ENG114

_______ Academic Writing _______ ___ __ _

Macroskills in Communication
-​ Language is expressed in four ways: reading, speaking, writing and listening.
These are also defined as the macro skills of communication. These macro
skills are utilized by essentially all languages. Babies develop language skills
by first listening and then speaking, followed by reading and writing.
(Sharma, R., 2018)

1.​ Reading
-​ Reading has many benefits, including improving memory by exercising
the brain, increasing vocabulary, and exposing you to new ideas.
2.​ Writing
-​ Writing is perhaps the most complex of the communication skills and
takes the most time to master.
3.​ Listening
-​ Active listening is considered the most effective because the listener is
not only listening with interest, but actively acknowledging listening by
brief responses.
4.​ Speaking
-​ Speaking can be an intimidating experience, even in your native
tongue, let alone when learning a new language.
-​ The best way to learn how to speak, though, is by practicing, so put
your inhibitions aside and strike up a conversation whenever you are
given an opportunity to do so.

Personal writing vs. Academic writing

A good writer doesn’t become a great writer overnight. Improving your writing skills
requires hard work and constant practice on a regular basis. Even the best writers
perform various writing exercises to keep their abilities sharp and the creativity
flowing.
– MasterClass

Writing
-​ Writing is a form of communication that is shaped by the topics, themes and
ideas.
-​ Your choice of topic will determine the message that you will impart to your
readers. Writing academic papers involves a certain amount of data
gathering.

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 -​ Just like other kinds of writing, academic writing has a specific purpose
which is to inform, to argue a specific point, and to persuade.

Academic Writing
-​ Academic writing is a PROCESS that​
starts with posting a question,​
problematizing a concept, evaluating an​
opinion, and ends in answering the​
question or questions posted, clarifying​
the problem or arguing for a stand
-​ Academic writing is thinking; Writing academic papers requires deliberate,
thorough, and careful thought. You cannot write anything without having
enough knowledge.
-​ The writer has to be aware of the bigger conversation:​
About what people say on the issue or topic before issuing claims or
formulating conclusions.
-​ You should not be limited by your opinions and experiences on a topic.
-​ To be credible and effective writers, we need to pursue conviction with
the words we write by developing a deeper understanding of what we
are talking about - what we are delivering to our audience.

Rhetorical Patterns used in Academic Writing

1.​ Descriptive Writing
-​ Explains a topic or issue by clarifying and giving information.
-​ Present the details of the results.
2.​ Persuasive Writing
-​ Giving information that has been restructured accommodate several
opinions.
-​ Provide convincing arguments.
3.​ Analytical Writing
-​ Rearranging and classifying the facts in a logical sequence.
-​ Evaluate the merits of your topic as you discuss your findings.
4.​ Critical Writing
-​ Requires you to evaluate, assess, debate, critique, disagree, and
consider.
-​ Weigh your own assumptions but also the merit of the alternative
arguments.

Academic writing vs. Non-academic writing

Definition Academic writing is a formal Non-academic writing is

and objective style of writing an informal and often
that is intended for scholarly personal style of writing.

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 purposes.

Audience Academia Mass public

Purpose Inform the readers with solid Inform, entertain, or

evidence persuade the readers

Style Formal and impersonal Personal, impressionistic,

emotional, or subjective

Structure Standard structure No rigid structure

Language Formal language avoids Informal and casual

colloquialisms language may contain
colloquialisms

Citations & Contain citations and Often do not contain

Reference references citations and references

Examples Research papers, dissertations, Newspaper, magazine

scholarly articles articles, memoirs, letters,
digital media, etc.

If academic writing is personal, why should certain standards be followed?

-​ Academic writing is said to be personal because it is written from a point of
view of the writer.
-​ However, certain conventions have to be followed because academic writing
is informed writing.
-​ “You have to abide by the set rules and practices and writing.” – Saqueton &
Uychoco, 2016
-​ This makes academic writing different from a personal narrative or a creative
essay, or a legal document, in which the knowledge of the writer is assumed
to be greater than that of the readers.

Writing considerations for academic papers:

1.​ Purpose
-​ Writing must be clear - language, style, and tone must be appropriate
to convey your purpose.
-​ “What is the need for writing?”
-​ “What doIwantmy readers to gain from this?”
2.​ Language
-​ Writing must be appropriate and formal.
-​ It is the use of professional and businesslike language
-​ Academic writing uses a language that is concise, precise, logical and
inclusive.
3.​ Audience’s
-​ Knowledge and background must be considered.

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 -​ Your audience will determine the language of your paper.
-​ The assumption is that your audience is composed of people who are
knowledgeable on the subject that you are writing about thus it is very
important to demonstrate your thorough understanding on the subject
that you are discussing.
4.​ Statements
-​ Must be backed up with strong and valid evidence that involves a
deliberate, thorough, and careful thought through research.

Academic writing – identifying the writer’s purpose, tone and text’s relevance helps
us better understand academic texts.
-​ It involves questions and issues that need to be evaluated and analyzed
methodically.
-​ It heavily relies on the credibility of facts and evidence.
-​ It abides by certain rules and standards, and language is formal but not too
pretentious.

Understanding Academic Texts:

-​ Writer’s purpose
1.​ To Inform
-​ Seeks to inform, to teach. To add to the reader’s knowledge by
way of new ideas.
-​ “Dr. Ty claimed that teachers should be skilled in developing
valid grading procedures and communicating these assessment
results.”
2.​ To Entertain
-​ To state a narrative in an academic way; uses the conventions
of formal writing while writing about a personal experience.
-​ “Even then, I thrived on solitude and found it easier to
articulate my thoughts on paper than to verbalize them.”
3.​ To Persuade
-​ To influence readers to take a particular stance or belief.
-​ “However, you do it, taking the route to a healthy diet is always
the better choice if you want to reap the benefits of overall
health and well-being for many years to come.”
4.​ To Inspire
-​ To uplift, to make someone feel better or be enlightened.
-​ “Remember that each of us is unique, We each have a talent
unlike that of others, and we will be held accountable for how
we use our gifts.”

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 -​ Writer’s tone (A writer often creates the tone he wants to convey through his
choice of words. As a reader, you should be able to detect the tone of the
writer.)
1.​ Formal
-​ Businesslike or professional language that complements the
academic purpose.
2.​ Casual
-​ More conversational and direct approach that favors the
readers.
3.​ Sarcastic
-​ To lighten the impact of what could have been a harsh
statement.

-​ Writer’s relevance of the text (You are expected to weigh the importance of
the texts. As an intelligent reader, you need to determine the worth of what
you are reading so as not to waste your time.)
1.​ Analyzing key information
-​ To be an active reader, follow the SQRRR method. It does not
only teach you to “feel” the text by inspecting its preliminary
parts; it also trains you to retain useful information.”

2.​ Literal Meaning

-​ No hidden meanings are disguised in the form of satire or
sarcasm, double meanings or puzzling statements.
-​ What is stated = what actually appears in the text
3.​ Implied Meaning
-​ “A conclusion that can be drawn from something, although it is
not explicitly stated”
-​ This kind of meaning can only be arrived at after analyzing the
hidden, or implied meaning of the text

_______ Reading Academic Texts ___ ___ __ _

Reading Academic Texts

-​ Critical Reading
-​ Critical Thinking

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 -​ Reading Strategies

Remember:
-​ Academic writing is a PROCESS that starts with posting a question,
problematizing a concept, evaluating an opinion, and ends in answering the
question or questions posted, clarifying the problem or arguing for a stand.
-​ Uses formality & objectivity
-​ Abides by certain rules and standards
-​ Heavily relies on the research & credibility

“Reading is more than just a hobby or an activity. Reading is a skill.”

Critical
-​ Inclined to find fault or criticize
-​ Pertaining to a crisis or turning point
-​ Extremely important
-​ Relating to criticism or careful analysis, such as literary or film criticism

Critical Reading
-​ The interaction happens when you question the writer’s claims and
assertions; and when you comment on the writer’s idea.
-​ Involves scrutinizing any information that you read or hear. It means not
easily believing information offered to you by text.
-​ Critical Reading is an active process of discovery. (Gary Goshgarian)
“Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for
-​ granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider. (Francis
Bacon stated in The Essays)
-​ Critical Reading is reading with a purpose. Engage with the text in a meaningful way.
The reader aims to answer the questions and figure something out:
-​ Purpose: Why am I reading this?
-​ Context: What connects this work to others?
-​ Identity: What is the author’s main idea?
-​ Analysis: What is my opinion on the main idea(s)?

Critical Thinking
When do we need to be critical?
-​ Critical thinking is the analysis of facts, ideas, and ​
information you have gathered to form a judgment.

What it means to ‘think critically’

-​ Critical thinking is among the first causes for ​
change - for no other reason that it conditions ​
the mind to suspect the form and function ​
of everything it sees.

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Ramage, Bean, and Johnson (2006) identified the following requirements in critical
thinking:
1.​ The ability to pose questions
2.​ The ability to analyze a problem in all its dimensions – to define its key terms,
determine its causes, understand its history, appreciate its human dimension
and its connection to one’s own personal experience, and appreciate what
makes it complex
3.​ The ability to find, gather, and interpret data, facts, and other information
relevant to the problem
4.​ The ability to analyze competing approaches and answers, to construct
arguments for and against alternatives, and to choose the best solution in the
light of values, objectives, and other criteria that you determine and
articulate
5.​ The ability to write an effective argument justifying your choice while
acknowledging counter arguments

“Existing information helps us better understand the situation at hand.”

“To read effectively for learning, you need to do more than just look at the word on
the page.”

Reading Strategies
-​ Reading strategies are solely for the purpose of boosting comprehension of
the text.
-​ It is important because learning to read is NOT a natural process. It helps you
show how good readers read.

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The following are suggested ways to help you become a critical reader:
1.​ Annotate what you read
-​ One of the ways to interact with the writer is to WRITE ON THE TEXT.
You can underline, circle, or highlight words, phrases, or sentences that
contain important details, or you can write marginal notes asking
questions or commenting on the ideas of the writer.
-​ There are no clear or definite guidelines in annotating a text; you can
create your own style

2.​ Outline the text

-​ To fully engage in a dialogue with the text or with the writer of the
text, you need to identify the main points of the writer and LIST THEM
DOWN. This will help you to also identify the ideas that the writer has
raised to support his/her stand.
-​ You don’t necessarily have to write a structured sentence or topic
outline for this purpose; you can just write a BULLET OR IN NUMBERS.

3.​ Summarize the text

-​ Aside from outlining, you can also get the main points of the text you
are reading and WRITE ITS GIST IN YOUR OWN WORDS. This will test
how much you have understood the text and will help you evaluate it
critically. A summary is usually one paragraph long.
-​ Summaries are shortened versions of long and complicated texts. It
helps you focus on the main idea and key points. If you can reduce
something to its basic form, it means that you understand it.

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 4.​ Evaluate the text
-​ The most challenging part in critical reading is the process of
EVALUATING WHAT YOU ARE READING. This involves encouraging the
reader to form opinions, make judgments, and develop ideas from
reading.
-​ When students evaluate information, they confirm, extend, or change
their personal views based on the topic of the reading. It is important
for students to explain when they do not agree with information in a
text (Literacy Online, 2010).

_______ Features of Academic Writing ___ ___ __ _

Academic Writing
-​ WRITING uses language PRECISELY & ACCURATELY. Its objective is TO
INFORM rather than entertain. Academic writing is to some extent: complex,
formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. IT IS ALSO
WELL-ORGANIZED AND PLANNED

Features of Academic Language

-​ Academic writing in English is LINEAR, which means it has one central point
or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without
digressions or repetitions.

Written Language
-​ Is relatively more complex than spoken language. It has longer words, it is
lexically denser, and it has a varied vocabulary. It uses more noun-based
phrases than verb-based phrases.
Written Texts
-​ Are shorter and THE LANGUAGE HAS MORE GRAMMATICAL COMPLEXITY,
including more subordinate clauses and more passives.

Features of Academic Language

1.​ Formality
-​ Reflects the dignified stance in writing as a member of the academic
community.
-​ The language you use requires precision to make it a “legitimate” piece of
academic writing.

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Formality can be achieved through the following ways:
a.​ Choosing EXPANDED MODAL FORMS over contracted forms, such as using
cannot instead of can’t, you are instead of you’re, use going to instead of
gonna.
b.​ Choosing ONE-WORD VERB FORM over two-word verbs, such as damage
instead of mess-up. (Also put-off, bring up, go up)
c.​ Choosing EXPANDED TERMS over their abbreviated equivalents, such as ‘as
soon as possible’ instead of ASAP.
d.​ AVOIDING COLLOQUIAL/SLANG/IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS, such as ‘kind
of,’ ‘like,’ ‘a lot of,’ ‘wrong,’ & ‘top notch’

i.​ Identify words or expressions considered as colloquial

1.​ With the growing number of health conscious articles, a lot of
young professionals are becoming serious about maintaining a
healthy lifestyle.
-​ With the growing number of health conscious articles,
several young professionals are becoming serious about
maintaining a healthy lifestyle.
2.​ Teachers say that a great deal of incoming freshman students
are kind of interested in sports activities.
-​ Teachers say that many incoming freshman students are
interested in sports activities.

ii.​ Rewrite the following sentences to observe a more formal tone

1.​ Writing can’t be done effectively if you don’t burn the
midnight oil. — Writing can not be done effectively if you
do not work hard all night.
2.​ Parenting is a 24/7 job. — Parenting is a daily job.
3.​ Watching that romcom gave the audience the feels. —
Watching that romantic comedy (movie) gave the
audience the emotions.
4.​ The class is cooking up something big. — The class is
planning something big.
5.​ The lawyer needed to see me for a get-together. — The
lawyer needed to see me for a gathering.

iii.​ Substitute the two-word verbs in the sentences with single-word verbs
1.​ The senate set up the Meralco committee.
-​ The senate ARRANGED the Meralco committee.
2.​ Mothers cut down their spending on rice.
-​ Mothers DECREASED their spending on rice.
3.​ Oil price has gone up.
-​ Oil price has RISEN.
4.​ Students came up with a solution.

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 -​ Students ARRIVED with a solution.
5.​ The parents turned down the proposal.
-​ The parents DENIED the proposal.

Written Language is in general objective rather than personal

-​ It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means
that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give
and the arguments you want to make, rather than you.
-​ For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather
than verbs (and adverbs).

2.​ Objectivity
-​ Academic Writing requires special knowledge and use of more complex
language and general objective.
-​ BASED ON FACTS AND EVIDENCES
-​ UNBIASED style of writing
*There is no need to appeal to the reader’s feelings*

Objectivity can be achieved by:

a.​ AVOIDING THE USE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS such as “YOU,” “I,”
and “WE” as these are often associated with subjective views that are
influenced by personal preferences or biases.
Poor example: You need to conduct the experiment.
Improved version: The researchers need to conduct the
experiment.
b.​ AVOIDING RHETORICAL QUESTIONS as it marks “CLOSENESS” WITH
THE READER, & constantly seeks his/her attention.
Poor example: How can these problems be solved?
Improved version: Certain measures must be discovered to
solve the problems
c.​ AVOIDING EMOTIVE LANGUAGE that shows BIASES AND LESSENS
OBJECTIVITY. You should PROVIDE SPECIFIC DETAILS and
EVIDENCE TO ILLUSTRATE A POINT.
Poor example: The investigators were very shocked to see the
outcome of the tests.
Improved version: The investigators did not expect the results.
d.​ AVOIDING PERSONAL JUDGMENT such as using phrases “I think,” “In
my opinion,” or “I believe” instead, USE NEUTRAL PHRASES THAT
REFER TO THE EVIDENCE rather than your personal feelings.
Poor example: As such, I feel there is a need for government
intervention.
Improved version: These findings suggest the need for
government intervention.

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3.​ Explicitness
-​ Explicit means to fully & clearly express something

Academic writing demands the USE OF SIGNPOSTS & SIGNALS that allow
readers to trace the relationships in the various parts of a text.
-​ Make use of TRANSITIONAL MARKERS (signaling words) to guide the
readers in understanding one idea to another
If you want to tell your reader that YOUR LINE OF ARGUMENT IS GOING TO
CHANGE, make it clear by using: but, despite, in spite of, even so, however, in
contrast, nevertheless, in spite of this, on the contrary, on the other hand, still,
whereas, yet
-​ It is apparent that the government hopes to provide assistance to the
poor. However, giving dole outs to the “poorest of the poor” does not
work in the long term.
When TWO IDEAS SEEM THE SAME, express each one clearly by writing“in
comparison,” “in the same way,” “similarly”
-​ Every baby's face is different from every other’s. In the same way,
every baby's pattern of development is different from every other's.
If you intend TO GIVE EXTRA INFORMATION in your sentence, make it clear
by writing “in addition,” “apart from this,” “as well as,” “not only...but also,”
“besides,” “furthermore,” “moreover,” “nor”
-​ MERALCO has been operating as a business conglomerate involving
foreign stakeholders and independent power producers or IPP. In
addition, MERALCO owns major IPPs operating in the region.
If you are GIVING EXAMPLES, do so explicitly by writing “for example,” “for
instance,” “such as,” “thus,” “as follows”
-​ The MERALCO issue has led to disputes between opposition and
administration senators. For example, those who have been labeled as
against the president considered the issue as the administration’s way
of avoiding the NBN-ZTE scandal.

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 4.​ Caution
-​ Academic writing requires care since knowledge is built from proven theories
and concepts.
-​ Therefore, caution is needed to AVOID SWEEPING
GENERALIZATIONS that may be easily disproven.
-​ Caution needs to be observed in paper when:
a.​ Testing a hypothesis
b.​ Drawing conclusions or predictions from your findings that may
generalize certain matters or may not be conclusive.
c.​ Referencing other’s work to build on your own paper

Use these devices to observe caution:

a.​ Modal Verbs
b.​ Adverbs of frequency
c.​ Verbs indicating caution

In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about
your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making.

The concept of cautious language, often called "hedging" or "vague language"

-​ is the use of linguistic devices to express hesitation or uncertainty, as well as
to demonstrate politeness and indirectness.

Caution: Hedging in academic writing

1.​ INTRODUCTORY VERBS
-​ seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be sure,
indicate, suggest
2.​ CERTAIN LEXICAL VERBS
-​ believe, assume, suggest
3.​ CERTAIN MODAL VERBS:
-​ will, must, would, may, might, could
4.​ ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
-​ often, sometimes, usually
5.​ MODAL ADVERBS
-​ certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably,
6.​ MODAL ADJECTIVES
-​ certain, definite, clear, probable, possible
7.​ MODAL NOUNS

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 -​ assumption, possibility, probability
8.​ THAT CLAUSES
-​ It could be the case that …
-​ It might be suggested that …
-​ There is every hope that …
9.​ TO-CLAUSE + ADJECTIVE
-​ It may be possible to obtain …
-​ It is important to develop …
-​ It is useful to study …

Compare the following and identify what is hedged:

1.​ The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less
strong than it is now.
It may be said that the commitment to some of the social and economic
concepts was less strong than it is now. HEDGED
2.​ By analogy, it may be possible to walk from one point in hilly country to
another by a path which is always level or uphill, and yet a straight line
between the points would cross a valley. HEDGED
By analogy, one can walk from one point in hilly country to another by a path
which is always level or uphill, and yet a straight line between the points
would cross a valley.
3.​ The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self-denying to most
women today. HEDGED
The lives they chose are ascetic and self-denying to most women today.
4.​ Weismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not, there
could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.
HEDGED
Weismann proved that animals become old because, if they did not, there
could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.

Identify the hedging expressions in the ff. sentences:

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Exercise: Examine the following expressions and think of ways to reduce the impact
of the Utterances:

5.​ Structure
-​ Sentences need to be constructed in such a way that they show a level of
complexity that reflects the sophistication of an academic writer:
-​ COMBINING IDEAS EFFECTIVELY
-​ NOMINALIZATION
-​ PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION

Combination of ideas effectively

-​ AVOID redundancy and OBSERVE parallelism
-​ Ex. The earthquake caused loss of life. The earthquake caused massive
property damage. The earthquake changed the landscape of the
village.
-​ Rewritten: The earthquake was a disaster that caused loss of life,
property damage and permanent changes in the landscape.

A.​ Combine the sentences to make their structure complex and better fit for
academic writing
-​ The government’s deal with the public transport company was not successful.
The government’s deal with the public transport company will cause delays in
projects. It will also result in unsatisfied citizens
-​ Possible Answer: The government’s deal with the public transport
company was not successful because it will cause delayed projects and
unsatisfied citizens.

NOMINALIZATION — Transform verbs into nouns to help readers FOCUS ON

THE ACTION and not the doer of the action.

Ex: The company created software to manage the transactions

successfully.

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 Rewritten: The creation of software to manage transactions was a
success.

Ex: The mall distributed several free items to consumers in the hopes to
boost sales.
Nominalization: The distribution of free items for consumers was done
in attempt to boost the company’s sales.

Ex: The artists created a beautiful mural to pay tribute to the survivors
of the disaster.
Nominalization: The creation of a beautiful mural (by the artists) pays
tribute to the survivors of the disaster.

B.​ Restructure the sentence by using nominalization

1.​ The project was implemented to make sure that services are not
delayed.
2.​ The investigators established a time to determine the chain of events
relating to the crime.
3.​ The committee imposed a seven-day deadline for the members to
submit their requirements.
4.​ A number of students reported several cases of theft within the area.

​ Possible Answers
1.​ The implementation (of the project) was to make sure that services are
not delayed.
2.​ The establishing of time (by the investigators) was to determine the
chain of events relating to the crime.
3.​ The imposition of a seven-day deadline was for the members to submit
their requirements.
4.​ The reported several cases of theft was done by a number of students

PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION — A passive construction occurs when you make

the object of an action into the subject of a sentence.

HIGHLIGHT RESULTS of actions (which are the products of the writer):

​ Ex: The researcher conducted experiments to validate the hypothesis.
Passivation: Experiments were conducted to validate the hypothesis.

Ex: The company acquired a number of contractors to render service to its

consumers.
Passivation: A number of contractors were acquired to render service to its
consumers.

Ex: Guitar players constantly practice to ensure fault-free performance.

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 Passivation: A fault-free performance is ensured with constant practice.

C.​ Restructure the sentence by using passivization

1.​ The children gave several inputs to improve the operations of the
facility.
2.​ Nurses conducted workshops for those in far flung areas on health and
sanitation.
3.​ Marketers need to make a quota every month to maintain sustainable
growth.

​ Possible Answers
1.​ Several inputs were given (by the children) to improve the operations
of the facility.
2.​ Workshops were conducted for those in far flung areas on health and
sanitation.
3.​ To make a quota every month was needed by the marketers to
maintain sustainable growth.

_______ Writing Process and Properties _ _ ___ __ _

The Writing Process

-​ According to Mondez (2016), COMMUNICATION IS A PROCESS.
-​ Writing is one way to communicate; therefore, it is a process.

“An excellent piece of writing is not easily produced in a short period of time.”

“Writing is not an easy task – it takes patience, energy, and a lot of brain work.”

“Good academic writing requires effective planning, drafting, and revision.”

Stages in the Writing Process

I.​ Prewriting
-​ The most difficult stage in the process of writing.
-​ The writer’s task on this stage is to generate ideas to form content and
enrich the substance of his/her output
-​ The writer determines the purpose and the intended audience
-​ Chooses a topic, narrows down the topic, gathers the detailed ideas
-​ And develops the controlling idea or the thesis statement

The writer chooses a topic from the ideas and develops the controlling idea​
Ask the following questions:

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 ●​ What is my purpose for writing?
○​ Is it to inform, to persuade, or to express?
●​ For whom am I writing?
○​ Who is my intended audience/readers?
●​ What message do I want to communicate?
○​ What is the content or substance of my text?
●​ What is the best pattern of writing for the message that I am sending?
○​ Is it narrative, descriptive, comparison/contrast, or definition?
●​ How do I want to sound to my audience/reader?
○​ What should my tone be?

Prewriting activities help you generate or produce ideas:

1.​ Freewriting
-​ In this method, the writer writes continuously–words, phrases, or
sentences. The goal here is to produce many ideas, and not pay
attention yet to the substance.
2.​ Clustering
-​ After generating ideas, the writer is now ready to cluster, and group
them according to their relevance with each other. Then, the writer
chooses the ideas that would provide the strongest support to the
argument presented.
3.​ Outlining
-​ An outline serves as a skeleton of an essay. This will help the writer to
visually clarify the major and minor points to be developed on paper
by choosing the relevant ideas from the cluster

II.​ Drafting
-​ The prewriting notes and sentences are turned into paragraphs for the
first draft = The Writing Stage

The main focus of this stage is CONTENT, FORM, & SUBSTANCE.

-​ The INTRODUCTION must be strong enough to grab the reader’s attention
and must include the thesis statement
-​ The BODY develops the idea and presents the details.
-​ The CONCLUSION restates the thesis and summarize the most important
concepts

The Post Writing Stage (Proofreading):

​ ​ ​ ​ REVISING & EDITING

“Revising or rewriting refers that writing is a work in progress: it cannot be perfected

all at once, hence one has to go through the process of rewriting.”
-​ Sagueton & Uychoco 2016

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In the revising and editing stages, the writer check on four important things on the
text:
1.​ Support
-​ The details provided in the paper are sufficient to support the
argument.
2.​ Unity
-​ This refers to the relevance of the thesis statement to the supporting
details, and the relevance of the supporting details to all other
sub-details used to develop them.
3.​ Coherence
-​ Coherence in writing means the effective sticking together of the
writer’s ideas. After checking the paper for unity, check the flow of the
ideas. It must be smooth and clear by using transitional words
accordingly.
4.​ Grammar and writing mechanics
-​ The writer checks the sentence structures and makes sure that the
sentences have variations in structure. Also, checks the grammar,
accuracy in spelling, appropriateness of vocabulary words, and
effectiveness of punctuation marks.

III.​ Revising
-​ See how well the issues of purpose, audience, and genre have been
addressed.
-​ Revising helps looking for larger issues such as changes to your
arguments or structure. It clarifies the consistency of point of view,
accuracy of facts, and adequacy and balance of details and evidence.

Check if there are things to improve on:

-​ Arguments that are unclear or illogical.
-​ Areas where information would be better presented in a different order.
-​ Passages where additional information or explanation is needed.
-​ Passages that are irrelevant to your overall argument.

❖Making Changes To YourOverall Argument.

❖Reordering The Text.
❖Cutting Parts Of The Text.
❖Adding New Text.

IV.​ Editing
-​ Editing focuses on local concerns like grammar, usage, mechanics, and
sentence structures. Read the text closely to remove typos and ensure
stylistic consistency, clarity, and conciseness.

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When proofreading, first look out for typos in your text:
-​ Subject-verb agreement
-​ Confused word choices
-​ Errors in spelling, punctuation marks, and capitalization
-​ Run-on sentence and fragments
-​ Grammatical errors.
-​ Ambiguous phrasings.
-​ Redundancy and repetition

Feedback – refers to a RESPONSE to the writer and his/her written output. It is

important to receive feedback to know the things that one needs to revise or
rewrite.

“Someone else’s perspective can shed some light and discovery of anything from
conceptual to grammatical errors that should be exposed and clarified.”
-​ Mondez 2016

V.​ Publishing
-​ Publishing is producing a final copy of a piece of writing and
presenting it to an audience.
-​ Accomplishing an academic paper makes you a contributor to the
academic community.

The Writing Process

I.​ Prewriting – Browse through different reference materials, brainstorm with a
group, interview knowledgeable persons, write reflections, jot down whatever.
II.​ Drafting – After writing an outline, write your first draft. Let your ideas lead
you in developing your topic and turn it into an essay.
III.​ Revising – Review your essay and check if you have achieved your goal in
writing.
IV.​ Editing – Check your writing style and accuracy.
V.​ Publishing – Presenting your final work.

Properties of a well-written text

1.​ Organization
-​ A well-organized paper has a clearly recognizable plan, that is the
ideas move from sentence in a logical way and from paragraph to
paragraph in an appropriate organizational plan

“The great basic principle of organization: put everything on the same subject in the
same place…”

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 2.​ Coherence
-​ A piece of writing is focused and coherent if it keeps to the topic and is
clear and supported by connected details.
-​ Coherence is about having a unified argument and could clearly be
understood by the reader.

Some features that help create a sense of coherence:

-​ The paragraph starts with a very clear topic sentence.
-​ Key terms are repeated for emphasis.
-​ Terms are defined for readers to be well-informed
-​ Clear transitions help the readers follow the line of logic

3.​ Language used

-​ In order to choose the most effective language, the writer must
consider the objective of the document, the context in which it is being
written, and who will be reading it.

“As a writer, it is important not only to think about WHAT you say, but HOW you say
it.”

Characteristics of Effective Language:

a.​ concrete & specific, not vague and abstract
b.​ concise, not verbose (not too wordy)
c.​ familiar, not obscure (not incomprehensible)
d.​ precise clear, not inaccurate or ambiguous
e.​ constructive, not destructive
f.​ appropriately formal

4.​ Mechanics
-​ This refers to the correct use of all spelling, punctuation, capitalization
grammar usage, and sentence structure rules.
-​ Writing Mechanics are the established rules that should be followed
when writing sentences.

Rules on Grammar and Writing Mechanics:

a.​ Parts of Speech
-​ The classifications of parts of speech such as nouns, verbs, and
adjectives among others is one of the most important things to know if
you’re a writer. It’s not really necessary to be familiar with the
definitions of each but knowing how to use them properly is.

b.​ Parts of Sentences

-​ Knowing the parts of sentences such as subjects, objects, phrases, and
clauses helps to give your sentences cohesion

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c.​ Sentence Errors
-​ Run-on sentences, fragments, dangling participles, and faulty
parallelism among others, are easy to miss if you aren’t familiar with
them.

d.​ Subject-Verb Agreement

-​ The subject and verb in a sentence must agree in number. If the
subject is singular, the verb must be singular.

e.​ Capitalization
-​ Capitalization signals to a reader the important details in a sentence.
Following capitalization rules helps to maintain order in written text.

f.​ Punctuation
-​ Using the correct punctuation gives you the ability to convey your
ideas to the reader exactly as you intended. These are used to clarify
relationships between words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence.

g.​ Spelling
-​ When a word is misspelled or is mistakenly substituted for a word with
a meaning that is inconsistent with the ideas surrounding it, the
inaccuracy can create confusion in the mind of the reader

h.​ Abbreviations
-​ Never use abbreviations that aren’t familiar to your readers unless
you’re trying to hide the meaning intentionally

i.​ Homonyms, homographs, and homophones

-​ A lot of words sound alike or are spelled alike but have different
meanings and spellings.

j.​ Eliminating redundancy

-​ If you must repeat words, try to space them out so that they don’t
seem too jarring. If you run out of synonyms, you could always use the
negative of an antonym to convey the same idea.

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_______ Component of an Essay _ _ ___ __ _____ _

Essay
-​ An essay is a short piece of writing that aims to provide information about a
certain topic from a limited or personal point-of-view.
-​ To write strong essays efficiently, one must know how to structure an essay.

To structure an essay
-​ When it comes to writing an essay, you’ll follow a designated format.
Knowing that format and using it to your advantage can take your essay
from ‘GOOD’ to ‘GREAT’.
-​ Every great essay has three (3) essential parts. While the structure might
sound simple, including all the essential components for each part is
important.
-​ The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument
coherently.
-​ A well-structured essay HELPS YOUR READER FOLLOW THE LOGIC OF YOUR
IDEAS and understand your overall point.

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Parts of an Essay:
-​ Every part of the essay clearly presents the writer’s position, supports that
position with relevant examples, and neatly ties their supporting arguments
together in a way that makes their position evident.

1.​ Introduction
-​ An essay begins with a brief introduction, which prepares the audience
to read the essay.

​ Introductory Paragraph

a.​ The Hook

-​ The first sentence of the introduction should captivate your
reader’s interest.
​ ​
​ ​ The hook can be any of the following:
●​ A bold statement to emphasize relevance
●​ A question followed by a legitimate answer
●​ Trivia or a statistic
●​ A quote from a famous person
●​ An anecdote (short funny story)
●​ A line from a song
●​ A common misconception
●​ Creating a unique scenario

b.​ Background Information

-​ It is important to give context that will help your reader
understand your argument.
-​ Give an overview of important academic work debates on the
topic and explain difficult terms.
-​ One rule of thumb is “assume that some readers will not know
anything about the topic & this is your opportunity to do so”

c.​ Thesis Statement

-​ The thesis statement states the aim of the essay.

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 -​ It provides focus and signals your position on the topic.
-​ It is usually one or two sentences long.

​ ​ Sample thesis statement:

●​ Reading develops a child's mind by fostering comprehension
skills, increasing vocabulary, and exposing them to new worlds
they might not otherwise encounter.
●​ Although perceived as dangerous to some, running alone is
more beneficial as it allows one to make independent choices,
frees one from unnecessary hassle and is more cost efficient.

2.​ Body
-​ The body of the essay is composed of paragraphs that focus on each
topic presented in the argument.

a.​ Topic Sentence

-​ The topic sentence introduces the main idea of the paragraph.
-​ It does not begin with a pronoun nor a subordinating
conjunction.

Thesis Statement: Although perceived as dangerous to some, running

alone is more beneficial as it allows one (1) to make independent
choices, (2) frees one from unnecessary hassle and (3) is more cost
efficient.

​ ​ Example topic sentences:

●​ Running alone allows one to make independent choices.
●​ Running by yourself frees you from unnecessary hassles.
●​ When one runs alone, one can save so much more money.

b.​ Supporting Details

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 -​ The supporting details develop and elaborate the main idea of
the paragraph by discussing relevant content, date, and
evidence.
-​ It is usually composed of at least 2-3 sentences connected by
transitional devices.

Topic Sentence: Running alone ALLOWS ONE TO MAKE INDEPENDENT

CHOICES.
Possible Supporting Details: This is true because the runner gets to
choose the route he likes best. One gets to decide a more or less
challenging task, hence, he can claim responsibility over his actions.
No one dictates his pace, so he is happier.

c.​ Concluding Sentence

-​ It serves as a CLOSURE TO THE IDEA in the paragraph. It can
either summarize the ideas,provide comments,or suggestions.
-​ You can start this sentence with “In other words”, “to make a
long story short”, “therefore”, “hence”, “And so”, “simply put”,
“that is to say”.
-​ It introduces the main idea that follow or connect your ideas to
the next paragraph.

3.​ Conclusion

a.​ Restated Thesis Statement

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 -​ Restates the main arguments in a simplified yet still parallel
manner.
-​ It illustrates that the thesis statement has been supported with
enough details and examples.
-​ It reminds the reader of your main focus or argument.

Original: Reading develops a child's mind by fostering comprehension

skills, increasing vocabulary, and exposing them to new worlds they
might not otherwise encounter.

Restated: So many positive things can happen to children because of

reading, such as enhanced comprehension, improved word repertoire,
and more imagined experiences.

b.​ Summarized Main Points

-​ It provides additional explanation supporting your argument.
-​ Tie together your main points.
​ ​
1.​ Connect the restated thesis to the main conclusion.
2.​ Summarize the points you made and bring your argument to its
logical conclusion. GENERALIZE.
3.​ Sounds more like a sentiment of the writer.

c.​ A Challenge or a Question

-​ A great conclusion should finish with a memorable or impactful
sentence that leaves the reader with a strong final impression.
-​ Show why your argument matters.

​ ​ Here are some sample sentences or ideas to end the essay with:
●​ With what has been mentioned, one question remains…
●​ There are so many other reasons that support the…
●​ It is too difficult to make a final statement about…

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28
_______ Thesis Statement _______________________ _

Thesis Statement
-​ A thesis statement is the single, specific claim that serves as the backbone of
the paper, hence, the expected content.
-​ A thesis statement is a sentence or two controlling the entire flow of your
writing.
-​ It explains and summarizes a central claim you’ll discuss and prove in the
essay.

Formulating a thesis statement

-​ The thesis statements are constructed at the prewriting stage.
-​ It is the product of:
-​ Thinking about your IDEAS
-​ Formulating your ARGUMENTS
-​ Seeking EVIDENCE to prove these
-​ Looking for RELATIONSHIPS between these

How to write an effective thesis statement?

I.​ The North and South fought the Civil War for many reasons, some of which
were the same and some different.
II.​ While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery, the North
fought for moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own
institutions.
III.​ While both Northerners and Southerners believed they fought against
tyranny and oppression, Northerners focused on the oppression of slaves
while Southerners defended their own right to self-government.

These are all accepted thesis statements but the last one is the most effective
and direct of all. It clearly states the idea and the points to be discussed in the essay

Developing EFFECTIVE Thesis Statement

I.​ Mark Twain’s “Huckleberry Finn” is a great American novel.
II.​ In “Huckleberry Finn”, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the
river and life on the shore.
III.​ Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn
suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one
must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature

This is considered as the best and most effective thesis statement

Three Parts of a Thesis Statement

1.​ Topic (Subject or Issue that seems important)

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 2.​ The Claim (stand/position on the topic)
3.​ At least 3 variables (main ideas to discuss / points to argue)

Your thesis statement would inform the reader of how you understand such a topic
and what you consider to be important or debatable about it.

Sample Thesis Statement:

Stand-up is a useful medium to enlighten and to entertain ourselves through

opening our minds on certain issues, allowing us to formulate opinions, and
humoring us with witty jokes.

Topic: Stand-up Comedy

Claim: (favorable, positive take) Stand up is used as enlightenment & entertainment
Variables: ​ - Open our minds
​ ​ - People formulate opinions
​ ​ - Humors us with jokes

What is a thesis statement?

-​ In the most simple terms, a thesis statement is a short statement which
provides an insight into what the essay is going to be about. They are used to
enlighten the audience on a variety of things, including:
-​ The main argument or point to be discussed.
-​ The purpose of the essay.
-​ The point of view of the author on a specific.
-​ When writing a thesis statement, it is very important that you ensure it covers
all the above points in order for it.

Which is the Thesis Statement?

​ Friendship is a state of acquaintance between or among people
characterized by a strong bond of shared concern and caring. In true friendship the
bond is mutually shared. (The FIRST SENTENCE serves as a "hook" or a base on
what the essay focuses on. Then, followed by this SECOND SENTENCE which
includes an elaboration to which part of the topic this essay will be directed.) This is,
if either one of the two friends is involved in a difficulty, such as problems with
failing courses at school, problems with parents at home, or even problems of a
much more serious nature, the other friend will provide (1) help, (2) encouragement,
(3) concern, and perhaps even (4) direct intervention. (Lastly, it includes the thesis
statement in which the author presents the main ideas and purpose of this essay
with its FOUR variables.)

Writing Thesis Statements

Topic: Online Classes

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Claim: Way of learning (stand/idea)
Major Variables:
1.​ Physical connection
2.​ Accessibility to the internet/materials
3.​ Learning styles
Thesis Statement:
In line with this unexpected pandemic caused by the Coronavirus, online classes
are mandatory but is challenging to the students because of no face-to face
interaction, limited access to internet and reference materials, and adaptation to
different learning styles

Topic: LGBT Community in the Philippines

Claim: Negative Perceptions of Boomers to the LGBT Community
Major Variables:
1.​ Stereotyping homosexual lifestyle
2.​ Defying traditional ideas
3.​ Discrimination
4.​ Sin- Religious aspect
Thesis Statement:
In defying the traditional outlook of people/older generation towards LGBT
community, we need to get rid of stereotypes, discrimination, and
pessimistic approach on the members of the community.

_______ Concept Paper __ _______________________ _

In today’s time, innovation of new ideas in aspects of human endeavors happens so

fast. According to Dapat “experts believe that INNOVATION leads to effective
strategic planning, information literacy, media literacy, social literacy, & even wealth
creation.

The Art of Defining

-​ Definition is important because it clarifies the meaning of a word or a
concept, and it also limits its scope to control and avoid misinterpretations,
vague notions, and/or broad ideas.
-​ However, not all words or concepts can be defined using the formal definition.

The Art of Defining a Concept

-​ “In defining concepts, YOU PROVIDE ONE OR TWO DEFINITIONS, and you
make sure that these definitions are synthesized and analyzed so that you
can arrive at a clear definition of a concept.
-​ “As you define concepts, you will not only deal with definitions, but with
explanations and examples, as well.”
-​ Saqueton, G. M., & Uychoco, M. A. (2016)

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Concept Paper
-​ A concept paper starts with a definition, either formal or informal, of the term
or the concept and proceeds with an expanded definition and analytic
description of the aspects of the concept.
-​ It elaborates an idea or a concept to clarify the “whatness” of that idea or
concept:
-​ What is it?
-​ What about it?
-​ What are its special features?

Purpose of a Concept Paper

-​ A concept paper is an academic written discourse that explains a concept,
often about something that the writer is thoroughly familiar with &
passionate about.
-​ It is an IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS that discusses a THOUGHT, IDEA or THEORY.
-​ The writer still has to make sure that the concepts are clarified and explained
in such a way that the readers can understand and make sense of the
connections.

Functions of Concept Paper

1.​ It serves as a foundation of the full proposal.
-​ In addition to being an “accompaniment” to a full-blown research, the
concept paper explains what the project is all about.
2.​ It helps determine whether a certain project is feasible or not.
-​ It explains the reason for conducting the project, and how it will be
carried out.
-​ Your concept paper should be clear: states your plan of action, your
vision, the preliminary phase of your research project.
3.​ It is used to pique the interest of the potential funding agencies.
-​ The readers should be convinced of the project will meet the expected
outcome/s at the designated time.
4.​ It is used to obtain informal feedback on the ideas prior to preparing the full
proposal.
-​ You should include clear objectives of the project and the manner of
implementation.

Structure of a Concept Paper

-​ Mondez (2016) believed that “a concept paper should present a clear picture
of what the project, research, or feasibility study is all about. It clarifies from
the very beginning what the purpose is and what process is necessary to
carry out that purpose. IT SHOULD DEMONSTRATE THE WORTH OF THE
IDEA AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE TO THE BENEFICIARIES.”

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 Parts of a Concept Paper for a Project

Cover Page ❖State the name of the proponents and their affiliations
❖ State the addresses, contact numbers, and e-mail addresses of the
proponents.
❖ State the head of the agency and his/ her contact information.
❖ State the date of submission.

Introduction o State the information about the funding agency to show that you
understand its mission.
o State the mission of the agency that the proponents represent and align it
to the funding agency’s mission. Also, state the year of the proponents’
agency was established.
o Present and describe other partner agencies and why they are qualified
as such.
o Provide reasons why the funding agency should support the project

Rationale / Background ▪ State the gap in knowledge to be addressed by the project.

▪ State the problems to be solved.
▪ State the project’s significance.

Project Description ❑ State the goals and objectives of the project.

❑ Present the methodology (sometimes termed as Action Plan, Project
Activities, or Approach)
❑ Present the timeline expressed in months and years.
❑ State the benefits or anticipated outcomes.
❑ State how success of outcomes will be evaluated.

Project Needs and Cost ✓ Outline main budget; include the description and amount.
✓ Explain or justify how the budget will be used.
✓ List the personnel or equipment needed for the project.

Parts of a Concept Paper for an Academic Research

Title Page Research title

Name and school
Date of submission

Background of the Study Current state of the field you are researching on
Reasons why you want to undertake your research topic
Practical implications of your proposed research

Preliminary Literature Review Theoretical framework

Related studies
Brief synthesis of the reviewed literature and studies

Statement of the Problem / General problem

Objectives Specific research questions or objectives

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Abridged Methodology Contexts and participants
Instruments, data collection, data analysis

Timeline Time frame (set in months and years)

References List of all books, journals, and other learning resources

Techniques in Writing a Concept Paper:

●​ Definition
○​ The method of describing a given concept and making its meaning
clear by means of giving a description, examples, and illustrations;
○​ A formal definition explains the concept USING GENERAL
CLASSIFICATIONS AND DIFFERENTIATING CHARACTERISTICS OF
THAT CONCEPT.
○​ Example: Using a Dictionary or existing knowledge to define.
■​ The dictionary defines social activism as the use of direct, often
confrontational actions such as demonstrations or strikes, rallies
or other mass acts rather than supporting a cause. Further, it is
an action directed at cultivating changes, practices or policies
to effect social change. The traditional duty of a social activist
includes interacting with policy makers to make sure a relevant
plan of action is carried out. The term also conveys being
attuned to societal conditions directly affecting the community.
In the traditional sense, a social activist is expected to take
concrete actions– usually in a dramatic and drastic way to
institute changes that would benefit the whole society
●​ Explication
○​ The method of explaining a concept or issues by borrowing sentences,
verses, or passages from an academic literary work and EXPLAINING
THESE THOROUGHLY IN RELATION TO THE CONCEPT BEING
EXPLAINED
○​ Example: Using a detailed thesis statement to explain.
■​ Due to the evolving concept of authentic social activism, it
should no longer be equated with hard-core radicalism reflected
in anti-government stance and slogans (Thesis Statement). In
its truest sense, social activism means being an active believer
in the power of nation-building where concerned citizens are
willing and able to participate in the affairs of the community. A
person who is detached from the affairs of the nation is far from
being a social activist. Because it is now devoid of its radical
connotation, social activism has come to mean everyday
heroism. Far from its left wing feature, social activism has now

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 evolved into the kind of activism that translates into concern for
others
●​ Clarification
○​ A technique that involves organizing ideas from abstract, or those not
readily understood, to CONCRETE EXAMPLES, or those easily
understood.
○​ This technique involves analyzing the concepts by looking at the
examples then drawing out a definition based on this information.
○​ Example: Using a combination of definition, explication, and
clarification.
■​ Nowadays, social activism seems to have distanced itself from
its subversive-driven connotation. In the face of changing
social, political, and historical contexts, social activism is now
defined as going beyond its radical feature. It now means being
one with the nation in its quest for social justice. It used to be
associated with left wing movement and rallying for reform the
hard-core way. Social activism is no longer about fighting the
government in the quest for social reform but about answering
the call for nation-building and all its attendant goals: to help
fight poverty and injustice and find the most proactive solutions
to some of society’s most pressing problems

Concept Paper
Concept papers are summaries of projects or issues that reflect the interests,
experience and expertise of the writer or organization. Concept papers generally
serve the purpose of providing in-depth discussion of a topic that the writer has a
strong position on, usually with the intent of obtaining funding for that project from
donors. The terms "concept paper" and "proposal" are often used interchangeably
as they can be used for the same function.
The concept paper may also be used as an instructional tool that may have
developed as a result of extensive research, committee input and/or as a result of
the outcome of a current project. In addition to providing guidance for
implementation of a program, a concept paper could also discuss best practices,
philosophies and other related issues that the writer believes action should be taken
on in the near future.

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