INSTITUT SUPERIEUR PEDAGOGIQUE DE GOMA

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SECTION DES LETTRES ET SCIENCES HUMAINES

DEPARTEMENT D'ANGLAIS CULTURE AFRICAINE

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WRITING SKILLS II

ACADEMIC YEAR : 2024-2025

 COURSE OBJECTIVES

This course intends to:

introduce prewriting details to students;
give basic steps of writing;
initiate the paragraph writing and how to write one;
write for specific purposes: explain, describe, narrate, convince, and writing letters; and
Instruct students to write a research paper

COURSE OUTLINE

Chapter One: Effective Diction: The Meanings and Uses of Words

1.1. The Meaning of Words
1.2. The Use of Words
1.3. Appropriate Diction
1.4. Connecting Between Ideas

Chapter Two: Prewriting

2.1. Finding ideas for writing
- Keeping a Writer's Notebook
- Taking an Interest Inventory
-Drawing upon your Experiences
2.2. Gathering and Developing Ideas
-Making Lists
-Asking Questions
2.3. Focusing your ideas
-Identifying your Purpose and Audience
-Choosing a Topic

Chapter Three: Writing Paragraphs

3.1. What Is a Paragraph?
3.2. Planning a Paragraph
-Selecting and Limiting a Topic
-Listing and Choosing Details
3.3. Writing a Topic Sentence
3.4. Writing Supporting Sentences
3.5. Organizing Supporting Sentences
-Chronological Order
-Spatial Order
-Order of Importance
3.6. Writing a Concluding Sentence

Chapter Four: Explaining, Describing, and Narrating

4.1. Explaining
-Explaining What Something Is
-Explaining How to Get to a Place
-Explaining How to Make or Do Something
4.2. Describing
-Using your Senses
-Using Descriptive Words
Describing a Place
-Describing People
4.3. Narrating
-Planning your Narrative
-Writing your Narrative

Chapter Five: Writing Letters

5.1. Social Letters
5.2. Business Letter

Chapter Six: Writing a Research Paper

Chapter One: EFFECTIVE DICTION: THE MEANINGS AND USES OF WORDS

Diction means the meaning of words in speaking or writing. Some writers use formal diction,
which we find in scholarly books and formal speeches. Some use informal diction, or the kind of
words and expressions we hear in casual spoken language. A few writers are fond of inflated
diction. As the term suggests, they use long, cumbersome words to produce the sort of writing
that is like a balloon - full of gas or hot air and not very substantial.

1.1. The Meanings of Words

Words cannot mean what one person wants them to mean. Language works" because words
have meanings that their users agree on. As you study words their meanings and the ways they
are used you are studying semantics.

1.1.1. Distinguishing Word Meanings

The dictionary can help you choose the "right" words the ones that express your meaning?
precisely. And it will help you avoid pitfalls. For example, some words, such as effect and affect,
are spelled so similarly that people often confuse them.

Other words are not look-alike but have such subtle distinctions in meaning that people often
become confused and use one word when they really mean the other. They may say imply, for
instance, when they really mean infer.

Which of the following sentences is correct?

The perfect anecdote for a broken heart is a new romance The
perfect antidote for a broken heart is a new romance.

The second sentence uses the correct word. Antidote is a remedy for some unwanted condition
The word usually refers to a medicine that counteracts poison or relieves pain. Anecdote is
something else entirely – a brief story.

Exercise
Look up the following words and write a brief definition of each to show that you can distinguish
between the meanings in each pair.
1. Simulate – stimulate
2. Simultaneous – spontaneous
3. Different – diffident
4. Volatile – versatile
 5. Proscribe – proscribe
6. Uninterested – disinterested
7. Emancipated – emaciated
8. Allude – elude
9. Allusion – illusion
10. Appraise – apprise

1.2. Using Specific Words

A writer's diction may be correct but still be weak and imprecise. We see this when writers
overuse such bland adjectives as nice and great and such verbs as do, say, and go. Good writers
try to find specific adjectives and verbs to express themselves more exactly.

Vague
1. The day was nice.
2. Kagore is a great dancer.
3. I did the grass.
4. Ndagije said good night.
5. Simba went through the leaves.

Specific
1. The day was mild and breezy.
2. Kagore seems to glide when she dances.
3. I mowed and edged the lawn.
4. Ndagije whispered goodnight.
5. Simba shuffled through the leaves.

Exercise
Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the vague words in italics with specific words or
phrases.

1. Kabemba is wearing a nice shirt.

2. It is a nice beach 3. The movie was nice.
4. The house is great.
5. Muhindo has to do a report tomorrow.

6. "Get out of here," Safari said to the thief.

7. Ramazani says that he never has any luck.
8. The train goes through Kinshasa.
9. The car went past.
10. Six people came down the mountain.

1.1.3. Understanding Connotations

The strict dictionary definition of a word is called denotation. Many words also carry associations
and emotional overtones, called connotations from a Latin word meaning "to make in addition."
A few connotations are personal. Their meanings vary from one person to the next. Most
connotations are common to most speakers of the language, since they come from shared
experience and usage.

From the obvious example, the denotation or strict dictionary definition of the word pig is "a
domestic animal (sus scrofa) with a long, broad snout, and thick, flat body covered with coarse
bristles." However, most speakers make certain associations with the word pig and have
emotional responses to the word. We might think "barnyard, mud, dirt, overeating, garbage, fat,
and snort." We might feel disgust. That is why it is such insult to call a person a pig.

Exercise
The animal in each of the following sentences has a favorable connotation. Describe the feelings
or associations each triggers for you.

1. Safari has proved that he is a rat.

2. The senator is really an old bear.
3. Everyone in that family is a snake in the grass.
4. Who is that viper on the planning commission?
5. Baraka has always been a lamb.

Many synonyms – words that have similar denotative meanings – have very distinct
connotations. The following sentences say more or less the same thing, but they offer different
images of Kagore by changing one word. e.g. Kagore is the slender lifeguard.
Kagore is the skinny lifeguard.

Slender and skinny both denote "thin," but their connotative meanings are different. Skinny
suggest extreme thinness that is unattractive, perhaps bony. We react negatively to it.
Slender, on the other hand, carries positive connotations. It is a word we might associate with
the tender, supple shoot of a willow tree. Slender make us believe Kagore is attractive.
1.2. The Use of Words
1.2.1. Loaded Words
Writers can use words to manipulate our feelings. Suppose you want to describe someone who
is extraordinarily careful about saving money. If you decide to call that person a miser, you are
controlling your reader's feelings. Miser means a greedy, stringy character who selfishly hoards
money. We entertain harsh feeling about a miser. If, on the other hand, you call the person
thrifty, you do not force the reader to make a negative judgment. Thrifty is generally an
admirable characteristic.

Exercise
The sentences in each of the pairs that follow have more or less the same denotative meaning
yet they differ greatly in connotative meanings. Which words are loaded positively? Which
negatively?
1. The first witness was a showgirl. The first witness
was an actress.
2. Aunt Nyirashano's manners are antiquated.
Aunt Nyirashano's manners are old-fashioned.
3. The steak was rare.
The steak was bloody.
4. A handful of people showed up for the speech. A
loyal group of supporters heard the speech.
5. The Prime Minister is pigheaded. The Prime
Minister is firm.

1.2.2. Idioms
When diction is described as "idiomatic," it means that the writer uses many idioms expressions,
peculiar to his or her own language, that mean something beyond the definitions of the individual
words. The phrase dropped in, as in Who dropped in to see you today?" is an idiom. It cannot be
accepted literally.

Some idioms are metaphors: "It makes your blood boil” an example. Dictionaries label some
idioms as informal, colloquial, nonstandard, or even slang Others are in standard usage. Some
have become clichés and should be avoided in all writing.

When you use idioms, you must be sure you do so correctly. If you try to be idiomatic and say,
"Kagabo pitched off and helped make the cookies," you will confuse your audience. The idiom is
"pitched in."
Exercise
Write a sentence using each of the following idiomatic expressions.
1. Undercut
2. Dress down
3 Dress up
4. Give up
5. Give in
6. Carry out
7. Carry over
8. Carry on
9. Carry forward
10. Carry off

1.2.3. Colloquialism
Colloquialism comes from the Latin word "colloquium," meaning "conversation". A colloquialism
is a word or an expression used in informal conversation but not accepted as good usage in
formal written English. Some colloquialisms have acquired enough performance to be used in
informal writing, however. Colloquial language is, of course, often reproduced in literature to
create convincing dialogue as a reflection of character.

If you told someone a baseball "got" someone in the eye, you would be using a colloquialism. In
the formal report of the incident, you would write that the ball hit him or struck him in the eye.

If you announced you finally "got it" after struggling to understand a subject, you would be using
a colloquialism. If you were writing about your experience in a formal report, you would relate
that you finally understood or comprehend the material.

Exercise
Write one or two sentences of dialogue using each of the following expressions colloquially. Then
rewrite the sentences, replacing the colloquialism with the more precise words or phrases you
would use in a formal report.

1. Pretty much
2. Kind of
3. A lot of
4. Run out on
5. Get out from under
1.2.4. Slang
Slang is nonstandard language usually marked by three characteristics:
Its liveliness and inventiveness
Its quick popularity; and
Its almost equally rapid disappearance from the language, as a rule.

Slang should not be used in informal or formal written English because i.

It is imprecise,
ii. Not everyone knows what it means,
Iii. It is often vulgar, and
Iv. Most of it goes out of fashion so quickly that it dates your composition.

In any case, slang is used with great zest in informal spoken English, and it is used with skill – even
genius – in imaginative literature to reproduce dialects and reflect character. E.g. goo-goo eyes,
flappers, greasers, duds (=clothing), etc.

1.2.5. Clichés
A cliché is an expression that has been used so often that it has lost its original effectiveness.
Clichés are often called "tired and worn-out expressions a description that itself has become a
cliché. Some clichés are comparisons:

Light as a feather Tough

as nails
As old as the hills

Clichés can also be other kind of expressions:

Have a nice day
Last but not least
All that jazz
A wet blanket

Writers who express themselves in clichés reveal they haven't made the effort to think very
carefully or originally.

Exercise
Replace each cliché in the following sentences with a fresh comparison of your own.
1. The investigator turned as white as a sheet.
2. Kanyere is as fresh as a daisy every morning
3. The producer's hand was as cold as ice.
4. Kabibi's teeth are like pearls.
5. Her eyes sparkle like diamonds.
6. She sings like a bird.
7. Rukundo drives like a wind.
8. Mary is just as cute as a button.
9. In August the weather is hot as Hades.
10. The baby was as quiet as a mouse.

1.2.6. Jargon
Jargon has more than one meaning. It can refer to the specialized vocabulary of a particular group
of people who do the same work or who share the same interests, such as computer users, social
workers, actors, short-order cooks, lawyers, doctors, government bureaucrats, teachers, and
sports writers. Jargon also can refer to language that is almost incoherent, especially language
that is full of unnecessarily long or obscure words and cumbersome, roundabout sentences. This
kind of jargon also uses a large number of clichés. It usually says much less than it first appears
to.

Jargon in the first sense is perfectly acceptable, especially when the person using it is addressing
a member of his or her own group. Writers must chiefly be aware of the second kind of jargon
the kind of language that obscures rather than clarifies meaning.

Exercise
The sentences that follow contain jargon that obliterates meaning. Rewrite each of them in plain,
precise English.
1 The pilot experienced some apprehensions as the plane fell toward the ground.
2. I am speaking in reference to your comment of yesterday
3. I have deemed it advantageous to terminate our association
4 The computer has been rendered inoperative and cannot be utilized.
5. Her uncle passed away during the armed conflict at Masisi.

1.3. Appropriate Diction

You know that, as you prepare to write, you must first find a subject and limit it to a manageable
size; you next gather details that will illustrate your topic or support your opinion. Before you
start writing, you should also consider your diction.
The kind of diction you use depends on three factors:
 i. Your audience,
ii. Your purpose in writing, and
iii. The tone or attitude you want to convey to your subject or the mood you wish to create

1.3.1. Audience
In your lifetime, you will write for many different audiences. In a higher school, you write chiefly
to your lecturers, but you also write letters to personal friends, and perhaps you write for the
school newspaper. You might someday have to write a personal statement for the college you
wish to attend. In your adult life, you will address many other kinds of audiences. You will have
to consider the appropriate diction for each audience.

Exercise
Complete one of the following assignments
1. Explain how to teach a vocabulary lesson to your uncle who has never heard of teaching
a lesson.
2. In a paragraph, explain the same lesson to your ELTM lecturer.
3. In a paragraph, do the same to your classmate.

1.3.2. Purpose
Writing, like any kind of communication, can have many purposes. The first and perhaps the most
common is to give information. That would be your purpose in answering essay questions or in
writing a report on AIDS for a biologic class. Another purpose may be to share an emotion to
capture an experience in words, perhaps in poetry or fiction. Still another might be to convince
someone to think as you do, perhaps to agree with you that "The Pear" has a happy ending. Most
difficult of all, your purpose may be to persuade someone to act in a certain way, such as to vote
for someone.

You will choose your diction with your purpose in mind. Informative writing must use words that
are precise and unambiguous.

Descriptive writing must use words that evoke emotions and appeal to the sense, particularly the
sense of sight.

Writing that argues a point or presents a persuasive case often uses words with strong
connotative associations in order to influence an audience's opinions.

Exercise
Complete one of the following assignments.
 1. Write a paragraph in which your purpose is to convince a reader to accept your point of
view about a topic in the news today.
2. Write a paragraph in which your purpose is to describe as precisely as possible a Scene,
an animal, an object or a person. You could choose the window you see, the clothes you
are wearing, the book you are holding, the food that is cooking on the stove. Use at least
three words that will help bring the subject to life for your reader, calling upon whatever
senses are appropriate sight, sound, smell, taste, feeling.

1.3.3. Tone
Tone refers to your attitude toward your subject or your audience. Tone can always be described
by an adjective: formal, informal, lighthearted, serious, critical, bitter, condescending, mocking,
sympathetic, admiring, romantic ironic, emotional, disgusted, and loving. When you read, you
detect tone from the diction the writer chooses. In the same way, your own tone in writing will
be controlled by your diction.

If you want to convey an informal tone you will use an informal diction, possibly some
colloquialisms.

If you want to convey a formal, serious tone, you will avoid any diction that suggests a casua
conversation.

If you want to express a tone of admiration, you must find positive words that reveal your feeling.

If you want to express a tone of apprehension, you must find words that suggest fear or
uneasiness.

It you want to express a critical or mocking tone, you must use words that ridicule.

Almost all writing reveals some tone. Text books and scientific articles often have a neutral none,
because this suits the writers purpose. But in fiction, drama, essays, editorials, sport articles,
biographies, and autobiographies, you will detect a tone, an attitude that the writer is revealing
This tone is communicated largely through diction.

1.5. Connection Between Ideas

Direct references and transitional expressions are useful for connecting the ideas within and
between sentences.
1.4.1. Direct References
Direct references are words and phrases that remind the reader of ideas already mentioned. They
may be pronouns, repeated words and phrases, or synonyms.

Exercise

Read the following paragraph and find words or phrases that refer to ideas presented earlier.

Sometimes when you face a multiple-choice question on a test, you realize that you do not know
the correct answer. You may, however, be able to determine it by a process of elimination. In this
process, you consider all the choices one by one, questioning the reasonableness of each. Some
will be obviously absurd and may be eliminated. The one that is left should be a safe guess.

1.4.2. Transitional Expressions

Transitional expressions are words and phrases that indicate the relationship between ideas.
They can be grouped according to the kind of relationship they indicate.

a. To link similar ideas or add an idea.

Again, also, and, another, besides, equally important, for instance, further, furthermore, in
aaaltion, in a like manner, in the same way, likewise, moreover, of course, similarly, then, too,
etc.

b. To limit or contradict an idea

Although, and yet, as if, but, conversely, even if, however, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, nor,
on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, provided that, still, yet, etc.

c. To indicate cause, purpose, or result

AS, as a result, because, consequently, for, for this reason, hence, since, so, then, therefore, thus,
etc.

d. To indicate time or position

Above, across, afterward, around, at once, before, beyond, eventually, finally, first (second, etc.),
here, meanwhile, nearly, next, now, opposite to, thereafter, thereupon, etc.

e. To indicate an example, a summary, or a conclusion

As a result, consequently, for example, for instance, in any case, in any event, in brief, in
conclusion, in fact, in other words, in short, on the whole, to sum up, in a nutshell, therefore,
thus, briefly, in summary, etc.
Exercise
Find, in the following paragraph, transitional expressions that tie the ideas together and show
their relative importance.

The informal essay reveals its author's thoughts and feelings on a subject in a personal, informal,
and entertaining way. To create interest, the writer often relies on vivid incidents and anecdotes
to support the essay's central idea. Because the informal essay is so personal, its organization
may be looser than more formal essays. However, the writer of a successful informal essay is
careful to develop a main point about the subject and follow a distinct plan set out in the
prewriting stage. Otherwise, the essay would ramble, annoying and boring the audience with a
jumble of details.
Chapter Two: PREWRITINNG

Prewriting is the planning and preparation that you do before you write. This is the foundation
on which you will base your writing. During prewriting, you gather ideas, develop them, and
decide what to write about. You also consider what your purpose is and whom you are writing
for.

2.1. Finding Ideas for Writing

a) Keeping a Writer's Notebook

A writer’s notebook can be a folder or a binder in which you keep notes and clippings that might
give you ideas for writing assignments. Keep a writer s notebook in one way to identity your ideas
and have them at your finger-tips. In your notebook you can keep an inventory of your interests
and a list of your experiences, which can supply you with ideas to develop your writing. The
purpose of the notebook is to identify and record your ideas in a convenient place for later
development. Use the following strategies to collect ideas for your writer's notebook.

Take notes on anything that you see, hear, think, or do that you want to remember.
Record interesting comments that you hear people make and your reactions to their
comments.
Include articles, advertisements, pictures and cartoons.

b) Taking an Interest Inventory

An interest inventory is an itemized list of your interests. It can include subjects about which you
would like to know more and subjects in which you are now interested. Part of interested
inventory might look like this:

What I know about dogs, television trivia, gardening, etc.

What l want to know about careers in television, organic gardening, coin collecting, etc.
Groups belong to: chorus, football team, college, etc.
Skills I would like to have: teaching, typing, playing the piano, speed reading, etc.

c) Drawing upon Your Experience

Your experiences are another valuable source of ideas for writing. You may be surprised to
discover how many possible writing subjects can come from a single experience. Suppose, for
example, that you accompanied the school team on a bus ride to a neighboring town for a playoff
game. You could draw on that experience to write about the following subjects:

• Songs teenagers sing on a bus ride,

• Effective cheerleading,
• How athletes prepare themselves mentally.

2.2. Gathering and Developing Ideas

You can develop any ideas by making lists of information related to it and by asking and answering
questions about it.

a) Making Lists

When you have chosen a subject to write about, begin developing it by writing down all the ideas
and information about it that come to your mind. Then expand your list by writing down any
related ideas that your imagination connects with the subject. Do not discard any idea or try to
organize the list. At this point, your purpose is to let your ideas flow freely and to get them down
on paper.

b) Asking Questions

Asking and answering questions about your subject will help you to develop it further. With your
list of ideas in front of you, write questions that begin with who, what, when, where, why, and
how. If you do not have the answers to your questions, ask someone who might know, or look
for the answers in a book, a magazine, or another source.

2.3. Focusing your Ideas

To focus the ideas that you have collected, you must identify your purpose and your audience
and choose a suitable topic.

a) Identifying your Purpose and your Audience ▪

Purpose
Your purpose is what you plan to accomplish with your writing. The most common purposes for
writing are to inform, or explain, to tell a story, to describe, to convince, and to express an
opinion.
▪ Audience
Your audience is the reader or the group of readers for whom your writing is intended. As a writer,
you decide to whom your writing is directed.
b) Choosing a Topic
With your purpose and your audience in mind, you can choose your topic. A topic is a specific
aspect of your subject. Your topic should indicate what you will say about your subject. For
example:

Subject: gem stones

What you will say: cutting diamonds into gems

Topic: how diamonds are given sparkle.

In this example, the purpose is to inform, and the audience is composed of people who do not
know what makes diamonds sparkle.
Chapter Three: WRITING PARAGRAPHS
3.1. What is a Paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences that work together as a team to discuss a single idea. We
can also define a paragraph as a series of sentences that develop a single idea or topic. You can
write a paragraph for any of several purposes, but all paragraphs have one thing in common:
each sentence relates to the same topic. A group of unrelated sentences is not a paragraph.

Most paragraphs are made up of a topic sentence, a series of supporting sentences, and a
concluding sentence.

A topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph. It is usually best to place it at the beginning
of a paragraph so that your readers will know immediately what the paragraph is about.

The supporting sentences explain or develop what is stated in the topic sentence. Each
supporting sentence should provide information that is related to the main idea.

A concluding sentence usually summarizes the supporting sentences, states a conclusion related
to the main idea, or otherwise brings the paragraph to a close. In some paragraphs a concluding
paragraph is not needed.

One of the most important characteristics of a paragraph is unity. A paragraph has unity when all
the supporting sentences relate to the main idea.

3.2. Planning a Paragraph

a) Selecting and Limiting a Topic
When selecting a topic, choose a subject that you know something about or that you are
interested in studying. The topic that you select may be too general to develop in a few sentences.
For example, if you choose a topic such as "teaching," you will find that you have too much to
write about. On the other hand, if you limit the topic to "how to teach a grammar lesson," you
will be able to cover your topic completely in a paragraph.
b) Listing and Choosing Details
Listing details about your topic will often help to limit it further. Begin by writing down your
general topic and listing below it as many related details as you can. Some of the details may be
ideas that you already have in your writer's notebook. Others may be ideas that you find by
looking in reference books or by asking questions. The following is an example of this kind of
list………………...................................................................................................
3.3. Writing a Topic Sentence
To be effective, a topic sentence must state precisely the idea that unifies the other sentences in
a paragraph. It should be neither too general nor too narrow.

A topic sentence is too general if it leads you readers to believe that the paragraph will discuss
more than it actually does discuss. An example of a topic sentence that is too general is "every
season of the year has its specific beauty," followed by sentences that describe the beauties of
only two of the four seasons.

Your topic sentence also should not be too narrow. An example of a topic sentence that is too
narrow is "television networks do a fine job of covering sports, followed by sentences that discuss
not only television sports coverage but also television news coverage.

Before writing a topic sentence, you should look over the list of details that you have chosen for
your limited topic. This will give your clear picture of what you are and are not going to discuss in
your paragraph and will help you to write an appropriate topic sentence.

3.4. Writing Supporting Sentences

While your topic sentence provides a brief look at your main idea, your supporting sentences
provide a detailed picture of that idea. You create this picture by choosing supporting details
according to your purpose If your purpose is to describe a person or an object or to tell about an
event, your supporting sentences will most likely contain facts, which could be descriptive details
or a series of events.

If your purpose is to explain, then your supporting sentences will probably give examples. You
may develop a paragraph with facts on examples, or you may use a combination of the two.

3.5. Organizing Supporting Sentences

Three effective ways of arranging the details in a paragraph are chronological order, spatial order,
and order of importance.

a) Chronological Order
Chronological order is a way of organizing events or steps in the time order in which they take
place. When you use chronological order, you begin with what happens first, and end with what
happens last. Chronological order is useful for telling a story or explaining how to do something.
The following are among the most commonly used transitional words and phrases: after, after a
while, afterward, as soon as, at first, before, earlier, first, finally, in the end, in time, later,
meanwhile, next, then, while, etc.

b) Spatial Order
Spatial order is a way of organizing details according to their location in space. To use spatial
order, you choose a starting point, decide on a direction, and then move in that direction.
Chapter Four: DESCRIBING, EXPLAINING, AND NARRATING

4.1. Describing
a) Describing a Place
When you write a description of a place, your purpose is to make your readers feel as though
they were there. The following suggestions will help you to describe a place effectively.

i. Begin with a topic sentence. ii.

Select only the best details.
iii. Arrange the details in an order that is easy to follow (from left to right, top to bottom, front
to back, ...) iv. Use words and phrases that emphasise the order in which the details are
arranged. Phrases such as in the middle, near the top, in front of .. help your reader to see the
place that you are describing

Model
Located near the Prince William Sound in southeastern Alaska, Columbia Glacier is an impressive
sight. At its top, three hundred feet in the air, are jagged peaks of ice and snow that seem to
blend into the gray sky behind them. Farther down, the face of the glacier is marked with many
horizontal and vertical lines, but it also contains large, flat smooth areas. Shadows on the middle
on the middle of the face make the snow there appear to be a bright blue. At the bottom of the
glacier, the ice cliff meets the ocean. There the ice seems to be as deep blue as the ocean is. Often
large chunks of ice break off the glacier. They crash down into the water creating a great spray.

b) Describing People

When you write a description of a place, your purpose is to make your readers feel as though
they have met that person. The following strategies will help you to describe a person effectively.

i. Introduce in your topic sentence the person whom you will describe.
ii. Choose the best details. You should include details that capture the uniqueness of that
person. Using the details from several senses will help you to reveal a person's
uniqueness. For example, you can describe the sound of the person's voice, the texture
of the hair or skin, or smell of soap or perfume.
iii. Include details that describe your subject's motions. Tell how the person stands, sits,
walks, moves hands and head, and use facial expressions.
iv. Arrange the details in a logical order. (For example, group together related details, put
the groups in a logical order use spatial order going from head to foot or from foot to
head.)
 v. Use specific words.

Model
John Cleaver enters his brilliantly lit barn. He pauses momentarily as his pupils contract and then
strolls into a maze of sturdy wire enclosures. Beads of perspiration slowly work their way out on
his forehead and start journeying down the wrinkles in his aged face. His clean white coveralls
begin to stick to his dampened skin. The heat makes his face redder and shinier than usual, setting
off his white hair and yellowish eyes.

4.2. Explaining
a) Explaining What Something Is
One basic kind of explanation is the definition of a word. You usually define a word by placing it
in a general class and pointing out one or more of its characteristics. Study the following
examples.

Word: eland
Class: African antelope
Characteristics: light brown or gray coat, spirally twisted horns.
Definition: an eland is an African antelope with a light brown or gray coat and spirally twisted
horns.

Although you can often define a word in a single sentence, some words require more explanation.
You can expand a definition by presenting examples and details that may include information
about the origin and history of the word. The writer of the following model paragraph defines a
word and then expands that definition.

Acronyms are words formed from the first letters of titles or series of words. An early acronym
was scuba, which stands for "self-contained underwater breathing apparatus." Because
acronyms are much easier to say than the series of words that they stand for, they are widely
used. Other commonly used acronyms are NASA (National Aeronautics and Space
Administration), UNICEF (United Nations International Children's Education Fund), and laser
(light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation). Acronyms make it possible to identify
and say long titles quickly. Today some new organizations choose their official names so that they
will become easily recognizable acronyms.
b) Explaining How to Get to a Place
Another type of explanation tells how to get from one place to another. Writing directions for
someone to follow requires care and attention to details. If you follow these guidelines, you will
write directions that are clear to your reader.
 i. Begin with a topic sentence. For example, you might write, "Here is the best way to get
from your house to Mt Goma Institute by taking public transportation."
ii. Divide the explanation into steps, and present them in chronological order.
iii. Use transitional words to make clear the order of the steps. Transitional words such as
first, then, next, now, and finally signal your reader that a new step is beginning. You can
also make use of these expressions: go straight ahead, turn right/left, go past
iv. Give complete and accurate information.
v. Include only the essential details.

c) Explain How to make or Do Something

A third kind of explanation tells how to make or do something. When you write this sort of
explanation, you should follow the guidelines that you use when you write directions for getting
from one place to another. You need to keep in mind three additional guidelines, however.

i. Limit your topic.

ii. Mention any tool or supplies that will be needed. Give this information early in the
paragraph so that you reader can have all the necessary equipment at hand. If any of the
items are unusual, you should explain them.
iii. End with a concluding sentence if possible.

4.3. Narration
a) Planning your Narrative
Choosing a Topic
Choosing a suitable topic, or story idea, is the first step in planning a narrative. You may decide
to tell a story about something that happened to you or to someone whom you know. In either
case, you will write about the real people who participated in the actions of the story.

On the other hand, you may decide to write a fictional narrative, for which you will make up the
actions, the characters, or both. However, a fictional narrative does not have to come entirely
from your imagination. It may come from one of your experiences, which you can narrate as
fiction by changing the details. It could also come from the experiences of other people.

Whether you are writing a true or a fictional story, you must build it around a specific problem
or situation. Otherwise, your narrative will wonder aimlessly.
 Listing the Characters
After you have chosen a topic, the next step is to make a list of the important characters in your
story. If you write a story about something that happened to you, you will be one of the
characters along with the other people who were part of that experience. If you write a fictional
story, the characters will come from your imagination, but you may model them on people whom
you know.

Planning the Actions

A good story answers the question "what happened?" In a one-paragraph story, you should write
about a series of connected actions that occur within a few hours or on the same day. In a large
story, you should plan to place each group of related actions in a paragraph of its own.

Every story that you write – whether it has one paragraph or many paragraphs – must have a
beginning, middle, and an ending.

i. The beginning
At the beginning of your story, you must introduce the characters and the setting. You should
also present the situation or problem that must be settled by the end of the story.
ii. The middle
In the middle of your story, you must narrate the actions that include the high point- the action
that create the most excitement or suspense.
ii. The ending
At the end of your story, you must make clear how the situation or problem is settled. The ending
should be definite. It should tell your reader how the action concludes and what happens to the
characters.

In your prewriting notes, list the actions that you plan to include in all the parts of your story. List
the actions in chronological order, the order in which they happen.
Chapter Five: WRITING LETTERS
4.1. Writing Social Letters
The purpose of a social letter is to convey friendship, and sometimes thanks to a friend, a relative,
or an acquaintance. A good social letter can be as rewarding as an actual visit. In this section you
will learn how to make your letters interesting and entertaining.

Parts of a Social Letter

i. Heading. The heading is your mailing address. It has three lines. In the first line, write
your street address. Include an apartment number, if you have one, or use a route and
box number. In the second line, write your city, state, and zip code. In the third line, write
the month, day, and year

ii. Salutation. The salutation is a greeting. Capitalize the first word and all names. Put a
comma after the salutation

iii. Body. The body of the social letter contains your message. Refer to events, people or
places that you and your reader have written or talked about in the past, and include
current news. Write the body in paragraphs.

iv. Complementary close. Place the complementary close below the body and to the right.
Use a phrase that expresses your affection courteously, such as yours truly or
affectionately or with love, and follow it with a comma.
v. Signature. Sign your name bellow the complementary close.

Addressing the Envelope

Write the address of the person who will receive the letter just below and a little to the right of
the center of the envelope. In the first line, write the receiver’s name. Always include a title, such
as Mr., Mrs., Ms., or Miss. In the second line, write the exact street address. In the third line,
write the city, state, and zip code.
In the upper-left corner of the envelope, write your return address. In the first line, write your
name; in the second, your street address; in the third, your city, state, and zip code. Be sure that
all information is complete and correct.

5.2. Writing Business Letters

You will occasionally need to write a business letter to place an order or make a request. Your
letter should always be neat, courteous, and clearly written.
 a) Form and Content Parts of a Business Letters
i. Heading. Place the three lines of the heading in the upper-right corner of your letter or
in the upper-left corner, depending on which letter style you use. Write your street
address or your route number in the first line. In the second line, write your city, state,
and zip code. Write the month, day, and year in the third line.
ii. Inside Address. The inside address usually has four lines. It you are sending your letter to
a particular person, write that person's name or title in the first line. In the second line,
write the name of the company. In the third line, give the street address or postal box
number of the company. In the last line, give the city, state, and zip code.
iii. Salutation. Use Dear Sir or Madam if you do not know the person who will read your
letter. Always use a colon after the salutation.
iv. Body. The body of the letter contains the paragraphs that state your message.
v. Complementary Close. Put the complementary close either at the left margin or slightly
to the right of the center, depending on which letter writing style you are using. Yours
truly or sincerely yours or sincerely are appropriate complementary close for business
letters.
vi. Signature. Always write your full name under the complementary close in longhand, even
if you type your letter. Then type or print your name below your signature.

Addressing the Envelop

Place the same address that you used for the inside address on the front of the envelope. Write
or type it slightly below and a little to the right of the center. You may also include the return
address.

b) The Request Letter

When you need information or when you wish someone to do a favour for you, you have to
Written a request letter Begin your letter by stating your purpose, give any necessary background
information and finish your letter with a courteous statement. Use the following strategies when
you are writing a request letter.
i) Give specific details about what you want.
ii) Provide the necessary background information. Mention why you are making your
request of this particular person or organization.
iii) Make your request courteously.
iv) Include a self address, stamped envelope, when necessary, for the convenience of the
person you are writing.
c) The Order Letter
When you write to order an item through the mail, you may sometimes have to write an order
letter. Use the following strategies.
i) Mention where you saw the item advertised. If you are ordering from a catalogue, give
the date and number
ii) Include all the necessary information about the item that you wish to purchase: quality,
name, model number, and price. Often you will need to give size, colour, and weight as
well
iii) Say how you will pay for the merchandise. Do not send cash. Use a check or a money
order.
iv) Indicate whether you need to have the order filled by a certain date.
v) Write the word enclosure in the bottom left corner if you have enclosed your payment.
Chapter Six: WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER
A research paper is a piece of academic writing based on its author's original research on a
particular topic, and the analysis and interpretation of the research findings. It can be either a
term paper, a master's thesis or a doctoral dissertation. This chapter outlines the logical steps to
writing a good research paper.

1. How to Start a Research Paper? Choose a Topic

Choose the topic which interests and challenges you. Your attitudes towards the topic may well
determine the amount of effort and enthusiasm you put into your research.

Focus on a limited aspect for instance, narrow it down from "Education/Teaching" to "Linguistics"
to "Pragmatics finally to "Speech Acts" Obtain teacher approval for your topic before embarking
on a full-scale research.

Select a topic you can manage, avoid subjects that are too technical, learned, or specialized. Avoid
topics that have only a very narrow range of source materials.

Exercise
List five possible subjects for a research paper. Then select one for the subject of your research
paper.

2. Find Information
Take notes on your research, checking out print materials available in the library:
Almanacs, Atlases, AV Catalogues;
Encyclopedias and Dictionaries;
Government Publications, Guides, Reports; Magazines, Newspapers, etc.
Check out outlines sources, web based information services, or special resource materials on CDS:
Online Reference Materials;
Google Scholar;
Index to Periodicals and Newspapers (e.g. Mag Portal. Com, Online Newspapers.com,
etc.)
Answers.com an online dictionary encyclopedia all-in one resource that can install on your
computer free of charge and find one -click answers quickly;
Encyclopedias (e.g. Britannica, Canada Encyclopedia, etc.)
Magazines and Journals;
Newspapers;
International Public Library;
 Subject Specific Software (e.g. discovering authors, exploring Shakespeare, etc.)

Check out public and university libraries, businesses, government agencies, as well as contact
knowledgeable people in your community.
Read and evaluate. Bookmark your favorite internet sites. Printout, photocopy, and take notes of
relevant information.

As you gather your resources, jot down full bibliographical information (author, title, place of
publication, publisher, date of publication, page numbers, URLS, creation or modification dates
on web pages, and your date of access) on your work sheet, printout, or enter the information
on your laptop or desktop computer for later retrieval, If printing from internet, it is wise to set
up the browser to print the URL and date of access for every page. Remember that an article
without bibliographical information is useless since you cannot cite its source.

3. Make your Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is a main idea, a central point of your research paper. It limits the scope of
your topic, revealing both your purpose and attitudes. It also controls the direction of your
research by stating what you intend to show in the paper. The arguments you provide in your
paper should be based on this central idea. In a more formal sense, the thesis is a proposition
you will prove or support with the rest of your paper. A thesis statement should be a declarative
sentence.

Since your thesis statement should reflect the formal, objective tone appropriate to a research
paper, choose your words carefully. Avoid slang and words that suggest an informal, personal
tone (1 think, why like, in my opinion, etc.). Remember that you may revise your thesis statement
as you work on your research paper.

It is important to create a thesis statement immediately when you have just started fulfilling your
assignment. Before you write a thesis statement, you should collect, organize, and analyses
materials and your ideas. You cannot make a finally formulated statement before you have
completed your research paper. It will naturally change while you develop your ideas.

4. Make a Research Paper Outline

A research paper basically has the following outline:
i) Title page (including the title, the author's name, the name of the university or college,
and the publication date),
ii) Abstract (brief summary of a page of 250 words or less), iii) Introduction (background
information of the topic or a brief comment leading to the subject matter- up to two
pages).
 iv) Manuscript body, which can be broken down in further sections, depending on the nature
of research.
Materials and methods,
Results (what are the results obtained?), Discussion and
conclusion, etc. v) Reference vi) Tables, figures, and appendix
(optional).

The purpose of an outline is to help you think through your topic carefully and organize it carefully
before you start writing. A good outline is the most important step in writing a good paper. Check
your outline to make sure that the points covered flow logically from one to the other. Include in
your outline an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Make the first outline tentative.

a) Introduction
State your thesis and the purpose of your research clearly, What is the chief reason you are
writing the paper? State also how you plan to approach your topic. 1s this a factual report, a book
review, a comparison, or an analysis of a problem? Explain briefly the major points you plan to
cover in your paper and why readers should be interested in your topic.

b) Body

This is where you present your arguments to support your thesis statement.

c) Conclusion
Restate or reword your thesis. Summarise your arguments. Explain why you have come to this
particular conclusion

All points of a research paper outline must relate to the same major topic that you first mentioned
in your capital Roman numeral.

Example of an outline:
I. Introduction (Brief Thesis Statement on Shakespeare) II.
Body Shakespeare's Early Life
1. Early life in Stratford
1.1. Shakespeare's Family
1.1.1. Shakespeare's Father
1.1.2. Shakespeare's Mother
1.2. Shakespeare's Marriage
1.2.1. Life of Ann Hathaway
1.2.2. Reference in Shakespeare's Position
2. Shakespeare's Works
2.1. Plays
2.1.1. Tragedies
2.1.1.1. Hamlet
2.1.1.2. Romeo and Juliet

2.1.2. Comedies
2.1.2.1. The Tempest
2.1.2.2. Much Ado About Nothing
2.1.3. Histories
2.1.3.1. King John
2.1.3.2. Richard III
2.1.3.3. Henry VIII
2.2. Sonnets
2.3. Other Poems
3. Shakespeare's Late Years
3.1. Last Two Plays
3.2. Retired to Stratford
3.2.1. Death
3.2.2. Burial
3.2.2.1. Epitaph on his Tombstone
III. Conclusion

5. Organize your Notes

Organize all the information you have gathered according to your outline. Critically analyse your
research data using the best available sources, check for accuracy and verify that the information
is factual, up-to-date, and correct. Opposing views should also be noted if they help to support
your thesis. This is the most important stage in writing a research paper. Here you will analyse,
synthesise, sort, and digest the information you have gathered and hopefully learn something
about your topic which is the real purpose of doing a research paper in the first place You must
also be able to effectively communicate your thoughts, ideas, insights, and research findings to
others through written words as in report, an essay, a research or term paper, or through spoken
words as in an oral or multimedia presentation with audio-visual aids.

Do not include any information that is not relevant to your topic, and do not include information
that you do not understand. Make sure the information that you have noted is carefully recorded
and in your own words, is possible. Plagiarism is definitely out of the question. Document all ideas
borrowed or quotes used very accurately. As you organize your notes, jot down detailed
bibliographical information for each cited paragraph and have it ready to transfer to your works
cited page.

Devise your own method to organize your notes. One method may be to mark with a different
colour in or use a hi-liter to identify sections in your outline, e.g., IA3b meaning that the item
"Bahunde's formal greetings belongs to the formal location of the outline:
I. Hunde culture
A. What is Hunde Culture?
3. Bahunde's Lifestyle
b. Bahunde's Formal Greetings

Group your notes following the outline codes you have assigned to your notes, e.g., IA2, IA3, IA4,
etc. This method will enable you to quickly put your resources in the right place as you organize
your notes according to your outline.

6. Write your First Draft

Start with the first topic in your outline. Read all the relevant notes you have gathered that have
been marked, e.g. with the capital Roman numeral I.

Summarise, paraphrase or quote directly each idea you plan to use in your essay. Use a technique
that suits you, e.g. write summaries, paraphrases or quotations on note cards, or separate sheets
of lined paper. Mark each card or sheet of paper clearly with your outline code or reference, for
instance, 1B2a or IIC, etc.

Put all your note cards or paper in the order of your outline, e.g. IA, 1B, IC. If using a word
processor, create meaningful filenames that match your outline codes for easy cut and paste as
you type up your final paper, e.g. cut first introduction paragraph and paste it to IA. Before you
know it, you have a well organized term paper completed exactly as outlined If it is helpful to
you, see a symbol such as " to mark the spot where you would like to check back later to edit a
paragraph. The unusual symbol will make it easy for you to find the exact location again. Delete
the symbol once editing is completed.

7. Revise your Outline and Draft

Read your paper for any content errors, Double check the facts and figures. Arrange and
rearrange ideas to follow your outline. Reorganize your outline if necessary, but always keep the
purpose of your paper and your readers in' mind. Use a free grammar and proof reading checker
such as grammar. Put yourself the following questions:

Is my thesis statement concise and clear?

 Did I follow my outline? Did I miss anything?
Are my arguments presented in a logical sequence?
Are all sources properly cited to ensure that I am not plagiarizing?
Have I proved my thesis with strong supporting arguments?
Have I made my intentions and points clear in the essay?

Reread your paper for grammatical errors. Use a dictionary or a thesaurus as needed. Do a spell
check. Correct all errors that you can spot and improve the overall quality of the paper to the
best of your ability. Get someone else to read it over. Sometimes a second pair of eyes can see
mistakes that you missed. Then, find out responses to this checklist:

Did I begin each paragraph with a paper topic sentence?

Have I supported my arguments with documented proof or examples?
Any run-on or unfinished sentence?
Any unnecessary or repetitious works?
Varying length of sentences?
Does one paragraph or idea flow smoothly into the next Any spelling or grammatical
errors?
Quotes accurate in source, spelling, and punctuation Are all my citations accurate and
in correct format?
Did I avoid using contractions? Use "cannot" instead of "can't," "do not" instead "don't'?
Did I use third person as much as possible? Avoid using phrases such as "I think," "I guess,
I suppose
Have I made my points clear and interesting but remained objective?
Did I leave a sense of completion for my reader at the end of the paper?

8. Type Final Paper

All formal report or essays should be typewritten and printed, preferably on a good quality
printer.

Read the assignment again to be sure that you understand fully what is expected of you, and that
your essay meets the requirements as specified by your teacher. Know how your essay will be
evaluated.

Proofread final paper carefully for spelling, punctuation, missing or duplicated words. Make the
effort to ensure that your final paper is clean, tidy, neat, and attractive. Aim to have your final
paper ready a day or two before the deadline. This gives you peace of mind and a chance to triple
check. Before handing in your assignment for marking, ask yourself. "Is this the very best that I
can do?"
COURSE BIBLIOGRAPH
A.J. Thomson and A.V. Martinet (1986) A Practical English Grammar, OUP, Oxford
Ann Cole Brown et all. (1984) Grammar and Composition, Boston, Atlanta
Arnold J. at all. (1990) Advanced Writing Skills, London: London
Chaphen F. (1970) Paragraph Writing, London, Oxford
Ingram B. (1988) From Writing to Composition: An Introduction Composition Course for Students
of English, CUP
John E. Warriner (1986) English Composition and Grammar, USA, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
Publishers
Jordan RF (1990) Academic Writing, London Collins - ELT
Phyllis R. (1995) God's Gift of Language Writing and Grammar: Work Text for Christian Schools
USA
William Strunk, Jra (1918) The Elements of Style, Bartleby.Com