Dr. LEENA K.

R Indian Philosophy-1 NSS COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, TVPM

CHAPTER 1

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

The etymological meaning of the word philosophy is ‘love of learning’. It signifies the natural and
necessary urge in human beings to know themselves and the world in which we live and their Being.
The meaning of philosophy emphasizes the intellectual quest for truth. However , Indian philosophy is
highly spiritual and always emphasized the need of practical realization of truth. So Indian philosophy is
referred as ‘Darshanas’. The word Darshana means ‘ Vision’ and also the ‘instrument of vision’.
Philosophy is the vision of Reality as a whole. It is insight in to the nature of the whole reality. It also
stands for the direct, immediate and intuitive vision of Reality. I e., the actual perception of truth. In one
way we can say that this leads to self realization.

‘ Atma va are drasta Vyah’ (see the self) – is the key note of all schools of Indian
philosophy and this is the reason why all schools have theirown religious sects.

The upanishads are the foundation of Indian Philosophy, which teach spiritual monism and
mysticism. The systems of Indian philosophy are systematic speculations on the nature of the Reality in
harmony with the teachings of the Upanishads, which contain various aspects of Truth. They aim at the
knowledge of the Reality with a view to transforming and spiritualizing human life. Philosophical
knowledge does not aim at merely satisfying our theoretical and speculative interest, but also at realizing
the highest truth in life.

Indian philosophy is essentially spiritual. Philosophy and religion are intimately connected with
each other in India. Religion is not a system of dogmas, but a living experience. It is the practical
realization of the spiritual truth. Philosophy is the theory of Reality. It is an insight in to the nature of the
Reality, which leads to liberation. So Indian Philosophy is not idle theorizing, but a spiritual quest.

Indian philosophy is based on logical reason subordinate to the authority of the Vedas, which are
believed to embody the intuitions of the seers of truth. The authority of the Vedas is that of intuition.
Logical reason is subordinate to intuition. So Indian philosophy is based on rational speculation in
harmony with the Vedas, and consciously aims at achieving the highest perfection (moksha) attainable
in human life.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

1. Reality of the world :- all schools of Indian Philosophy recognizes the reality of the world. The
charvaka admits the reality of the world composed of the gross elements of earth, water, fire & air. The
Buddhist realists maintain that the world is composed of atoms, which are combined in to gross
impermanent objects. The Jainas regard the world as composed of homogeneous atoms. The Nyaya and
the Vaisesika recognizes the reality or the world in time and space, which is composed of heterogeneous
atoms, governed by the law of causality, and subservient to the law of karma. The Mimamsa also regards
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the world as formed out of atoms under the guidance of the law of karma. The Samkhya, the Yoga and
the theistic Vedanta regard of sattva, rajas, and tamas. Sattva is the principle of manifestation. Rajas is
the principle of energy. Tamas is the principle of obstruction or inertia
The Advaita Vedanta of Sankara regards the world as a false appearance from the standpoint of
the Absolute. But it recognizes the empirical reality of the world- appearance. Ie.,
“Brahma satyam Jagat midhya
Jivo brahmaiva napara”
The world is a spatio – temporal and causal order. It exists in time and space, and is governed by causality.
Time-relation, space relation, and the cause effect relation are the constitutive of the cosmic order. Every
finite positive entity is produced and destroyed.

2. The Reality of the Self :- the reality of the permanent self is generally admitted. Among the
heterodox schools the charvaka denies the reality of the self, and identifies it with the body endued
with consciousness. The Buddhist denies the reality of the permanent self , and regards it as a series
of momentary ideas. Only the Jaina admits the reality of the permanent self as a knowing, feeling and
active agent. All orthodox schools of Indian Philosophy admits the reality of the Atman or self as a
permanent spiritual substance. The Nyaya – Vaisesika, the Samkhya- Yoga, and the Mimamsa admit
the plurality of selves to account for their variety of experiences, bondage and liberation. But the Advaita
Vedanta admits the reality of one self or Atman, which is pure being, pure consciousness and pure bliss.
It identifies Atman with Brahman.(Tat tvamasi)
The Samkhya & mimamsa deny the existence of God, but they admit the reality of the self & its
bondage and liberation. The jains deny the existence of God , but admits the reality of permanent souls
& their bondage and liberation.
3. The Law of karma :-
All schools of Indian philosophy except, the Carvaka believe in the law of karma. Ie., a right
action inevitably produces a good consequence. A wrong action inevitably produces a bad consequences.
We call this as we sow , so we reap. Performance of duty or a prescribed action produces a merit
(punnya) or virtue (dharma) in the soul.
The Buddhist, the Jaina, the Samkhya and the Mimamsa believe in an impersonal law of Karma which
adjusts the realm of nature to the realm of spirits – the physical order to the moral order.
Merits and demerits are called Karmas. At particular time we have accumulated karmas of the
past births (prarabdha karma ) & karmas which are being acquired in this birth (Sanciyamana karma )
to which will be added karmas which will be acquired in future (anaarabdha karma). They determine
the kind of birth, length of life, & enjoyments & sufferings.
4. Transmigration :- metapsychosis or transmigration of the soul is a corollary of the law of karma,
which demands that right actions have good consequences and that wrong actions have bad
consequences. Merits and demerits produced by right and wrong actions determine the kinds of birth.
Excessive merits transport the souls to heaven, & make them celestial beings. Excessive demerits make

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them assume the body of beasts, birds, & insects. Well balanced merits and demerits make them
transmigrate in to human bodies. The souls are eternal.
The Carvaka do not admit the reality of the soul as distinct from the body, and do not believe in
transmigration. The Buddhas do not recognize the permanence of the soul. They regard it as a flux of
ever- changing psychoses. But still they believe in its transmigration. The Jainas recognize the reality of
the permanent soul and its transmigration. The idea of transmigration is common to all systems of Indian
philosophy except carvaka school.
5. Samsara :- Samsara is a beginningless series of births and death. It is bondage (Bandha) to
embodied life in the spatio- temporal world. It is imprisonment of the eternal pure spirit in a destructible
impure body. It is due to ignorance or false knowledge. The samkhya and the Yoga regard non
discrimination (aviveka) of the self (Purusa) and prakrti as the cause of bondage. The Nyaya, the
Vaisesika, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta consider the soul to be eternal.
6. Initial pessimism & Ultimate Optimissm :-indian Philosophy is branded as pessimisistic. Life
abounds in suffering. Pain is the invariable accompaniment of embodied life. Samsara is a
Beginningless series of births and deaths which are painful. The Buddha says: “ birth is painful, decay
is painful; disease is painful; death is painful…”. To Buddhism, nirvana is the absolute extinction of
suffering.
The Samkhya recognizes three kinds of pain:-
(1) Adhyatmika – pain due to bodily diseases & mental troubles
(2) Adhibhautika – pain due to other men & animals.
(3) Adhidaivika - pain due to supernatural agencies. Absolute negation of three fold suffering
release. So Indian Philosophy is characterized by initial pessimism and ultimate optimism.
7. Liberation (Moksha) :- the idea of liberation (Moksha) is common to all systems of Indian
Philosophy. Only the Carvaka materialist does not believe in it. Buddhism regards complete extinction
of suffering as nirvana. Joy , sorrow, anger, fear, and lust are passions, which are compared to fire. So
nirvana is complete extinction of the fire of passions. Some Buddhists regard it as a state of positive bliss.

Jaina considers complete destruction of karma- matter investing the soul and realization of its
infinite perception, infinite knowledge, infinite bliss & infinite power as release.

The Nyaya – Vaisesika look upon the existence of the self in its natural condition as liberation. The
Samkhya considers absolute negation of three fold suffering as release. The yoga also considers
complete isolation (Kaivalya) of the self from the mind (buddhi) & its modes and disposition as release.

8. The means to liberation :-the different systems of Indian philosophy lay down the means to the
attainment of liberation. Almost all schools of Indian philosophy believes that true knowledge is the
means to get liberation or moksha. Each systems seek their own way to get moksha. For eg., in yoga
consists in sense restraints, moral observances, bodily postures, breath control, meditation,trance,
fixation of mind etc.

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9. Pramanas :- every systems of Indian Philosophy is based on epistemology or the theory of knowledge.
The carvaka recognizes perception only as a means of valid knowledge (Pramana). The Buddha and
Vaisesika recognize perception and inference as pramanas. The samkhya recognizes perception,
inference, & testimony of vedas as pramanas. The Nyaya recognizes perception, inference, testimony
& comparison as pramanas. Prabhakara (Mimamsa) recognizes perception, inference, comparison,
testimony, &presumption as pramanas. Kumarila (Mimamsa) and Advaita Vedanta reconises
perception (Pratyaksha), inference (anumana), comparison (upamana), testimony (Sabda),
p[resumption (arthapatti), & non apprehention (anupalabdhi) as pramanas.

10. The authority of Vedas :- all orthodox schools of philosophy recognizes the authority of the Vedas .
they cites the authority of the Upanishads in support of their views, and build up their systems of
philosophy on rational speculation in harmony with the teachings of the Vedas.

VEDIC LITERATURE

The Vedas are the oldest still existing literary monument of the Aryan mind. The origin of Indian
philosophy may be easily traced in the Vedas. our knowledge of vedic period even today is too meager
and imperfect. There are many reason for this imperfection. Ie., (1) absence of chronological data, (2)
complete indifference of the ancient Indian towards personal histories, (3) Archaic character of the vedic
Sanskrit and (4) the biased orthodox colouring of interpretation.

The orthodox schools of Indian Philosophy , the Nyaya, the Vaisesika, the samkhya, the Yoga, the
Mimamsa and the Vedanta believe in the authority of the Vedas. But the heterodox schools, the Carvaka,
the Buddhist and the Jaina reject their authority.

The word ‘Veda’ means Knowledge.The literature of the vedic period consists of four Vedas namely-
Rg Veda, Yejur Veda, Sama Veda, & Adharva Veda. The first three constitute the ‘triad’ or ‘trayi’, which
are the original Vedas, & which enjoy higher authority. Adharva veda is the later edition. Of these Rg
Veda is the most important veda in the philosophical sense. Sama Veda and Yejur Veda are melodies
sung at the time of sacrifies. Adhrva Veda describes Magic sacrifices , Sourcery, witchcraft, etc. Each
veda has four sections, namely

1) Manthras
2) Brahmanas
3) Aranyakas
4) Upanishad

Mantras are in the ‘form of songs’. It means a hymn addressed to some God or Goddess. The collection
of manthras are called ‘ Samhita’. Each veda has samhita portion. Ie., Rk samhita, Yejur Samhita, sama
and Atharva samhita. These are said to be compiled for the smooth perfeormance of the vedic sacrifice.
4 samhitas are said to be compiled to fulfil the needs of priests. The vedic sacrifice needs 4 main priests.

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• Hota :- who addresses hymns in praise of gods to invoke their presence and participation in the
sacrifice . ie., Rk samhita for Hota.
• Udgata :- who sings the Hymns in sweet musical tones to entertain and please the Gods. Ie., Sama for
Udgata.
• Adhvaryu :- who performs sacrifice according to the strict ritualistic code and gives offerings to Gods .
ie., Yejur for Adhvaryu.
• Brahma :- who is a general supervisor well versed in all Vedas. ie., Atharva specially for Brahma.

The Rsis of the Vedas are not the authors, but only the ‘ seers’ of the manthras.

They give us ancient Indian ideas relating to Philosophy, religion, morality, psychology etc. These ideas
are in distinct and are given in a mass. The views put forward in this period are not philosophical. They
are rather a mixture of superstition, religious thoughts as well as speculation.

Brahmanas are prose tretise. They describe how various religious rituals are to be conducted.
They are the elaboration of the complicated ritualism of the Vedas. They deal with the rules and
regulations laid down for the performance of the rites and sacrifies. The name Brahmana is derived from
the word ‘Brahman’ , which means ‘prayer’. Some philosophical ideas flashed in this section.

Aranyakas are end portions of Brahmanas and they describe the way in which sacrifice are to be
performed by a man who has entired the vanaprasta stage. It is also called ‘forest treatises’ because it
is composed in the calmness of forests. This section is a transition from ritualism to the philosophical
thought. Here we find a mystic interpretation of the vedic sacrifice.

UPANISAD

The concluding portion of Aranyakas are called Upanisad. The Upanishads are mostly parts of the
Aranyakas. They are intensely philosophical & spiritual & rightly regarded as the cream of the vedic
philosophy. The upanisads are also known as ‘ Vedanta’ or the ‘end of the Veda’.The Upanishads are the
reflections of philosophies and they form the end of vedic literature. The Vedas may be assigned latest
to about 1500 BC.

The manthras and Brahmans are called the Karma Kanda or the portion dealing with the
sacrificial actions. The Aranyakas and Upanisad are called Jnana – Kanda or the portion dealing with
knowledge.

The day of composition and compilation of the hymns are unknown. It is believed that a long
period of time must have elapsed between these two process and many of hymn was lost during the
interval. The Vedas as we see it now must certainly show certain additions and deletions. The language
of the manthras is so archaic that it is very difficult to interpret them correctly. Because of these reasons
vedic thought cannot be understood fully in the correct sense. Even then Vedas show the development
of religion and evolution of philosophic thought in India.
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VEDIC RELIGION: development of religion & philosophy in India

For the sake of convenience vedic philosophy is divided in to two

1. Pre upanishadic philosophy :- mainly consists of manthras & Brahmanas

Various philosophical tendencies are present in the pre- upanishadic literature. The religion and
philosophic thought of this period seems to have developed along the different phases

1. Polytheism
2. Henotheism
3. Monotheism
4. Monism

Naturalistic polytheism is the first stage of religious consciousness in India. Man first emerged from
animal consciousness, he was struck by the beauty & immensity of the universe & by the natural forces
of thunder, lightning, rain, & other physical phenomena. He began to think about these natural
phenomena and proceeded to enquire about the causes which work behind them. He began to ascribe
the physical phenomena as the work of sentient being working behind them unseeing. In other words
early man personifies the powers of Nature which in virtue of their great strength became his Gods. The
grand, sublime, beautiful and useful aspects of nature are personified and deified. They regarded as
supernatural and superhuman spirit akin to human spirits. They are the deities presiding over the diverse
phenomena of nature. They are easily propitiated by hymns, prayer, oblations and sacrifies. They give
prosperity, wisdom and moral qualities. They give victory in battles, wealth, long life, sons, grandsons, &
happiness.

The vedic panthian includes innumerable Gods. At first natural forces were worship as Gods. There
was ‘surya Deva’ for sun, ‘Agni Deva’ for fire, ‘Varuna’ for water, ‘Indra’ for thunder & lighting etc. The
different gods are personifications of the different powers of nature. This phase of religious thought is
not naturalism, but anthropomorphic polytheism. The gods are supernatural and super human powers,
and endowed with spiritual qualities. This is the element of polytheism in the Vedas.

Sometimes the gods are invoked and worshiped in groups. Sometimes two gods, sometimes three,
four or more gods are invoked. Sometimes all gods (Visve devah) are worshipped together, who are
implicitly believed to be partial aspects of one supreme God. This phase of religious thought may be
called organized polytheism.

At first only natural forces were worshipped as God. Later gods were ascribed for human traits
and characteristics also. Thus varuna became the God of virtue, saraswathi, the god of Vidya, Kama
Deva, the god of love and so on. It was believed that Gods are responsible for orderly and harmonious
working of the universe. Peace and prosperity of life depended on them. If gods are pleased with us, life
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would be pleasanter and easier, other wise natural calamities might happened and destroy the peace
and harmony of life. Hence the early Indians thought is necessary to propitiate Gods. At first they offered
simple forms of prayer and worship. Gradually they were replaced by more complex and comprehensive
form of worship and rituals.

MONOTHEISM :- the belief in the plurality of Gods gradually proved too much to the thinking of Aryan
intellect. The vedic Aryan dissatisfied by this explanation longed for a single God who could be
considered as the creator and cause for everything. But tries to discover the one God who controls and
rules over all of them. The concept of monotheism presented in the early hymns of Vedas is not that of
a single supreme god , who is the only God. Rather it is the unity of all gods or the idea that one God is
the same as every other god.

The transition from polytheism to monotheism did not take place suddenly. It passed through an
intervening period during which Henotheistic tendency prevailed. Vedic aryns during that period
manifested the importance of a particular god for a particular period of time, praising and representing
him as the supreme God, ignoring for the time being other gods all together. Later the place of that god
is lowed & other god is raised to the supreme position. This tendency came to be known as Henotheism.
This conception of henotheism helped in the formation of monotheism during the later years. The most
prominent among the conceptions of supreme god, is that of prajapathi or Father god whose name
implies that all created beings are his children.

Monotheism in the ordinary sense in term is absent in the early Vedas. The basis of this philosophic
monotheism can be noticed even in poets coupled the names of two deities likeMitra and Varuna and
addressed them as if they were one. Another way of arriving at unity was to take a collective view of
Gods designating them as Viswa Devas.

MONISM :- MONISM is a higher conception of unity which traces the whole existence to a single source.
This theory tries to explain the entire universe as arising and evolving out of a single reality. This theory
is fully developed in the Upanishad.

Monotheism leads to monism. One Reality is conceived, which is manifested in diverse ways. Ie., one
reality is every where. ‘That one’ is not personal. It is an impersonal principle. There is nothing other
than it. The Nasadiya Sukta clearly brings out the monism of the Rg Veda. ‘That one’ was later identified
with the Atman or Brahman in the Upanishads.

Pantheism is a type of monistic thought, which identifies nature with God. There is a manthra in the Rg
veda , where Goddess Aditi is identifies with all Gods, all men, with the sky, and air, with the entire
nature. The central point of pantheistic doctrine is to deny the difference between God and Nature.

The monism adumbrated in the Rg veda is developed in to Idealistic monism in the Upanishads, which
regard Brahman, the infinite, eternal, omnipresent, omniscient, & pure Spirit as the ultimate reality. The

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temporal, spatial & causality bound world is the manifestation of this infinite and eternal Spirit. It is
permeated by Brahman, shines by its light and manifests the glory of Brahman. Brahman is sometimes
conceived as transcendent and immanent. Transcendent Brahman is acosmic, attributeless or higher
Brahman. It is also called Para Brahman. Immanent Brahman is cosmic or lower Brahman endowed with
attributes and related to the world. It is also called Apara Brahman or personal God or Isvara.

RITUALISM

In the early days prayer were offered to Gods to gain their favour for success in life here as well as here
after. The prayers were then naturally accompanied by simple offerings like grain and ghee. But this
simple form of worship become more and more complicated and gave rise to elaborate sacrifices.
Gradually a special class of priest arouse who were interested with the performance of these rituals.

Along with this, there was a change in the spirit, with which offerings were made to Gods offerings
.later this concept is changed in to the dominance of the priesthood. There were great change in the
conception of sacrifice and consequently is that of the relation between Gods and man. All that was
insisted upon the correct performance of religious rites and it was believed that the result will naturally
follow. Ritualism became a powerful tendency during the pre upanishadic period. Performance of rituals
was gradually placed on the same level as natural law or moral law.

CONCEPT OF RTA :-

The vedic concept of Rta is of great significance of the history of Indian Philosophy. It is the anticipation
of the law of Karma, which is the distinguishing characteristics of Indian Philosophy.

The word Rta literally means ‘the course of thing’. The conception of Rta denotes the order of the world.
It is the unchanging law. The concept of Rta corresponds to the word Dharma in the later literature. Rta
is the physical order. It governs the uniformities of nature. Ie., it is the natural order.

The conception of Rta finds a conspicuous place in the manthras. Gods are appeared to be the
guardiance of Rta. The word Rta is pre Indian in origin. Originally it mean order and uniformity of nature,
succession of day and night, coming of season, rising and setting of the sun etc. later it refers to moral
order also. That is , it was believed that good action will be followed by good results and bad action will
be followed by bad results. The word ‘Rta’ corresponds to the idea of karma in the later Indian Tradition.

UPANISADS

Upanisad form the end of vedic literature and hence came to be known as Vedanta. Upanishadic
teaching at first meant secret teachings. The word Upanishad comes from the root word ‘upa’ means
‘near by’ and ‘ni’ means ‘devotedly’ and ‘sad’ means ‘to sit down’ or ‘to destroy’ or ‘to loosen’. The word
came to signify any secret teachings about reality and it is used by the Upanishads in this sense ( rahasya
or guhya vidya). The reachings was imparted at private sitting only to the qualified disciples.

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A large number of Upanishad are available at present. Their number comes to over 100. But only 10 or
12 of them are considered as the original or principal or mukya Upanishads. About the other we know
very little. The principal Upanishads are Isha, kena, katha, prasna, Mundaka, Mandukhya, Taittiriya,
Aitareya, Chhandogya and Brahadaranya.

The Upanishad are in the form of dialogue. The method of exposition is more poetic than
philosophic. The language is highly symbolic. In the Upanishad we often come across short and pity
statement and the rest of the literature is merely a detailed explanation of these statements. It is
believed that the term Upanishad were at first applied only to these statements.

The Upanishad represent the earliest efforts of man at giving a philosophic explanation of the world.
There is some sort of unity of explanation among various Upanishad. Even though commentators differ
among themselves as to the exact meaning of the teaching of various Upanishad. The most prominent
of the teaching of the Upanishad may be described as absolutistic, monistic & idealistic.

BRAHMAN:

Upanishadic philosophy explains two terms- Brahman and Atman. The objective side of the Ultimate
reality is called Brahman. The word Brahman is derived from the root ‘brh’ which means ‘to grow’ or ‘to
evolve’. In the beginning it meant sacrifice, then prayer and then it acquired its present meaning of the
ultimate reality, which evolves itself as this world. Brahman is that which spontaneously bursts forth as
nature and soul. It is the ultimate cause of this universe.

ATMAN:-

The Atman or the individual self stands self- proved and is always immediately felt down & known. The
individual self is the highest thing we know and it is the nearest approach to the absolute, though it is
not itself the Absolute. The individual self is the mixture of real and unreal, existent & non existent, a
mixture of true and false. It is the product of Ignorance. But the essence is the light of the Absolute. Its
real nature is pure consciousness, self shining and self –proved. It is also called Ultimate witness or
Sakshi.

The word ‘Atman’ originally meant Life- breath and then gradually acquired the meaning of feeling,
mind, soul, and spirit. The true self has been the main topic of investigation in the Upanishads. It is the
subjective side of the reality. Thus each of these two terms has itsown independent significance. The
distinctive meaning of Brahman is that it is the ultimate source of the physical world, while that of Atman
is the inner self of man. In the course of philosophic speculation, the outer reality came to be identified
with the innerself and this signifies the development of philosophic thought.

At the stage of evolution of thought, the primal source of the universe, namely Brahman was
identified with its inmost essence, namely Atman. Thus two independent currents of thought, one
resulting from the desire to understand the true nature of man and the other that of the objective world
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became blended and the blending lead at once to the discovery of the unity for which there had been
such a prolonged search. i.e., the individual self (atman) realizes that he himself is the part of Brahman.
This identity is expressed in the Chandokhya Upanishad as a great sayings like Tat- tvam – Asi (that
though art ). In Brahadaranyaka Upanishad it is expressed in Aham- Brahm- Osmi ( I am the Brahman).
The individual as well as the world is the manifestation of the same reality. In other words, there is no
break between nature and man.

In various Upanishad we can see the philosophy of Idealistic monism or monistic idealism. It appears
in two forms in various Upanishad- Saprapancha vada or cosmic view & Nisprapancha Vada or Acosmic
view.

SAPRAPANCHA VADA OR COSMIC VIEW :-

Chandokhya Upanishad deals with saprapancha vada. According to the cosmic view the world is real.
The universe arouse as a result of the actual evolution or parinama of Brahman. It is called cosmic, all
comprehensive, full of all good qualities & also Saguna & savishesa. Brahman is described as that which
gives rise to the world, supports it and re-absorbs it. Brahman actually undergoes change to produce this
world. There fore, saprapancha vada is also known as Brahnma Parinama Vada. Sankara called this as
Apara Brahman or Lower Brahman.

NISPRAPANCHA VADA OR ACOSMIC VIEW:-

Brahadaranyaka Upanishad deals with Nisprapancha vada. According to this view, the world is not real,
it is only an appearance. This appearance is based on the reality i.e., Brahman. Here there is no actual
evolution taking place, only a appearance of change is happening. Brahman appears to give rise to the
world, which is actually an illusionary appearance. There fore this view is also known as Vivartha Vada.
It is also called acosmic, qualityless, indeterminate. It is nirguna, Nirvishesa, & Anirvachaniya.
Sankaracharya called this as Higher Brahman or Para Brahman.

PANCHAKOSAS OR FIVE SHEATHS:-

Taittiriya Upanishad describes the doctrine of five sheaths or panchakosas. The evolution of the
elements is as follows. Brahman arises ether, from ether air, from air, from air fire, from fire water and
from water earth. The following are the five sheaths.

1) Annamaya kosa
2) Pranamaya kosa
3) Manomaya kosa
4) Vijnana maya kosa
5) Anandamaya kosa.

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The lowest level is that of matter or annamya. Matter is unconscious, dead and cannot account for life.
It is purely on the physical plane. Brahman cannot rest content with matter. The purpose of matter is
fulfilled only when life is evolved. The highest state of matter is life.

The second state of evolution is life or Pranamaya. It is purely on Biological Plane. The vegetable life
emerges first. But the vegetable life must lead to the animal life. The vegetable products must be
transformed in to living animal cells. Life pervades the universe and blind man with the rest of creation.
But the destiny of life is fulfilled only when consciousness is evolved.

The third state of evolution is mind or perceptual consciousness or manomaya. Here we are
the mental or psychological plane. This state is shared by lower animal life at the level of instinct and
reflex action. Human beings have also got instincts and reflex action and these play an important part in
determining the human life. At the last state of manomaya the normal consciousness becomes self
conscious or rational.

The fourth state of evolution is self- conscious reason or Vijnanamaya. Here we are on the
metaphysical plane. This state is seen only in human beings. Reason becomes self conscious only at this
state and this fact distinguishes human beings from lower animals. The empirical trinity of knower,
knowledge, known has been evolved. Arts, sciences, aesthetics, morals, poetry, philosophy, religion, all
become possible only at this state.

The fifth and the highest state of evolution is the non –dual bliss or anandamaya. Here we on the
mystic plane. The empirical trinity of knower, knowledge and known has been fused into a
transcendental unity. This Brahman, the supreme reality, transcends all and yet it underlies all as their
background. Brahman is the immanent inner controller of all and the self of all. This Brahman is self
luminous, the immortal, the support of all worlds.

PRACTICAL TEACHINGS OF THE UPANISHAD

The practical teachings of Upanishad is aimed at the realization of Brahman. The true nature of Jiva is
that it is identical with Brahman. But ahamkara and evil misguides us. This results in ignorance or avidya.
Avidya veils the true nature of self or atman. The practical teaching of upanishad is aimed at the
realization of Brahman . that is, it is identical with our own Atman (Self). This Brahman realization is the
highest ideal of life.

The state of Brahman realization has two stages. The two stages are Vairagya and Jnana.

Vairagya :- Vairagya refers to the cultivation of detachment to the things of the world. According to
the Upanishad, a person who successfully passes through the four stages in life (Brahmacharya,
Garhastya, Vanaprasta, & sanyasa) naturally becomes a true vairagy. Such a person will have attained
perfect control of body, the senses and the mind. He gradually renounces the desires towards things of

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the world. All the worldly ties are loosened and he developed perfect equanimity of the mind. Such a
person can acquire for the second stage in life namely Jnana.

Jnana :- Acquisition of true knowledge or Jnana forms the second stage. The training of this stage is three
fold;

1. Sravana
2. Manana
3. Nidhityasana.

Sravana stands for the study of the Upanishad under a proper Guru. When the Guru is satisfied with the
sincerity of the intention of the disciple, he imparts knowledge to him. Sravana is followed by manana,
which is the continuous reflection on what has been learned from the Guru. This stage is indented for
the mental conviction of what you have learned from the Guru. This training is further supplemented by
Nidhityasana or meditation, which assist directly in the realization of the unity underline the multiplicity
of the universe. Nidhityasana as a successful meditation is possible only after considerable practice of
concentration of mind. Here Upanishad prescribed several meditative exercises of a preliminary
character. At first the thought is directed to any physical object. When a certain level of mental
concentration is achieved, the individual can meditate on more abstract symbols like “Ohm”. At some
stage in meditation the person gets intuitive certainty of the identity of the soul with the supreme reality.
That is , identity of Atman with Brahman. This stage is the highest stage when a person realizes that he
himself is Brahman. That is, everything is Brahman. It is however only a very few that can achieve this
goal.

In the Upanishad, there are references to Jivan Mukti, Videha Mukti and Krama Mukti.
Jivan Mukti refers to the attainment of Moksha even when a person is alived. Such individuals are called
Jivan Muktas. Videha Mukti is attainment of moksha at the time of physical death. Such individuals are
called videha Muktas. There are references to the attainment of Moksha with out any conscious striving
on the part of individual through right living and good activities through many births. Such a kind of
moksha is called karma Mukti.

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