the region under the curve

y  x from x  0 to x  1 .

Solution:
We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.25). Then we use a horizontal
slice parallel to the x-axis so the distance between this slice and the

x-axis is y (shell radius) and the shell height is f (y)  1  y 2 .

153
 The limits of integration for the shell formula are c0 and
d  1 , The volume is then:
d 1
V   2 yf (y )dy   2 y(1  y 2 )dy
c 0
1
1
y2 y 4 
  2 (y  y )dx  2   
3

0 2 4 0
 fig.5.25

2

EXAMPLE 13 Use cylindrical shells to find the volume of the solid obtained

by rotating the region bounded by the curves y  x2 and

y  2x about x  1 .

Solution:

We first sketch the region as in (fig 5.26). Then we use a

vertical slice parallel to the line x  1 so the distance
between this slice and the line x  1 is x  1 (shell radius)

and the shell height is f (x )  2x  x 2 . The limits of integration

for the shell formula are a 0 and b  2, The volume is

then:

fig.5.26

154
 b 2
V   2 xf (x )dx   2 (x  1)(2x  x 2 )dx
a 0
2
2
x 3 x4 
  2 (x  2x  x )dx  2   x  
2 3 2

0 3 4 0
16
 
3

Exercises (5.2)

I) Find the volume of the solid of rotating the following shapes.

155
II) Find the volume of the solids generated by revolving the regions bounded
by the following curves about the x-axis.

1) y  x, y  1, x  0. 2) y  2 x , y  2, x  0.

3) y  x 2  1, y  x  3. 4) y  4  x 2, y  2  x .

5) y  9  x 2 , y  0. 6) y  x  x 2, y  0.

7) y  x 3, y  4x 2 . 8) xy  1, x  0, y  1, y  3.

9) y  x , x  0, y  2. 10) x  y  4, x  y 2  4y  4.
III) Find the volume of the solids generated by revolving the regions bounded
by the following curves about the y-axis.

1) x  5  y , y  0, x  0. 2) 8y  x 2, y  x .

3) y  x , y  0, x  4. 4) y  2 x , y  2, x  0.

5) y  x 2, y  2 x . 6) x  2  y 2, x  y 4 .

7) y  x 3, y  0, x  1. 8) y  4x  x 2, y  x .

9) y 2  x 2  1, y  2. 10) x  (y  1)2, x  y  1.

156
5.3 Arc Length and Surface area
Arc length and surface area are fundamental concepts in calculus and
geometry, essential for quantifying the length of curves and the area of
surfaces.
5.3.1 Arc Length:
Arc length refers to the length of a curve. Suppose the curve whose
length we want to find is the graph of the function y  f (x ) from x  a to
x  b (i.e f (x ) is continuous function in the interval[a,b ]) then length of the
curve can be obtained by:

DEFINITION If ƒ′ is continuously differentiable on [a, b] then the length (arc length)

of the curve , from the point A to point B is the value of the integral:

Or by:

DEFINITION If g′ is continuously differentiable on [c, d] then the length (arc length)

of the curve , from the point C to point D is the value of the integral:

x3 1
EXAMPLE 1 Find the length of the graph of f (x )   ,1  x  4 .
12 x

Solution:
2
We first find f (x )as f (x )  x  12 So
4 x
2 2
 x2 1  x4 1 1  x2 1 
1  [ f (x )]  1  
2
 2    4   2
 4 x  16 2 x  4 x 

157
Then the length of the curve is
b 4
 x2 1 
L a    1 4 x 2  dx

2
1 [ f ( x )] dx 
 
4
x 3 1 
   6
 12 x 1
2
 3
EXAMPLE 2 Find the length of the graph of y   x  from x  0 to
2
x  2.

Solution:
We first find y (x )
1 1

2 1x  3
12 3
y  .     
3 22 3x 
Which is not defined at x = 0, so we rewrite the equation to
express x in terms of y then we have:
3 1
dx
x  2y 2   3y 2
dy
Then at x  0  y  0 , at x  2  y  1
Then the length of the curve is
2
 dx 
d 1
L   1  dy   1  9y dy
c  dy  0
1
1 2 3


 .  1  9y   2.27
9 3
2

 
0
5.3.2 Surface area:
Surface area refers to the total area that covers the outer part of a three-
dimensional object. It is a fundamental concept in geometry and calculus,
essential for quantifying the extent of surfaces in various shapes and forms.
Suppose the line segment AB has length L and is slanted rather than horizontal.
Now when AB is rotated about the x-axis, it generates a frustum of a cone (fig

158
5.26a). From classical geometry, the surface area of this frustum is 2 y *L ,
where y *  (y1  y2 ) / 2 is the average height of the slanted segment AB
above the x-axis. This surface area is the same as that of a rectangle with side

lengths L and 2 y * ( fig 5.26b).

fig.5.26a fig.5.26b

DEFINITION If g′ is continuously differentiable on [c,d] then the area of the

surface generated by revolving the graph of the curve , about the y-axis
is:

Or

DEFINITION If ƒ′ is continuously differentiable on [a,b] then the area of the

surface generated by revolving the graph of the curve , about the x-axis
is:
.

159
EXAMPLE 3 Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve

y  2 x , 1  x  2 about the x-axis.

Solution:
We first find y (x )
2 1
y  
2 x x
so

1 x 1 x 1
1  [ f (x )]2  1  
x x x
Then the surface area of the curve is:
b 2
x 1
S   2 y 1  [ f (x )] dx  2  2 x
2
dx
a 1 x
2
2  8
 
3
 4 .
3 

 x 1  2
 
3
3 3 2 2
1
EXAMPLE 4 Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve
x  1  y , 0  y  1 about the y-axis.

Solution:

We first find x (y ) as x  1  y  dx  1

dy
So
2
 dx 
1   11  2
 dy 
Then the surface area of the curve is:
2
d
 dx  1
S   2 x 1    dy  2 2  1  y dy  
c  dy  0
1
 y2 
 2 2 y    2
 2 0

161
 Exercises (5.3)

I) Find Lengths of following Curves:

3 3
1 2
1) y  x from x  0 to x  4.
2
2) y  (x  2) , 0  x  3.
2
3
3
y 2
3) x   y ,1  y  9. 4) x  sin y  cos y, 0  y  
3
5) y  9  x2, 1  x  4 6) xy  1from[0,1]to[2, 4].

7) y  x , from x  0 to y  4. 8) x  y 2  4y  4, 0  y  2.
x
 y

9) y   tan  d , 0  x  . 10) x   sin  d , 0  y  .
0 3 0 4
II) Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the regions bounded by
the following curves about the x-axis.

1) y  x 2, 0  x  2. 2) y  sin x, 0  x   .


3) y  tan x, 0  x  . 4) x  y  3, from[4,1]to[1,4].
4
5) y  x  1, 0  x  5. 6) xy  1from[0,1]to[2, 4].

y  x , x  0, y  4.
x

7) 8) y 
 tan  d , 0  x
0

3
.

III) Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the regions bounded by
the following curves about the y-axis.

1) x  cos y, 0  y 
 2) y  2 y  x, 1  y  2.
.
4
y3 15
3) x  , 0  y  1. 4) x  2 4  y , 0  y  .
3 4
161
 Chapter six
Improper Integrals

6.1 Indeterminate Forms and L'Hopital's Rule

6.1.1 The Forms 𝟎⁄𝟎 and ∞⁄∞

Consider limits of quotients such as

𝑥2 − 9 sin 𝑥
lim 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim
𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3 𝑥→0 𝑥

In each case, taking the limits of the numerator and denominator gives us the
undefined expression 0⁄0 . We say that the indicated quotients have the
indeterminate form 0⁄0 at 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = 0, respectively. We previously
used algebraic, geometric, and trigonometric methods to calculate such limits.
In this section we develop another technique that employs the derivatives of the
numerator and denominator of the quotient. We also consider the
indeterminate form ∞⁄∞ , where both the numerator and the denominator
approach ∞ or −∞. The following table displays general definitions of the
forms we shall discuss.

Indeterminate form 𝑓(𝑥)

Limit form: lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥)
0 lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
0
∞ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∞ or −∞
𝑥→𝑐
∞ and
lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ∞ or −∞
𝑥→𝑐

162
6.1.2 L'Hopital's Rule

Suppose 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) containing 𝑐 ,

except possibly at 𝑐 itself. If 𝑓 (𝑥 )⁄𝑔(𝑥 ) has the indeterminate form 0⁄0 or
∞⁄∞ at 𝑥 = 𝑐 and if 𝑔′ (𝑥 ) ≠ 0 for 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐, then

𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 )
lim = lim ′
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑥→𝑐 𝑔 (𝑥 )

Provided either

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 )
lim exists or lim ′ = ∞.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔′ (𝑥 ) 𝑥→𝑐 𝑔 (𝑥 )

cos 𝑥+2𝑥−1
Example (1) Find lim
𝑥→0 3𝑥

Solution

cos 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1 − sin 𝑥 + 2 2
lim = lim =
𝑥→0 3𝑥 x→0 3 3
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 −2
Example (2) Find lim
𝑥→0 1−cos 2𝑥

Solution

𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 − 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
lim = lim
𝑥→0 1 − cos 2𝑥 x→0 2 sin 2𝑥

𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 2 1
= lim = =
x→0 4 cos 2𝑥 4 2
L'Hopital's rule is also valid for one-sided limits as in the following example.
4 tan 𝑥
Example (3) Find lim
𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− 1+sec 𝑥

Solution

4 tan 𝑥 4sec 2 𝑥 4 sec 𝑥

lim − = lim − = lim −
𝑥→(𝜋⁄2) 1 + sec 𝑥 𝑥→(𝜋⁄2) sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑥→(𝜋⁄2) tan 𝑥

4⁄cos 𝑥 4 4
lim = lim = =4
𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− sin 𝑥⁄cos 𝑥 𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− sin 𝑥 1
𝑙𝑛 𝑥
Example (4) Find lim
𝑥→∞ √𝑥

163
Solution

𝑙𝑛 𝑥 1⁄𝑥 2√𝑥 2
lim = lim = lim = lim =0
𝑥→∞ √𝑥 𝑥→∞ 1⁄(2√𝑥) 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ √𝑥

e3x
Example (5) Find lim , if it exists.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2

Solution

e3x 3e3x 9e3x

lim = lim = lim =∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 𝑥→∞ 2

𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
Example (6) Find lim , if it exists.
𝑥→0 𝑥2

Solution
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒−𝑥 1
lim = lim (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) ( 2 ) = (2)(∞) = ∞
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥

Example (7) Find the limit, if it exists.

3𝑥−sin 𝑥 √1+𝑥−1
(a) lim (b) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

√1+𝑥−1−𝑥⁄2 𝑥−sin 𝑥
(c) lim (d) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥3

Solution
3𝑥−sin 𝑥 3−cos 𝑥
(a) lim = lim =2
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 1

1
√1+𝑥−1 2√1+𝑥 1
(b) lim = lim =
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 1 2

√1+𝑥−1−𝑥⁄2 (1⁄2)(1+𝑥)−1⁄2 −1⁄2

(c) lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 2𝑥

−(1⁄4)(1 + 𝑥 )−3⁄2 1
= lim =−
𝑥→0 2 8
𝑥−sin 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥
(d) lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥3 𝑥→0 3𝑥 2

sin 𝑥
= lim
𝑥→0 6𝑥

164
 cos 𝑥 1
= lim =
𝑥→0 6 6
1−cos 𝑥
Example (8) Find lim , if it exists
𝑥→0 𝑥+𝑥 2

Solution

1 − cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
lim = lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑥→0 1 + 2𝑥

Example (9) Find the limits

sec 𝑥 ln 𝑥 ex
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− 1+tan 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 2√𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2

Solution
sec 𝑥
(a) lim
𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− 1+tan 𝑥

sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
= lim = lim − sin 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)

ln 𝑥 1⁄𝑥 1
(b) lim = lim = lim =0
𝑥→∞ 2√𝑥 𝑥→∞ 1⁄√𝑥 𝑥→∞ √𝑥

ex 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥
(c) lim 2
= lim = lim =∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 𝑥→∞ 2

6.1.3 Other Indeterminate Forms

Indeterminate form Limit form: lim[𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )]

𝑥→𝑐

0∙∞ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ∞ or −∞

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

The following guidelines may be used.

1 Write 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) as

𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑔(𝑥 )
or
1⁄𝑔(𝑥 ) 1⁄𝑓 (𝑥 )
165
2 Apply L'Hopital's rule to the resulting indeterminate form
0 ⁄0 𝑜𝑟 ∞⁄ ∞.

Example (10) Find lim 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥

𝑥→0+

Solution

ln 𝑥 1⁄x
lim+ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 = lim+ = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 1⁄𝑥 2 𝑥→0+ −2⁄𝑥 3

𝑥3 𝑥2
= lim+ = lim+ =0
𝑥→0 −2𝑥 𝑥→0 −2

Example (11) Find lim (2𝑥 − 𝜋) sec 𝑥

𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)−

Solution

2x − π 2
lim (2𝑥 − 𝜋) sec 𝑥 = lim = lim
𝑥→(𝜋⁄2) − 𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− cos x 𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− − sin 𝑥

2
= = −2
−1
Example (12) Find the limits of
1
(a) lim (𝑥 sin ) (b) lim+ √𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→0

Solution
1 1 sin ℎ
(a) lim (𝑥 sin ) = lim+ ( sin ℎ) = lim+ ( )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

cos ℎ
= lim+ ( )=1
ℎ→0 1
ln 𝑥
(b) lim+ √𝑥 ln 𝑥 = lim+
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 1⁄√𝑥

1⁄𝑥
= lim+
𝑥→0 −1⁄2𝑥 3⁄2

= lim+(−2√𝑥) = 0
𝑥→0

166
Indeterminate Limit form: lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐
form
00 lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
∞0 lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
1∞ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 1 and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

The following guidelines may be used.

1 Let 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥)

2 Take the natural logarithms of 1

ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥 ) ln 𝑓 (𝑥 )
3 Investigate lim ln 𝑦 = lim[𝑔(𝑥 ) ln 𝑓 (𝑥 )] and conclude the following:
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

(a) 𝐼𝑓 lim ln 𝑦 = 𝐿, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝐿

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

(b) 𝐼𝑓 lim ln 𝑦 = ∞, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑦 = ∞

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

(c) 𝐼𝑓 lim ln 𝑦 = −∞, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑦 = 0

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Example (13) Find lim+(1 + 3𝑥 )1⁄(2𝑥)

𝑥→0

Solution

Let 𝑦 = (1 + 3𝑥 )1⁄(2𝑥)

1 ln(1 + 3𝑥 )
ln 𝑦 = ln(1 + 3𝑥 ) =
2𝑥 2𝑥
ln(1 + 3𝑥 ) 3⁄1 + 3𝑥 3
lim+ ln 𝑦 = lim+ = lim+ =
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 2𝑥 𝑥→0 2 2
lim+ (1 + 3𝑥 )1⁄(2𝑥) = lim+ 𝑦 = 𝑒 3⁄2
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Example (14) Find lim+(1 + 𝑥 )1⁄𝑥

𝑥→0

167
Solution
1
Let 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥 )1⁄𝑥 , ln 𝑦 = ln(1 + 𝑥 )1⁄𝑥 = ln(1 + 𝑥 )
𝑥

1
ln(1 + 𝑥 ) 1
= lim+ ln 𝑦 = lim+ = lim+ 1 + 𝑥 = = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 1 1
Therefore, lim+ (1 + 𝑥 )1⁄𝑥 = lim+ 𝑦
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

= lim+ 𝑒 ln 𝑦 = 𝑒 1 = 𝑒
𝑥→0

Limit form: lim [𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 )]

𝑥→𝑐

lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ∞

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

when investigating ∞ − ∞, we try to change the form of 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 ) to a

quotient or product and then apply L'Hopital's rule or some other method of
evaluation.
1 1
Example (15) Find lim+ ( − )
𝑥→0 𝑒 𝑥 −1 𝑥

Solution

1 1 𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥 + 1 1 − 𝑒𝑥
lim ( − ) = lim+ = lim+ 𝑥
𝑥→0+ 𝑒 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑥 − 1

−𝑒 𝑥 1
= lim+ 𝑥 = −
𝑥→0 𝑥𝑒 + 2𝑒 𝑥 2
1 1
Example (16) Find the limit of lim ( − )
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥

Solution

1 1 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
lim ( − ) = lim ( )
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 𝑥
1 − cos 𝑥
= lim ( )
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥
168
 sin 𝑥 0
= lim ( )= =0
𝑥→0 2 cos 𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥 2
Example (17) Find lim 𝑥 1⁄1
𝑥→∞

Solution
ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥 1⁄𝑥
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 1⁄𝑥 , ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 1⁄𝑥 = = lim ln 𝑦 = lim = lim
𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 1

0
= =0
1
Therefore, lim 𝑥 1⁄𝑥 = lim 𝑦
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞

= lim 𝑒 ln 𝑦 = 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑥→∞

Exercise (6.1)

Find the limit, if it exists.

sin 𝑥 √𝑥−1−2 2𝑥 2 −5𝑥+2
(1) lim (2) lim (3) lim
𝑥→0 2𝑥 𝑥→5 𝑥 2 −25 𝑥→2 5𝑥 2 −7𝑥−6

sin 𝑥−𝑥 1+sin x x−sin 𝑥

(4) lim , (5) lim , (6) lim
𝑥→0 tan 𝑥−𝑥 𝑥→𝜋⁄2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥3

2+sec x x2 ln sin x
(7) lim (8) lim (9) lim+
𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− 3 tan 𝑥 𝑥→∞ ln 𝑥 𝑥→0 ln sin 2𝑥
sin−1 2x ln(ln x) 𝑒 −𝑥
(10) lim (11) lim (12) lim
𝑥→0 sin−1 𝑥 𝑥→∞ ln 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 1+𝑒 −𝑥
𝑥 sin−1 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑒 −1⁄𝑥
(13) lim (14) lim (15) lim+
𝑥→∞ 𝑥−sin 𝑥 𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− cot 2𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑥+cosh 𝑥 2
(16) lim (17) lim+ 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 (18) lim (x 2 − 1)e−x
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑥→0 𝑥→∞

(19) lim 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 20) lim tan x ln sin x

𝑥→0 𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)−

(21) lim 𝑥(𝑒 1⁄𝑥 − 1) (22) lim 𝑥 tan−1 𝑥 (23) lim+ sin x ln sin x
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→0
1
(24) lim x sin (25) lim x sec 2 x (26) lim e−x ln x
𝑥→∞ x 𝑥→0 𝑥→∞

169
 6.2 Improper Integrals
𝑏
In our work with definite integrals of the form ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 , we have considered
almost exclusively proper integrals ,that is, situations in which the function 𝑓 is
continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] of finite length. In this section, we extend
the definite integral to cases where the interval may be of infinite length or
where the function 𝑓 has isolated discontinuities on the interval.

6.2.1 Integrals with Infinite Limits of Integration

Definition

∞ ∞
(i) If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, ∞] , then ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 ,
𝑡→∞

provided the limit exists.

𝑎 𝑎
(ii) If 𝑓 is continuous on [−∞, 𝑎] , then ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫𝑡 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥,
𝑡→−∞

provided the limit exists.

Example (1) Determine whether the integral converges or diverges, and if it

converges, find its value.
∞ 1 ∞ 1
(a) ∫2 (𝑥−1)2
𝑑𝑥 (b) ∫2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1

Solution

∞ 1 𝑡 1 −1 𝑡
(a) ∫2 (𝑥−1)2
𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫2 (𝑥−1)2 𝑑𝑥 = lim [ ]
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞ 𝑥−1 2

−1 1
= lim ( + )=0+1=1
𝑡→∞ 𝑡−1 2−1
Thus, the integral converges and has the value 1.
∞ 1 𝑡 1
(b) ∫2 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫2 𝑑𝑥 = lim [ln(𝑥 − 1)]𝑡2
𝑥−1 𝑡→∞ 𝑥−1 𝑡→∞

= lim [ln(𝑡 − 1) − ln(2 − 1)]

𝑡→∞

= lim ln(𝑡 − 1) = ∞
𝑡→∞

171
Since the limit does not exist, the improper integral diverges.

Definition

Let 𝑓 be continuous for every 𝑥. If 𝑎 is any real number, then

∞ 𝑎 ∞
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
−∞ −∞ 𝑎

Provided both of the improper integrals on the right converge.

∞ 1
Example (2) Evaluate ∫−∞ 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥 2

Solution
∞ 1 0 1 ∞ 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
−∞ 1 + 𝑥2 −∞ 1 + 𝑥
2
0 1 + 𝑥2
0 t
1 1
= lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑡→−∞ t 1 + 𝑥 2 𝑡→∞ 0 1 + 𝑥 2

= lim [tan−1 𝑥 ]0t + lim [tan−1 𝑥 ]t0

𝑡→−∞ 𝑡→∞

= lim (tan−1 0 − tan−1 𝑡 ) + lim (tan−1 t − tan−1 0)

𝑡→−∞ 𝑡→∞

π π
= (0 + ) + ( − 0) = π
2 2
Consequently the given improper integral converges and has the value 𝜋.

6.2.2 Integrals with Discontinuous Integrands

If a function 𝑓 is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] , then the definite

𝑏
integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 exists. If 𝑓 has an infinite discontinuity at some number in
the interval, it may still possible to assign a value to the integral.

171
 Definition

(I) If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏) and discontinuous at 𝑏, then

𝑏 𝑡
∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = lim− ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 ,
𝑡→𝑏
provided the limit exists.
(II) If 𝑓 is continuous on (𝑎, 𝑏] and discontinuous at 𝑎, then
𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = lim+ ∫𝑡 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 ,
𝑡→𝑎
provided the limit exists.

If 𝑓 has discontinuity at a number 𝑐 in the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) but is continuous

elsewhere on [𝑎, 𝑏], then
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐

provided both of the improper integrals on the right converge. If both converge,
𝑏
then the value of the improper integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 is the sum of the two values.

3 1
Example (1) Evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝑥
√3−𝑥

Solution
3 𝑡
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim− ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √3 − 𝑥 𝑡→3 0 √3 − 𝑥
t
= lim− [−2√3 − x]0
𝑡→3

= lim− (−2√3 − 𝑡 + 2√3)

𝑡→3

= 0 + 2√3 = 2√3

172
 11
Example (2) Determine whether the improper integral ∫0 𝑑𝑥 converges or
𝑥
diverges.

Solution
1 1
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim+ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim+ [ln 𝑥 ]1𝑡
0 𝑥 𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑥 𝑡→0

= lim+ (0 − ln 𝑡) = ∞
𝑡→0

Since the limit does not exist, the improper integral diverges.
4 1
Example (3) Determine whether the improper integral ∫0 𝑑𝑥
(x−3)2
converges or diverges.

Solution
4 1 3 1 4 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
0 (x − 3) 0 (x − 3) 3 (x − 3)

3 𝑡
1 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 (x − 3) 𝑡→3− 0 (x − 3)2

−1 𝑡
= lim− [ ]
𝑡→3 𝑥 − 3 0

−1 1
= lim− ( − )=∞
𝑡→3 𝑡−3 3
Thus, the given improper integral diverges.
7 1
Example (4) Evaluate ∫−2
(𝑥+1)2⁄3
𝑑𝑥.

Solution
7 −1 7
1 1 1
∫ 2⁄3
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2⁄3
dx + ∫ 2⁄3
dx
−2 (𝑥 + 1) −2 (x + 1) −1 (x + 1)

−1 1 𝑡 1
∫ ⁄ 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥
−2 (𝑥 + 1)2 3 𝑡→−1− −2 (𝑥 + 1)2⁄3

t
= lim− [3(𝑥 + 1)1⁄3 ]−2
𝑡→−1

173
 = 3 lim− [(𝑡 + 1)1⁄3 − (−1)1⁄3 ]
𝑡→−1

= 3(0 + 1) = 3
7 1 7 1
∫ 2⁄3
dx = lim ∫ dx
−1 (x + 1) 𝑡→−1+ 𝑡 (x + 1)2⁄3

7
= lim+ [3(𝑥 + 1)1⁄3 ]𝑡 = 3 lim+ [(8)1⁄3 − (𝑡 + 1)1⁄3 ] = 3(2 − 0) = 6
𝑡→−1 𝑡→−1

Since both integrals converges, the given integral converges and has the value
3 + 6 = 9.

Exercise (6.2.)

(I) Determine whether the integral converges or diverges, and if it converges,

find its value.
∞ 1 0 1 ∞ 𝑥
(1) ∫1 𝑑𝑥 (2) ∫−∞ (𝑥−1)3 𝑑𝑥 (3) ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 4⁄3 1+𝑥 2

2 1 ∞ 𝑥 ∞ cos 𝑥
(4) ∫−∞ 𝑑𝑥 (5) ∫−∞ 4 𝑑𝑥 (6) ∫0 𝑑𝑥
5−2𝑥 𝑥 +9 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

2 1 ∞ 2 ∞
(7) ∫−∞ 2 𝑑𝑥 (8) ∫−∞ 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (9) ∫−∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +4

∞ ln 𝑥 ∞ 1 ∞
(10) ∫1 𝑑𝑥 (11) ∫3 𝑑𝑥 (12) ∫0 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 2 −1

𝜋⁄2
(13) ∫−∞ sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(II) Determine whether the integral converges or diverges, and if it converges,

find its value.
8 1 1 1 𝜋⁄2
(1) ∫0 3 𝑑𝑥 (2) ∫−3 2 𝑑𝑥 (3) ∫0 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 𝑥
4 1 4 1 9 1
(4) ∫0 (4−𝑥)3⁄2
𝑑𝑥 (5) ∫0 (4−𝑥)2⁄3
𝑑𝑥 (6) ∫0 𝑑𝑥
√x

1 1 1 e√x −1 1
(7) ∫−2 (𝑥+2)5⁄4 𝑑𝑥 (8) ∫0 𝑑𝑥 (9) ∫0 3 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 √𝑥+1
2 𝑥 𝜋⁄2 𝜋⁄2 1
(10) ∫1 𝑑𝑥 . (11) ∫0 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (12) ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −1 1−cos 𝑥
4 𝑥−2 𝑒 1 2 1 1
(13) ∫2 𝑑𝑥 (14) ∫1⁄𝑒 (ln 2 𝑑𝑥 (15) ∫−1 2 cos 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4 𝑥 𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥

174
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175