Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 1

ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Language
Language is the collection of sounds, which is used
as a means of communication.

Structure of Language
a) Semantics: It is the study of words and their
meanings. (Vocabulary)

b) Grammar: It consists of the following sub-fields:

1. Morphology: It deals with the formation and
composition of words.

2. Syntax: It is a collection of rules that determine

how words combine into phrases and sentences.

3. Phonology: It is the study of sound systems and

abstract sound units.

4. Phonetics: It is a related branch of linguistics

concerned with the actual properties of speech
sounds called phones, non-speech sounds, and how
they are produced and perceived. (Pronunciation)

Skills of Language
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 2

1.Listening (input)
2.Speaking (output)
3.Reading (input)
4.Writing (output)

NB: If one increases inputs of the language, the

outputs always increase. The approaches to learn
L1 (language one) and L2 (language two) are
different; therefore, the learner is required to adopt
personal deliberation and individual involvement
for learning any desired language, which is not the
L1 of the learner.

GRAMMAR
Linguistics: It is the systematic study of language,
encompassing a variety of scientific and humanist
methodologies for its inquiry. It is further divided
into many sub-fields. For better study, it is divided
into two major topical divisions viz. the study of
language structure which is called grammar and
the study of meaning which is called semantics.
Further, grammar consists of morphology, which
deals with the formation and composition of words,
syntax, which is a collection of rules that determine
how words combine into phrases and sentences and
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phonology, which is the study of sound systems and

abstract sound units. Phonetics is a related branch
of linguistics concerned with the actual properties
of speech sounds called phones, non-speech sounds,
and how they are produced and perceived.

Grammar: English grammar is a body of rules

specifying how phrases and sentences are
constructed in the English language. There are two
approaches to the study of grammar: the
descriptivist and the prescriptivist, the former
specifies some grammatical rules, regulation and
system of English language whereas the latter does
not describe English grammar but rather sets out a
small list of social regulations that attempt to
govern the linguistic behaviour of native speakers.
In fact, the descriptivist method is highly helpful
for those who are not native English. Thus,
grammar is the science of language. It is an art of
supplying the right words in the right places, with
the help of grammar we can read, write and speak
any language accurately, in poor words: Grammar
is an ornament and base of language.

Letter: A written or printed sign representing a

sound used in speech. English Alphabet has (26)
twenty-six signs, each sign or sound is called a
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letter. Example: A, B, C ...Z.

Vowels: Among the twenty-six letters the five

letters are vowels viz. (a, e, i, o, u). The vowels are
unobstructed pronounced sounds, the vocal organs
do not move, only air passes out of mouth and the
vowels sounds are pronounced. Vowels are called
sound carrier which help in producing sounds by
mixing consonant sound with them.

Consonant: The letters except the vowels are

known as consonants: (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p,
q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z)
Note: - Sometimes, "W" and "Y" are considered as
vowels, when they produce the sound of a vowel as
“y” in the word “happy” produces the sound of
vowel “e” or “y” in sky produces the vowel sound
of “a”.

Syllable (Sound): Vowels are used to make syllable

with the help of consonant. Every syllable must
have at least one vowel. For instance, the word
“beautiful” consists of two syllables viz. beau / tiful.

Word: A single unit of language which means

something and can be spoken or written. It is the
combination of syllables, which has complete
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meaning.
Example: book- pen- teacher- flower.

Phrase: A group of words working as part of a

sentence, which has neither complete sense nor does
it have the subject is called phrase.
Example: The book, that pen, on the table, over the
wall, early in the morning.

Clause: A clause is a part of a sentence which

contains a subject and verb, usually joined to the
rest of the sentence by a conjunction. For instance:
Ali said that he would come the next day. Sometimes, the
word clause is also used for structures containing
participles of infinitives with no subject or
conjunction. For example (a) Realizing his mistake, he
stopped arguing. (b) The situations compelled her to
withdraw from her point of view. The former is the
example of participle whereas the latter is of
infinitive. Clauses are of three types.

(a) Subordinate Clause: The subordinate clause

works as a part of another clause as a subject,
object or adverbial in the main clause of a sentence.
For example: (a) I thought that you understood. (b)
What they want is delicious food. (c) You will find fast
food, wherever you go. In example (a) "that you
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understood"functions as an object of the sentence. In

example (b) "What they want" functions as the subject
of the sentence. In example (c) "wherever you go"
functions as adverbial of the sentence.

(b) Co-ordinate Clause: Coordinate clauses are one

of the two or more clauses of equal rank or value
that make up a sentence. A co-ordinate clause does
not function as a subject, object, complement or
adverbial in another clause like a subordinate
clause. For example: (a) Will you come to me or should I
come to you? (b) It is sunny today and there is a bit cloudy.
In these instances all the clauses are of equal rank
or value.

(c) Main Clause: Some sentences consist of a main

or principal clause and one or more subordinate
clause. In this kind of combination, a subordinate
clause functions like the part of the main clause as a
subject, or an object, or an adverbial. For example:
(a) How she works does not matter. The subordinate
clause "How she works" functions like the subject of
the main clause. (b) I thought that you understood. The
subordinate clause "that you understood" functions
like the direct object of the main clause. (c) You will
find fast food, wherever you go. The subordinate
clause "wherever you go" functions like the adverbial
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of the main clause. The same sentence can be re-

written like this: You will find fast food anywhere.
Sentence: A group of words that makes a complete
sense is called sentence. It denotes to a single
thought.
Example: (I) He is a good boy. (II) Asif writes for
the national and international newspapers as a
freelancer journalist.
(a) The parts of sentences: A sentence consists of
two parts viz. “Subject” and “Predicate”.
Furthermore “predicate” may consists of four main
parts, i.e. “verb”, “object”, “adverbial” and
“complement.”
Example:
(a) Wasim laughs.
(subject) (predicate)
laughs.
(verb) (intransitive verb having no
object)
(b) Katherine wrings a shirt.
(subject) (predicate)
wrings a shirt.
(verb) (object)
(c) My father is a doctor.
(subject) (predicate)
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is a doctor.
(complement)
(d) Aslam writes a letter to his brother monthly.
(subject) (predicate)
writes a letter to his brother monthly.
(verb) (object) (complement) (adverbial)

(e) Shut the door. (Imperative sentence)

(predicate) (shut (v) the door (o)
Note: Generally, the imperative sentence consisting
of either an order or request does not have subject
but its subject is always "you". "Shut the door" in
fact is "(You) shut the door." This "you" is
understood but not spoken or written.
(a) The Police (s) immediately (a)
arrested (v) the thief. (o)
(b) He (s) is (v) now (a) a visiting
faculty member (c) at University of Sindh. (a)
(c) He (s) became (v) confident (c)
gradually. (a)
(d) It (s) rained (v) steadily (a) all day.
(a)
(e) I (s) bought (v) Ali (o) a pen (o).
(f) The executive committee (s)
selects (v) a woman (o) as the chairman (c) every
year (a).
Note: Some examples given below show internal
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relationship of these elements in the sentences of

advance level when they have dual existence; hence,
"subject" or "verb" in one part of the sentence
may work as "object" to other part of the sentence.
(g) He thought that they (s) had
understood (v) him (o).
(sub:) (verb) Object
(h) Wasim grew happier when his
friend (s) arrived (v).
(sub) (verb) (comp) (adverbial)
Note: The sentences, which consist of intransitive verbs,
have only verb but they have no object at all in their
predicates.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
ACCORDING TO MEANING
1) Declarative Sentence: It has two forms:

a) Affirmative Sentence: An affirmative sentence is

a positive statement:
Example: Wasim writes a letter. Too many cooks
spoil the broth.

b) Negative Sentence: A negative sentence is a

negative statement:
Example: Aslam does not write a letter. There is
no substitute of compassion in human life.

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2) Interrogative Sentence: An interrogative

sentence is used to ask question:
Example: What is your name? Will you
accompany me to the station?

3) Exclamatory Sentences: An exclamatory

sentence expresses a sudden emotion, feeling or a
desire:
Example: a) Hurrah! We have won the match.
b) Oh! He is dead.
c) Yippee, grandfather is coming! d)
What fun!

4) Optative Sentences: An optative sentence

expresses a strong wish or pray:
Example: a) May God bless you! (b) May God
blacken her / his face!

5) Imperative Sentences: An imperative sentence

expresses a command, request or a piece of
advice.
Example: a) Shut the window. (Command or
order)
b) Please give me a pen (Request).

6) Assertive Sentence: An assertive sentence

expresses opinions or desires strongly and with
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confidence, so that people take notice.

Example:
a)You should try and be more assertive.
b) You had better work hard if you want to
shine about the firmament of the success.

7) Clef Sentence: It is a kind of sentence in which

special emphasis is given to one of its parts that
may be subject or object by using the structure
with "it" or "what".
Example:
a)It is teachers who guarantee the future of the
students.
b) What I need is your trust.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
ACCORDING TO CONSTRUCTION

1.Simple Sentences: A simple sentences contains

one finite verb and therefore one clause. It
expresses one main idea. Thus it has one main
clause only which may have word or phrase
modifier (adjectives or adverbs or prepositional
phrases):
Example:
a) My mother was born in Pakistan. (b) The
Holy Quran guides mankind.
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c) They are going to Karachi.

2.Compound Sentence: A compound sentence

expresses two or more main ideas in two or more
independent or main clauses. It has more than
one finite verb and more than one clause joined
by co-ordinate conjunction. A compound
sentence can be broken into two or more simple
sentences:
Example:
a)My mother was born in Pakistan but she came
to England as a small girl.
b)I am going to Multan today and I shall return
tomorrow.
c) I went to pay the utility bill, but the bank was
off.

Note: Above sentences can be broken into two

simple sentences by omitting co-ordinate
conjunction “and” with “full stop”; as: (a) I am
going to Multan. (b) I shall return tomorrow.

3.Complex Sentence: A complex sentence has one

independent or principal clause and one or more
subordinate clauses. The independent clause
expresses a complete idea and remains
meaningful even if the dependent clauses are
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removed from the sentence. The dependent or

subordinate clauses are meaningful only if the
meaning of the independent clause is added to
them:
Example:
a) My mother came here from India when she
was a small girl.
b) Wasim, who is a prominent psychiatrist,
thought the patient would recover from the
mental retardation.

4.Multiple Sentences: A multiple sentences, also

called “compound complex”, have at least two
independent clauses and one or more subordinate
clauses:
Example: He was visiting his home district
(independent clause) and looking at the familiar
scenes (independent clause), which reminded him
of his childhood. (sub-ordinate clause)

WORD CLASSES: PARTS OF SPEECH

The words used in English languages are generally

classified or categorized among nine classes which
in English grammar are called: "word classes" or
"lexical units" or “Parts of Speech”. They are:
Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb,
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Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection and Articles.

1. NOUN
Noun: A noun is a naming word and it provides
better identification. It is the name of a person,
place or thing. But the nouns like "jump" or
"destruction" which show an action are called
deverbal noun.
Example: Aslam - school - apple - fan.

KINDS OF NOUN

Noun, basically are classified into two main groups

viz. Proper Noun and Common Noun. Further,
Common Nouns are subdivided into minor
categories like concrete, abstract, mass, compound
and collective nouns.
Noun

Proper Noun Common Noun

e.g. e.g. book, copy
Ali, Pakistan, Karachi mango, cow, cat,

Concrete Abstract Mass Compound

Collective
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Noun Noun (uncount:) Noun

Noun
e.g. e.g. Noun e.g. e.g. e.g.
house freedom butter doorknob
team

1. Proper Noun: A Proper Noun is a particular

name of a particular person, place or thing. A
proper noun is unique in its properties, features
and characteristics and it does not share them with
another noun. A proper noun always commences or
begins with a capital letter.
Example: Waseem - Asif - Pakistan - Badin -
Farhan Public School Kadhan - The Holy Quran.
2. Common Noun: A common noun is a common
name of a common person, place or thing. All the
common nouns have common features or
properties to share with. The word common means
"shared by all". The common nouns are further
subdivided into following subgroups.
Example: boy - women - apple - table - chair.
a) Concrete Noun: A concrete noun refers to an
object, substance or anything that exists in physical
sense, whose physique can be felt by the dint of
senses. They are countable nouns, therefore
possesses singular and plural and are used with
articles (a, an, the) or any numeral.
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Example: book, pen, bird, apple.

b) Abstract Noun: An abstract noun is a name of an
idea, state, quality, emotion or action. They have
dual characteristics of "mass" and "countable"
noun.
Example: love - happiness - darkness - honesty -
truth - democracy - joy - tennis.
c) Mass Noun: A mass noun generally denotes to
the substance in liquid or solid form which are
indivisible. The most probably they are
uncountable; therefore, they are not used in the
plural sense, nor do they need article (a, an, the)
nor numerals.
Example: rice - sugar - can - gold - glass - milk - oil
- water
d) Compound Noun: When two or more words are
put together to form a name is called a compound
noun. The compound nouns are hyphenated or
written separately but they mean one thing.
Example: post office - living-room - brother-in-law
- textbook - check-up - grown-up - policeman.
e) Collective Noun: A collective noun is a name
given to a group or set of person, places, and things,
taken together. There lies a choice of using either
singular or plural helping verb or pronoun with the
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collective nouns with certain exceptions depending

on whether they refer to individuals which make up
the group or the group as a unit.
Example: army - assembly - team - flock - herd -
swarm -family.
a) Family has used its car. b) Family have used
their car.
c) The team is about to win. d) The team are losing
morale.
d) The police are in blue uniform. (Not: The police
is ….)

THE NOUN: CASES

It means the position of a noun in a sentence. A

noun has following six cases:

1. Nominative or Subjective Case: A noun or

pronoun, which is the subject of a verb is said to be
in subjective case. It always comes before the verb.
Example: Faheem is my friend. The cow gives milk.
The boy played well.

2. Accusative or Objective case: A noun or a

pronoun, which is the object of a verb is said to be
in objective case. It always comes after the verb.
Example: They eat mangoes. She cooks food. Asif
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writes a letter. They play cricket.

3. Dative Case: A noun or a pronoun, which is the

indirect object of a verb is said to be in dative case:
Example: They give Ali a quilt. I bought my
brother a book. She told Asif a story.

4. Obligative Case: A noun or a pronoun, which is

preceded by a preposition said to be in obligative
case.
Example: The mother bought ice-cream for
children. I bought a pen for Asif. She told a story to
Nasreen.

5. Vocative Noun: A noun which addresses is said

to be in vocative case:
Example: Naeem! Come here. Asif! Help me please.
Boys, work hard.

6. Possessive Case: A noun or a pronoun which

shows ownership or possession is said to be in
possessive or genitive case. A noun in this case
always bears an apostrophe (‘) over it:
Example: Asif’s cow gives much milk. This is
Naeem’s car. Father’s love is incomparable, but
mother’s love is unsurpassable.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 19

NOUN: GENDER

Nouns can generally be categorized under the

umbrella of four genders:

1. Masculine Gender: A noun, which denotes a

male person or animal is said to be in masculine
gender.
For instance: father - husband - boy - horse.
2. Feminine Gender: A noun, which denotes a
female person or animal is said to be in feminine
gender.
Example: mother - wife - girl - mare.
3. Common Gender: A noun, which denotes both
male and female person and animal is said to be in
common gender.
Example: friend - teacher - student – cousin, camel,
buffalo.
4. Neuter Gender: A noun that denotes a thing that
is neither male nor female (such nouns are the
things without life) is said to be the nouns of neuter
gender:
Example: table - pen - picture - clock - tree.

FORMATION OF GENDER

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Rule # 01: Some masculine nouns have totally

words as their feminine gender; as:

Masculine Feminine Masculin Feminine

Gender Gender e Gender Gender
father mother daddy/ mummy/
papa mama/mo
m
brother sister son daughter
uncle aunt Nephew niece
bachelor spinster fiancé fiancée
bride- bride husband wife
groom
King queen sir madam
widower widow boy girl
male female man women
lord lady gentleme lady
n
hero heroine Adam Eve
sultan Sultana bull, ox cow
drone bee bullock, heifer
steer
horse/ mare drake duck
stallion
stag hind dog bitch
cock/ hen colt filly
rooster
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duke duchess barman barmaid

manservant maidservan ram ewe
t (sheep)
boar (pig) sow buck doe
(deer)/
rabbit
grander goose
Rule # 02: By adding “ess” at end:

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

gender gender gender gender
host hostess heir heiress
poet poetess mayor mayoress
author authoress manager manageress
count countess prince princess
lion lioness god goddess
millionaire millionaires murder murderess
s
prince princess proprietor proprietres
s

Rule # 03: By adding “ess” at the end after

dropping the last vowel:

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

gender gender gender gender
actor actress master mistress
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head head waiter waitress

master mistress
emperor empress post master post
mistress
tiger tigress master mistress
conductor conductres
s

Rule # 04: By using feminine word.

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

gender gender gender gender
grand- grand- grand-son grand-
father mother daughter
step-father step- step-son step-
mother daughter
father-in- mother-in- brother-in- sister-in-
law law law law
son-in-law daughter- maternal- maternal-
in-law uncle aunt
land-lord land-lady paternal- paternal-
uncle aunt
sales-man sales- washer- washer-
woman man woman
milk-man milk-maid pea-cock pea-hen
cock- hen- bull-calf cow-calf
sparrow sparrow
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tom-cat tabby-cat he-goat she-goat

billy-goat nanny-goat

Common Gender:
(a) Person: These nouns are preferably used as
common gender: "adult, ancestor, baby, Buddhist,
child, Chinese, citizen, companion, cousin, doctor,
European, friend, guardian, guest, infant, judge,
juvenile, lawyer, lecturer, Minister, orphan, owner,
parent, passenger, principal, pupil, relation,
relative, singer, student, teacher, teenager, tourist,
traveler, worker."
(b) Animals: These nouns used for the names of
animals have common gender: "animal, bear, bird,
butterfly, cat, cattle, deer, eagle, fowl, goat, horse,
insect, octopus, owl, pig, sheep, snake, swan, wolf."

Neuter Gender:
These nouns used for the names of non-living or
inanimate things have no gender: "bag, book, box,
bread, chalk, chimney, desk, dishes, floor, house,
kettle, mirror, pillow, ruler, school, seat, stairs,
street, table, wall."
SINGULAR AND PLURAL

Generally, all the common, countable nouns are

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found in two forms viz. singular and plural. The

general rules to change the singular noun into
plural noun are as under:
a) Monosyllabic singular nouns mostly add “s”:
Example: bat - bats; book - books; cat - cats.

b) Singular nouns ending in a hissing sound, e.g. s,

ch, x, add “es”:
Example: glass - glasses; watch - watches; box -
boxes.

c) Singular nouns ending in “y” proceeded by a

consonant, change “y” into “i” and add “es”:
Example: party - parties; company - companies;
library - libraries.

d) Singular nouns ending in “y” preceded by a

vowel simply add “s”:
Example: boy - boys; toy - toys; journey - journeys.

e) Most of the singular nouns ending in “o”

preceded by a consonant add “es”:
Example: tomato - tomatoes; hero - heroes;
mosquito - mosquitoes.
Note: The following words ending in “o” preceded
by a consonant have an exception to above rule;
they simply take “s” for their plural:
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Example: kilo - kilos; piano - pianos; photo -

photos; dynamo - dynamos; Eskimos – Eskimos.
Besides, cargo and zero have two correct plural forms:
cargo - cargos (British English) - cargoes
(American-English); zero - zeros (BrE) - zeroes
(AmE).

f) Singular nouns ending in “oo” add “s”:

Example: cuckoo - cuckoos; zoo - zoos; bamboo -
bamboos; kangaroo - kangaroos.
g) There are some words or singular nouns ending
in “f” or “fe”, change “f” or “fe” into “v” and add
“es”:
Example: knife - knives; wife - wives; thief -
thieves; life - lives; leaf - leaves; sheaf - sheaves; calf
- calves; self - selves; wolf - wolves; shelf - shelves;
half - halves; loaf - loaves.

h) Some singular nouns ending in “f” simply add

“s”:
Example: roof - roofs; belief - beliefs; chief - chiefs;
cliff - cliffs; handkerchief - handkerchiefs; safe -
safes.
Note: The nouns "hoof", "scarf" and "wharf" take
either "s" or "ves" in the plurals.

Irregular Plural Forms:

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a) By changing the inside vowels: foot - feet; goose -

geese; tooth - teeth; louse - lice; woman - women;
man - men; ox - oxen; child - children.
b) Plural forms of compound noun: major- general
- major- generals; step-father - step-fathers; father-
in-law - fathers-in-law. If the first part of
compound noun is fixed then both nouns are
pluralized like man-driver – men-drivers; woman
driver – women-drivers. Sometimes, the first part is
made plural when a compound noun is made of a
verb+ er noun + adverb like: hanger-on – hangers-
on; looker-on – lookers-on; runner-up – runners-
up.
c) The following nouns have no plural forms but
can be used both as singular and plural nouns as
shown below:

Word Singular Plural

bread a piece of bread pieces of bread
a loaf of bread loaves of bread
music a piece of music pieces of music
furniture a piece of pieces of
furniture furniture
equipmen a piece of Pieces of equip.
t equipment
salt a pinch of salt
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a spoonful of salt spoonfuls of salt

grass a blade of grass blades of grass
a leaf of grass leaves of grass
ink a bottle of ink bottles of ink
water a glass of water glasses of water
a bucket of water buckets of
water

d) The following nouns are both singular and

plural:

Deer one deer two deer

Fish one fish two fish
Sheep one sheep two sheep
innings one innings two innings
head his head their head
quarters quarters quarters

e) The following nouns are always used as plural

and take plural verb. Some garments consisting of
two parts: breeches, pants, pajamas, trousers. Some
tools and instruments consisting of two parts:
binoculars, pliers, scissors, spectacles, glasses,
scales, shears. Some other words like arms,
damages, earnings, goods/ wares, greens, grounds,
outskirts, pains particulars, premises/quarters,
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 28

riches, savings, spirits (alcohol), stairs,

surroundings, valuables, people, cattle, wages,
spectacles, clothes, police.
Example: The police are in blue uniform. Your
pants are long. I need two pairs of trousers.

f) There are some words, which are plural in form

but singular in meaning and will take singular
helping verb and pronoun like: "news, hair"; some
diseases like: "mumps, rickets, shingles"; certain
games like: "billiards, darts, draughts, bowls,
dominoes".
Example: The news is very sad. Billiards is my
favourite game. My hair is long.

g) There are some nouns ending in "ics" are plural

in form and generally take plural verb like
"acoustics, athletics, ethics, hysterics, mathematics,
physics, politics." But, the names of sciences are
used in singular sense.
Example: His mathematics are weak. Mathematics
(as scientific subject) is the mother of all
knowledge. Acoustics is the scientific study of
sound.

h) The words of foreign languages sometimes follow

English rules but to great extent they have different
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 29

format for making plurals. Some of the foreign

nouns' plurals are dealt as under:

Singular Foreign Regular Plural Both Plural

Ending Plural Ending Endings
-us Ending -uses -i / -uses
-i
stimulus stimuli
Bonus Bonuses
campus Campuses
Chorus Choruses
Circus Circuses
Virus Viruses
Cactus cacti / cactuses
nucleus nuclei / nucleuses
Radius radii / radiuses
syllabus syllabi/syllabuses
terminu termini/terminuses
s

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-a Ending Ending -as / -ae
-ae -s
larva larvae
vertebra vertebra
e
area Areas
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 30

dilemm dilemmas
a
diploma diplomas
drama dramas
antenna antennas/ antennae
formula formulas/formulae

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-um Ending Ending -a / -s
-a -s
curriculum curricul
a
album albums
museum museu
ms
stadium stadium
s
forum forums
memorandu memoranda/
m memorandums
aquarium aquaria/aquariums
symposium symposia/
symposiums
medium media / mediums
datum data
stratum strata
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 31

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-ex, ix Ending Ending -ices / -es
-ices -es
index indices
matrix matrices/matrixes
appendi appendices/appendixes
x

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-is Ending Ending
-es
basis bases
analysis analyses
crisis crises
thesis theses
diagnosis diagnoses
hypothesi hypotheses
s

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-on Ending Ending -a / -s
-a -s
criterion criteria
phenomeno phenomena
n
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 32

demon demons
electron electrons
neutron neutrons
automaton automata/
automatas

Singular Foreign Regular Both Plural

Ending Plural Plural Endings
-eau Ending Ending -eaux / -s
-eaux -s
bureau bureaux
platea Plateaux/plateaus
u

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUN

A noun is classified as under:

1. Countable Noun: The common names of objects,

things that we can count are called countable
nouns. Those all things would fall in the ambit of
countable noun which by shape, structure or form
are divisible into number or counts. Hence, noun
"star" is a countable noun no matter they are
infinite or countless. The countable nouns take
articles (a, an, the) or numerals. The countable
nouns have singular and plural as well.
Example: boy - tree- toy – book - chair.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 33

2. UN Countable Noun: The names of objects,

things that we cannot count are called uncountable
nouns. Those all things would fall in the ambit of
uncountable noun which by shape, structure or
form are indivisible into number or counts. The
uncountable nouns do not take articles (a, an, the)
or numerals, nor do they have singular or plural
forms. Example: milk - water - salt - atmosphere -
food - butter.

SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT

A couple of the machines are ready.
A lot of the book is completed. (only one book)
A lot of the lectures are waiting to join us.
A pair of pants is purchased for him.
These pairs of pants are new.
The pants/trousers/scissors/pliers are sold.
A series of computers is reached in the market.
Anyone/anybody/anything is ready.
Each of my sisters is hardworking.
Every one of the streets is made clean. (NOTE:
Everyone is one word when it means everybody.
Every one is two words when the meaning is each
one)
None of the computers are ready. (informal usage)
None of the computers is ...(formal usage)

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 34

None of the students have done their homework. (In

this last example, the word their precludes the use
of the singular verb.
NOTE: Apparently, the SAT testing service
considers none as a singular word only. However,
according to Merriam Webster's Dictionary of
English Usage, "Clearly none has been both
singular and plural since Old English and still is.
The notion that it is singular only is a myth of
unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the
19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to
you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural,
use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond
serious criticism" (p. 664).
Nothing in this school is...
One of my employees is...
Some of the book is...(only one book, but this refers
to part of the book)
Some of the homework is...
Some of the notes are...
Somebody/someone/something is...
Ten thousand dollars is a lot of money to spend on
an education.
The furniture is...
The piece of furniture is …..
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 35

The pieces of furniture are …

The information is…
My hair is long/short.
The number of words is...
The sugar is…
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense
Three hours is the adequate time to complete the
test.
Traveling fifty thousand miles is a long time to
spend in an airplane.
Two thirds of the books have already arrived.
Two thirds of the population of Lebanon are
Muslims
Two thirds of the population of Lebanon is Muslim.
The English are accustomed to... (people from
England)
know the English. (person).
I know English. (language)
This list of names is not very complete. (The verb
"is" agrees with the subject "list.")
The teacher as well as the students agrees with this
opinion. (The verb "agrees" modifies the subject
"teacher.")
The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.
The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 36

There are four hurdles to jump. (“are” agrees with

hurdles [plural]
There is a high hurdle to jump. (“is” agrees with
hurdle) [singular])
The teacher and the student are tired.
Neither the teacher nor the students are excited
about the lesson. (The subject "are" agrees with
"students," the closer subject.)
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage
decorations.
Neither of them is/are available to speak right now.
Neither answer is correct.
Neither of the answers is/are correct.
Either of us is/are capable of doing the job.
He is mistaken, or else I am.
He is not to blame, nor are you.
The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.
A car and a bike are the means of my
transportation.
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected
shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of
her shaking.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 37

Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared. (Pie is the

object of the preposition of)
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared. (Pies is
the object of the preposition)
One-third of the city is unemployed.
One-third of the people are unemployed.
(NOTE: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions)
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.
A number of people have written in about this
subject.
(The expression “the number” is followed by a
singular verb while the expression “a number” is
followed by a plural verb.)
Salma is the scientist who writes/write the reports.
(The word in front of who is scientist, which is
singular. Therefore, use the singular verb writes.)
He is one of the men who does/do the work. (The
word in front of who is men, which is plural.
Therefore, use the plural verb do.)

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 38

The staff is in a meeting. (Staff is acting as a unit

here.)
The staff are in disagreement about the findings.
(The staff are acting as separate individuals in this
example. The sentence would read even better as:
The staff members are in disagreement about the
findings.)
My assets were wiped out in the depression.
The average worker's earnings have gone up
dramatically.
Our thanks go to the workers who supported the
union.
The news from the front is bad.
Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant
women.
Forty percent of the students are in favor of
changing the policy.
Forty percent of the student body is in favor of the
policy.
The department members but not the chair have
decided not to teach on Valentine's Day.
It is not the faculty members but the president who
decides the issue.
It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked
the students to riot.
Four times four divided by two is eight.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 39

The people who listen to that music are few.

The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first
section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling
to India.
The wages of sin is death.
Great pains have been taken.
Much pains has been taken.
All possible means have been tried.
The means employed by you is sufficient.
The bike is a means of transport.
My means were much reduced owing to that heavy
loss. (income)
His means are ample. (income)
According the present market rate twelve dozen
cost one hundred rupees.
Gulliver’s Travels was written by Swift. (Name of
book)
The Arabian Nights is still a great favourite.
The United States has a big navy.
The following nouns are always plural and take a
plural verb.
Police – Police are charging him with the murder of
the princess.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 40

People – People in general are not very

approachable. (Peoples (with '–s') refers to peoples
from more than one race or nation. (EXAMPLE:
the peoples of Asia.)
Football Team – Liverpool are a very successful
football team. (BUT: Liverpool is a great city.)
Clogs, sandals, slippers, and sneakers, jeans,
knickers, panties, pants, pyjamas, shorts, tights,
trousers, and underpants – E.g. These trousers are
not mine. ("a pair of" can be used with these plural
nouns. E.g. A pair of jeans is available. Two pairs
of jeans are available.
Glasses (= spectacles), binoculars – E.g. My glasses
are used only for reading.
Pincers, pliers, scissors, shears, tongs – E.g. Pliers
are a handy tool. My garden shears trim the hedge
very well.
Clothes – My clothes need to be washed but I don't
have time.
Earnings – Earnings in the agricultural sector have
increased by 5% in the fourth quarter.
Cattle – Cattle are reared for their meat or milk.
Committee – The Committee have rejected all the
proposals. (“has” is also used in some books)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 41

Nouns which are plural in form but take a singular

verb
The following plural nouns are used with singular
verbs as they are treated as singular:
Athletics, economics, gymnastics, linguistics,
mathematics, mechanics, numismatics, physics,
politics and pyrotechnics – Economics was my
favourite subject at school.
News – The good news is that we've all been invited.
Mumps, measles – An infectious illness, mumps was
common among children.
Measurements and amounts that are considered as
a single unit:
One hundred years is a century.
Ten kilometres is a long distance.
Twenty dollars is not enough to buy a good shirt.
Seven days in prison is all he got for shoplifting.
What is the news?
Shingles is caused by the same virus as chicken pox.
Billiards is a game which connects mathematics and
football.
A noun can be used as singular or plural
The following collective nouns can be singular or
plural. It depends on how they are regarded.
Viewed as a single unit, it takes a singular verb;
viewed as a group of separate members or parts, it

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 42

is treated as a plural noun and used with a plural

verb.
Our team competes in a local tournament.
Our team have just won the quarterfinal.
My family is a large one.
My family are always arguing about how to share
the bills.
The new government has gained more support
since taking office.
The Government are determined to keep inflation
in check.
The explorers stumble across a species of plant
unknown to science.
The coastal waters of the island are rich in different
fish species.
Data indicates that most of the offenders come from
broken home.
We will not draw any conclusion until we have
looked at all the data.
Data is collected from 40 countries.
These data are sufficient for drawing conclusion (in
Technical English)
Statistics is included in this year's Mathematics
syllabus.
The statistics tell us the current trend is towards
more consumers' spending.
The full orchestra includes a fair number of female
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 43

instrumentalists.
The orchestra do not agree to the venue for their
next performance.
The enemy is calling for a ceasefire.
Security is very tight as the enemy are everywhere.
Nouns ending in -ics can either take a singular (if
they are considered as the name of a science) or a
plural verb (if they express a specific application of
the science):
Mathematics was never easy for Geoffrey.
The teacher told Geoffrey that his mathematics
were below the standard. (his understanding of
mathematics or his results)
Rhetorics was one of the seven free arts.
His rhetorics were doing more harm to our case
than any mistake we had ever made. (his way of
expressing ideas)
Acoustics is the study of sounds.
Poor classroom acoustics create a negative learning
environment for many students. (audibility in the
classroom)
Two subjects expressed as a single unit and take a
singular verb.
Ali, the secretary, is coming.
Time and tide waits for no man.
Bread and jam is what he eats most in the morning.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 44

Two and two is four.

The horse and carriage is at the door.
Honour and glory is his reward.
The rise and fall of the tide is due to lunar
influence.
My friend and benefactor has come.
The novelist and poet is dead.
(2) PRONOUN

Definition: Pronoun is a noun substitute, which is

used instead of a noun. Its main purpose is to avoid
the repetition of a noun, besides; it is time saver.
Example: I, we, you, he, she, it, they one etc.

KINDS OF PRONOUN
A pronoun has ten kinds:

1) Demonstrative Pronoun: It is used to point out

things, person already mentioned in the sentence.
Example: this; that (for singular); these; those (for
plural)
a) This is my book and that is yours. b) These are
my copies and those are your copies.

2) Indefinite Pronoun: Indefinite pronouns refer to

unspecified person or thing.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 45

Example: somebody; anyone; anything.

a) If somebody calls inform them that we are in the
field.
b) If anyone tries do not allow them to use this
computer.

3) Intensive Pronoun: These are used to intensify or

emphasize the preceding noun or pronoun.
Intensive pronouns immediately follow the subject
of the sentence.
Example: a) He himself told me the whole story.
b) I myself have seen him at the hotel.

4) Interrogative Pronoun: These pronouns are such

that produce question.
Example: What; which; who.
a) What is your name? b) Which is your book?
c) Who does teach you English?

5) Distributive Pronoun: These pronouns show that

the persons or things are taken singly. These
pronouns are always singular:
Example: each; every; either; neither.
(a) Each / Every is longing for gallery seats.
(b) Either he or they are going to Karachi.
(c) Neither they nor he is taking the test.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 46

6) Reciprocal Pronoun: These are used in order to

indicate persons or things mutually affected. They
occur in such phrases, as:
Example: each other; one another.
a) David and Katherine loved each other. (for two)
b) All Muslims are brothers to one another.(more
than two)

7) Reflexive Pronoun: These pronouns are used

when the subject and the object of the sentence are
the same or the action passes back to the subject.
The reflexive pronoun always comes in the end of
the sentence it is used in; if it comes immediately
after the subject of the sentence it turns to be
intensive case rather reflexive one.
Example: myself; ourselves; yourself; yourselves;
himself; herself; themselves; itself.
a) They are teaching themselves. b) She speaks
herself.

8) Relative Pronoun: These pronouns are used to

connect a subordinate clause to the main clause,
and serve as conjunctions also.
Example: who; whom (for person or persons);
whose; that (for persons or things); which (for
animals and things)
a) The teacher who teaches English is posted.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 47

b) The person whom you are calling is actually

deaf.
c) The person whose wallet is stolen is very much
worried.
d) The tree that /which got its leaves shed is
sprouting.

9) Possessive Pronoun: These are used to indicate

the possession or, in same cases, intimate
relationship, which cannot be strictly called
possession. They are grouped into two categories:
a) my; our; your; his; her; its; their.
b) mine; ours; yours; his; hers; its; theirs.

Note: The forms in the first group, sometimes

called "possessive adjective", are used with nouns
following them immediately as in the examples
given bellow:
Example: my book; our house; your pen; her
purse; their house; his notebook.
(a) It is my book. (b) She has missed your pen.
Whereas, the pronouns in the second group or class
do not require nouns after them but generally they
in the end of the sentence.
Example: This book is hers. You are mine. These
books are ours.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 48

Note: No apostrophe is needed to mark the possessive

pronoun except the pronoun "one" which bears an
apostrophe "one's" in possessive case.
10) Personal Pronoun: The pronouns stands for
persons are called personal pronouns; they are
divided into three kinds:
a) First person pronoun: I; we; us; me; mine; our.
b) Second person pronoun: you; yours; thou; thy.
Third person pronoun: he; him; his; she; they; its,
etc.

CASES OF PRONOUN
Person Subjective Objective Possessive Possessive Reflexive
Or Case Cave Adjective Case
Nominative
First I me mine my Myself
Person we us ours our ourselves
Pronou
n
Second you you yours your yourself
Person yourselves
Pronou thou thee thine thy thyself
n
Third he him his his Himself
Person
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 49

Pronou she her hers her herself

n it it its its itself
they them theirs their themselve
one one one’s one’s s
oneself

ORDER OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS

a) When singular pronouns of different persons are

used in a sentence, the second person in singular
comes first and the first person pronoun appears in
the end:
Example: a) You and I write in same way.
b) You, he and I read same lesson.
c) You and he go to Karachi.
b) Plural pronouns, however, follow another order.
The first person plural comes first, second person
plural and third person plural follow respectively:
Example: a) We, you and they go to Karachi.
b) We and they go to Karachi.
c) You and they play the match.

3. ADJECTIVE

Definition: An adjective is a word, which qualifies

only a noun or pronoun and adds something to
their meaning. It shows the characteristics,
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 50

qualities, quantity, number, merits, demerits and

attributions of a person or thing. It is a descriptive
word.
Example: happy - big - two - intelligent.

KINDS OF ADJECTIVE

Adjectives can be laid down under the umbrella of

eight headings as under:

1) Adjective of Quality: It shows the kind, quality

or state of a noun or pronoun:
Example: a) Ali is an intelligent boy.
b) I ate a sweet mango.

2) Adjectives of Quantity: It shows the quantity of

something:
Example: enough; some; all; little; much.

3) Adjectives of Numbers: It shows the number of a

noun:
Example: one; two; three; first; second third.

4) Demonstrative Adjectives: It points out a noun:

Example: this; that; these; those; such, etc.
a) These books are mine. (Demonstrative
adjective)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 51

b) These are my books. (Demonstrative

pronoun)

5) Interrogative Adjective: It is used to ask a

question:
Example: what; which; whose.
a) Which book do you want to buy? (Interro:
adj.)
b) Which is your book? (Interrogative pronoun)

6) Distributive Adjectives: It shows that the persons

or things are taken singly:
Example: each; every.
a) Each student was given a prize.

7. Proper Adjective: It is formed from the proper

noun and they always begin in a capital letter:
Example:
a) Khalil Jibran wrote his world-famous book:
"The Prophet" in English language.
b) Sindhi people are very simple and sane.

8. Possessive Adjective: It is formed from personal

pronoun:
Example: my; our; your; his; her; their.

THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 52

Degrees of Comparison: There are three degrees of

comparison:
1. Positive Degrees: It is a simple form of an
adjective, which is used when no comparison is
required. It simply qualifies a noun or pronoun.
Example: a) Naeem is a good boy. b) The mango is
sweet.

2. Comparative Degree: It is used when one noun

or pronoun is compared with another noun or
pronoun of the same rank or class.
Example: a) Ali is better than Asif.
b) The mango is sweeter than an orange.

3. Superlative Degree: It is used when noun or

pronoun is compared with all other nouns or
pronouns of the same rank or class.
Example: a) Ali is the most industrious student of
the class.
b) A mango is the sweetest of all of all
fruits.
c) The Indus is the longest river of Pakistan.

FORMATION OF DEGREES

There are certain rules to change the positive

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 53

degree into ‘comparative’ and ‘superlative’

degrees.
Rule # 01: A positive degree of a monosyllabic
adjective is inflected with “er” and “est.” to
constitute comparative and superlative degrees
respectively:
Positive Comparative Superlative
black blacker blackest
high higher highest
low lower lowest
cheap cheaper cheapest
dear dearer dearest
great greater greatest
sweet sweeter sweetest
sour sourer sourest
poor poorer poorest
rich richer richest
cold colder coldest
tall Taller tallest
dwarf dwarfer dwarfest
Rule # 02: A positive degree of a monosyllabic
adjective ending in “e” is inflected with “r” and
“st.” to constitute comparative and superlative
degrees respectively:
Positive Comparative Superlative
able abler ablest
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 54

free freer freest

Rule #03: When the positive degree ends in “y”
preceded by is a consonant, in that case change “y”
into “i” and add “er” and “est” for the formation of
comparative and superlative degrees respectively:

Positive Comparative Superlative

happy happier happiest
heavy heavier heaviest
lazy lazier Laziest
merry Merrier Merriest
wealthy Wealthier wealthiest
healthy Healthier Healthiest
stormy Stormier Stormiest
sunny Sunnier Sunniest
Note: If there is a vowel before “y”, in that case “y”
is not changed into “i”, it only needs "er" and "est"
for comparative and superlative degree
respectively:
Positive Comparative Superlative
gay gayer gayest
gray grayer grayest

Rule # 04: If the positive degree of an adjective

ends in a consonant and there is a vowel before that
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 55

consonant, in that case the consonant is doubled

and “er” and “est” are added to form the
comparative and superlative degrees respectively:
Positive Comparative Superlative
big bigger biggest
fat Fatter fattest
fit Fitter fittest
hot hotter hottest
red redder reddest
sad sadder saddest
thin thinner thinnest
wet wetter wettest
Rule # 05: When an adjective consists of two or
more than two syllables, we simply add “more” and
"most" before the positive degree to constitute
comparative and superlative degrees respectively.

Positive Comparative Superlative

beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
difficult more difficult most difficult
handsome more handsome most handsome
courageous more most
courageous courageous
splendid more splendid most splendid
efficient more efficient most efficient
boyish more boyish most boyish
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 56

criminal more criminal most criminal

famous more famous most famous
fortunate more fortunate most fortunate
gloomy more gloomy most gloomy
ruinous more ruinous most ruinous
selfish more selfish most selfish
troublesome more most
troublesome troublesome
valuable more valuable most valuable
watchful more watchful most watchful
womanish more womanish most womanish
womanly more womanly most womanly
vigorous more vigorous most vigorous
generous more generous most generous
necessary more necessary most necessary
popular more popular most popular
coward more coward most coward

Rule # 06: There are some adjectives, which form

their degrees in an irregular way.

Positive Comparative Superlative

bad, ill, evil worse Worst
good better Best
little less/lesser Least
much more Most
(quantity)
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many more Most

(number)
later latter/later latest/last
old older/elder oldest/eldest
far farther/further farthest/furthest
nigh nigher nighmost/next
fore former foremost/first
in inner inmost/innermost
up upper upmost/uppermost
out outer utmost/utermost
(latter/later) (a) He is later than I expected. (b) The
latter chapters are lacking in interest.
(last/latest) (a) Ours is the last house in the street.
(b) Is there any latest news about the issue?
(older/elder) (a) Ali is my elder brother. (b) He is
older than his sister. (NB: elder is not used in comparative sentences)
(farther/further) (a) Karachi is farther than
Hyderabad. (b) He made no further remarks.
(nearest/next) (a) Where is the nearest phone box?
(b) His shop is next to the bank.

Rule # 07: “than” is always used after the

comparative degrees of Adjectives.
a) Asif is wiser than Naveed.
b) Azra is more intelligent than Yasmin.
c)His handwriting is worse than my handwriting.
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d) Wasim is slimmer than I (am). (Not: Wasim is

slimmer than me.)
Note: Use the subjective case of pronoun rather than the
objective case as mentioned in the aforementioned
sentences # (d).

Rule # 08: If the two qualities of a same noun or

pronoun are being compared, the first degree of
adjective is used preceded by “more”;
Example: Wasim is more good at Biology than
Physics. (Not better)

Rule # 09: Some comparatives have neither positive

nor superlative degrees. They all end in “or”. They
do not carry “than” as shown in rule # 07 above.
They are followed by preposition “to”.
For instance: “minor; prior; senior; interior; exterior;
ulterior; junior; inferior; superior; major”
Example: a) He is senior to me. b) My brother
is inferior to Rizvi in intelligence.

Rule # 10: The degrees of adjective are also formed

by adding “less” and “least”
(a) Ali is more intelligent than I. = I am less
intelligent than Ali.
(b) He is the most intelligent student of the class. =
The class is less intelligent than he.
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Adjective used as Noun: (Plural) “rich; wicked;

Americans; seniors; juniors; sweets; bitters;
valuables; eatables” (a) The rich are cruel. (b) The
wicked are devoid of feelings.
(singular) The future is unpredictable.

Superlative Degree used with indefinite article: It

was a most eloquent speech (means very eloquent)

Verb Participle used as adjective: (boring/bored)

The work was boring. The audience was bored.
(tiring/tired) The work was tiring. The workers
were tired.
(interesting/interested) The story was interesting.
The students were interested in movies.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES

The adjectives can be classified into two classes; as:

1) Attributive Adjective: The adjective, which

stands with its noun is said to be an attributive
adjective or an “epithet”. It always precedes noun.
Example: a) It is a sweet apple.
b) He is a good boy.
c) It is a true story.

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2) Predicative Adjective: The adjective, which is

used with the verb as a complement is called as
predicative adjective. It always follows the noun it
qualifies to.
Example: a) The sky is clear.
b) He seems angry.
c) It grew dark.

Order of Adjective:
size- general description-age-shape-colour-
material-origin-purpose
(a) an old red Spanish leather riding boots (b) A
funny brown German beer mug
(c) a long sharp knife (d) an old plastic
bucket

4. VERB

Definition: A verb is a word that expresses an

action performed or refused by the subject or a
state experienced by the subject.

CATEGORIES ON VERB

1. Intensive Verb: The sentences, which have

subject complements, have intensive verb.
Example: a) The girl is now a student at a large
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 61

university.
b) Wasim grew rich gradually.

2. Extensive Verb: Extensive verbs can be either

intransitive or transitive. When extensive verbs are
used as intransitive they do not permit any of the
four object and complement types (direct object,
indirect object, subject complement, object
complement) to be used in the sentence.
Example: a) it rained steadily all day.
When the extensive verbs are transitive they take a
direct object. Further transitive verbs are classified
as "Monotransitive", which take direct object,
"Ditransitive", which take indirect object and
"Complex Transitive", which take an object
complement. For instance:
a) I write a letter. (Monotransitive)
b) She had given the girl an apple. (Ditransitive)
c) They make him the chairman every year.
(Complex Transitive)

STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS

a) Dynamic Verbs: The verbs which are used in

progressive form are called dynamic verbs. For
example:
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a) We waited for him. b) We were waiting for

him.

b) Stative Verb: The verbs which cannot be used in

progressive form are called Stative verbs. For
example:
a) Wasim is now lecturer at University of
Sindh.
b) He knew the answer.

FINITE AND NON-FINITE VERB

a) Finite Verbs: The finite verb phrases have tense

discrimination and there is always an agreement
between the subject, person number and the finite
verb. Besides, finite verbs have moods.
a) They work / worked in the field. (Tense
distinction)
b) Ali comes. They come. (Verb agreement)
c) If they were eating, they would sit. (Subjunctive
mood)
d) Shut the window. (Imperative mood)

b) Non-finite Verb: All the verbs which are in

infinitive form (to read), the -ing or present
participle form (reading) and the -ed or past
participle form.
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a) He drinks wine heavily. (Finite)

b) To drink like that must be lethal to health. (Non-
finite)
c) He is laughing. (Finite)
d) I found him laughing. (Non-finite)
VERB: MOOD

Mood, basically, is a particular method or mode to

use a verb to denote, express or mention to a
particular action. There are three kinds of moods in
English language.

1) Indicative Mood: If a verb expresses a statement

showing fact, question or a supposition is in known
as indicative mood.
a) Columbus discovered America in 1492.
(Statement)
b) Have you dined? (Question)
c) If they come, I will inform you. (Supposition)
2) Imperative Mood: The verb which is used to
express an order or command, an advice or any
entreaty is known as imperative mood.
a) Fetch me a glass of water. (Command)
b) Be submissive and polite to your fellows.
(Advice)
c) May I use your computer please? (Entreaty)

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3) Subjunctive Mood: In subjunctive mood a verb

expresses a wish, hope, desire, intention or
resolution in noun clause in the present and
improbability in the past time.
a) May God bless you! (Present wish)
b) The committee recommended that a weekly
inspection to be conducted to assure hygienic
condition in the prison. (A noun clause used for
present resolution or intention)
c)I wish I attended the meeting. (Past wish)
d) If I knew driving, I could go to beach. (Present
improbability)

THE INFINITVIE, BARE INFINITIVE, SPLIT

INFINITIVE

1) The Infinitive: The infinitive is a verb noun

having features or characteristics of a noun, it is
not limited by a person or number or the subject.
a) To err is human.
b) They loved to drive in rain.
c)To learn English is not difficult. (as a subject)
d) I wish to help poor. (object of transitive verb)
e)Her earnest wish is to become a successful
doctor. (complement)
f) We found her open the door. (object
complement)
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g) I want to submit my will. (qualifying a verb

showing purpose)
h) She is very happy to secure the first position.
(qualifying an adjective)
i) It is time to go. (Qualifying noun)
Verb + infinitive with “to”: These verbs are
generally followed by infinitive form of verb with
“to”, for instance “want, necessary, ought to, agree,
dare, decide, expect, fail, happen, hope, manage,
mean, offer, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse,
seem, wish)
(Infinitive of purpose: she sat down to rest.
Example: in order to- so as to)
1.It is nice to sitting here. 2. I am glad to
have seen her.
3.She likes to be liked. 4. Try not to be
late.
5.I am sorry not to have phoned.

Verb + Object+ infinitive

1.He wants me to wash his socks. 2. I would
prefer you to pay now.
Other words: advise, allow, ask, can’t bear, cause,
encourage, expect, forbid, force, get, help, invite,
leave, mean, need, order, persuade, remind, teach,
tell, warn

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Adjective followed by Infinitive (in case of feelings

and reaction): afraid, anxious, certain, glad, happy,
likely, lucky, ready, right, shocked, surprised,
willing wrong. Pleased, sorry
1.I am sorry to disturb you. 2. She is pleased to
see you.
Adjective not followed by infinitive: fine,
intelligent, lazy, unusual, well
2) Bare Infinitive: When the verb does not carry
preposition "to" in its beginning is called to be in
bare infinitive form. These verbs, auxiliary verb,
phrases, preposition are generally followed bare
infinitive: "bid, let, hear, watch, make need, see,
help, dare, shall, may, do should, might, must, will,
can must, would, could, had better, sooner than,
had rather, rather than, would rather, expect, but,
than."
a) We bade him go. b) I dared not speak
with the principal.
c) He does nothing except play cards. d) You
had better consult the doctor.

3) Split Infinitive: Sometimes, we use an adverb

between to and the infinitive is called split
infinitive. However, it is considered wrong in
Standard English.
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a) She always yearned to immediately break the

news.
GERUND

Gerund is a verbal noun, which ends in "ing" and

functions like a noun or a verb.
a) Walking is good for health. (as a subject)
b) He dislikes cheating in the paper. (object of
transitive verb)
c)I am fed up with applying for jobs. (object of
preposition)
d) My aim in life is becoming a real teacher.
(complement of a verb)
e)The designing of clothes is in vogue. (as
ordinary noun)
Note: The difference between the use of infinitive,
participle and gerund should meticulously be
noted:
a) To preach is easier than to practice.
(Infinitive)
b) Preaching is easier than practicing. (Gerund)
c)Wasim is fed up with applying for job.
(Gerund)
d) Applying for jobs, Wasim has left no stone
unturned to avail all the possible means and
sources. (participle)

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PARTICIPLE

The participle is a verbal adjective which has the

features or characteristics of a verb and adjective.
There are there types of participle viz. Present
Participle (verb + ing), Past Participle (verb + ed, d,
t, n) and Perfect Participle (having + 3rd form of
verb).
a) He has got charming personality. (Adjective)
b) Pakistan is a developed country. (Adjective)
c)She looks worried. (complement)
Note: Besides, the participle are used to determine
the time or tense of the verb or action.
Verb+ ing form: avoid, cant help, deny, (can't) face,
fancy, feel like, finish, give up, image, keep (on),
mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, risk, spend
time, (cannot) stand, suggest, look forward to,
1.Let us go climbing. 2.Did you go dancing last
Saturday? (sporting or leisure activities)
2.The car needs washing, 2. My shoes need
mending.
Note: we use ing form after preposition
(Noun followed by preposition + ing form:
difficulty, hope, idea, thought)

FORMS OF VERB

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The table showing forms of verb:

Imperat Infinit Past Past Presen Gerund/

ive ive 2nd Partici t Noun
(root) 1st ple Partici
3rd ple
4th
eat to eat ate eaten eating eating
write to wrote writte writin writing
write n g
apply to appli applie applyi applicatio
apply ed d ng n
satisfy to satisfi satisfie satisfyi satisfactio
satisfy ed d ng n

Note: We use “to” before the verb to make

infinitive. When ‘to’ is omitted the verb becomes an
order.

THE THREE FORMS OF VERB

1) Regular Verb: All the verbs which take "d" or

"ed" to constitute the past and the past participle
forms are called regular or weak verbs.

Verb Past Past participle

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(1st form) (2nd form) (3rd form)

answer answered answered
arrest arrested arrested
chase chased Chased
hate hated Hated

NOTE: In accordance with the above rule the words

ending in “e” only add “d” to make past and past
participle form; whereas, the words ending except
“e” add “ed” to make past and past participle form.

2) Irregular Verb: All the verbs which constitute

their past and past participle forms without adding
"ed", but they rather follow different patterns for
making forms are called irregular verb. Generally,
the irregular or strong verbs are classified as
under:
1) Group#1: In the first group 1st, 2nd and 3rd forms
are identical:

1st form 2nd form 3rd form

burst burst Burst
cost cost cost

Thus, below given words come in the ambit of first

group:
cut; hit; knit; let; set; shut; spread; read; hurt;
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broadcast; telecast.
2) Group#2: The verbs whose 1st and 2nd forms are
identical.
1st form 2nd form 3rd form
beat beat Beaten

3) Group# 3: 1st and 3rd forms are identical.

1st form 2nd form 3rd form

become became Become
come came come
run ran Run

4) Group# 4: 2nd and 3rd forms are identical.

1st form 2nd form 3rd form

bend bent Bent
bind bound Bound
bleed bled Bled
bring brought Brought
burn burnt / burnt / burned
burned
buy bought Bought

Thus below-mentioned words come under the

umbrella of the group-4: catch - caught; dig - dug;
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dream - dreamt; feed - fed; feel - felt; fight - fought;

find - found; get - got; hang - hung; have - had;
hear - heard; hold - held; keep - kept; lay - laid;
lead - led; lean - leant; light - lit;

5) Group# 5: These verbs are completely irregular

in their forms.

1st form 2nd form 3rd form

arise arose arisen
awake awoke awoken
be; am; is; was; were been
are.
begin began begun
bear bore borne
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
choose chose chosen
do did done
break broke broken
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
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forget forgot forgotten

freeze froze frozen
give gave given
hide hid hidden
know knew known
lie lay lain
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
saw sawed sawn
see saw seen
sew sewed sewn
TENSE, APECT AND MOOD

Time is a cosmopolitan, non-linguistic concept with

three divisions: past, present and future. Tense
shows the correspondence between the form of the
verb and our concept of time. Aspect shows that
how the action is experienced or regarded. The
action can be in progressive or perfective state. If it
is continuous or in progress, it is called in
progressive aspect, if the action is completed it is in
perfective aspect:

a) I am / was writing. (Progressive Aspect)

b) I have / had written. (Perfective Aspect)

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 74

Whereas, mood shows the relationship of an action

or verb with these conditions like: "obligation,
necessity or possibility". In fact, tense, aspect and
mood are interdependent, interrelated or
interwoven, because any expression or statement of
either present or past cannot be comprehended or
understood without its aspect whether it is in
progressive or perfective aspect. Whereas, all
expressions or statements concerning future are
closely bound or related with their mood, which
helps to understand or comprehend them properly.

TENSES
It is derived from Latin tensus stretched, from the
verb tendere. A noun in Middle English (in the
general sense time): from Old French tens, from
Latin tempus time. It determines the time of a verb
or action carried out by a subject. Generally the
time is divided into three major parts and they are:
(I) Present Tense
(II) Past Tense
(III) Future Tense
The first says something about an action done in
present time; the second determines the action done
in past time; while, the third determines an action,
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which will be done in the upcoming time.

Furthermore, every tense can be divided into
diverse parts for the better understanding of an
action.

1. PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE

Definition: It says something about an action done

in present time.
(Helping verbs: do / does) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st
form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) I write a letter (Affirmative)
(b) She does not play squash (Negative)
(c) Do they play truant regularly? (Interrogative)
(d) Doesn’t Ali go to school? (Interrogative:
Negative) or
Does Ali not go to school? (Interrogative:
Negative)
Note: This pattern of making interrogative negative
can be applied for all tenses.

Usage:
1.To mention a habit or routine in present:
I wake up early in the morning.
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2.To explain universal truth:

The sun rises in the east.
3.While writing the summary or synopsis of poem,
novel, drama, or film:
The poet praises the daffodils in the poem.
4.For an action done in present time:
I write a letter to my brother who lives in
Karachi.
5.For the definition of something:
An adjective adds something to the meaning of a
noun or a pronoun.
6.While writing the process of particular action:
The shake in the plates of the earth causes an
earthquake.
7.To show the natural expressions of different
senses viz. hearing, smelling, seeing, tasting, sigh
etc when they are not done deliberately:
I see. I like. (Not: I am liking.)
8.In newspaper, the radio, TV etc:
The train derails and kills 75 passengers.
9.For future:
They leave tomorrow.
If my father comes, I will inform you.
(Conditional)

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

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Definition: It says that a particular action is

happening or is in progress in present for short
span of time.
(Helping Verbs: is / am / are) [Verb: Present Participle /
4th form]
Sentences:
(a) I am writing a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) You are not playing well. (Negative)
(c) Are they phoning? (Interrogative)
(d) Is she not weeping for her mother? (Int.
Negative)
Usage:
1.An action happening now:
I am writing a letter.
2.An action happening now but not necessarily
taking place while spoken of:
I am reading Shakespeare nowadays.
3.An action that is supposed to take place in future
time but its time is finalized:
I am going to Karachi tomorrow.
3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

Definition: It says that the action has been

completed in present time.
(Helping Verb: has / have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3 rd
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form]
Sentences:
(a) I have written a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) She has not dispatched the letter. (Negative)
(c) Have you appeared in the court?
(Interrogative)
(d) Has she not taken the examination? (Int.
Negative)
Usage:
1.The action completed in present time:
I have written a letter.
2.The action remained continuous for particular
time during present time:
I have waited for you for two hours.
3.It is the equivalent of past perfect in present time:
We have completed our syllabus a bit earlier than
expected time frame.

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Definition: It says that the action has remained

continuous for long span of time in present.
(Helping Verb: have been / has been) [Verb: Present
Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 79

(a) I have been teaching English Language for

ten years at Paragon English Language Academy.
(Affirmative)
(b) She has not been writing as freelancer
journalist since 1999. (Negative)
(c) Has he been playing football for ten years?
(Interrogative)
(d) Have you not been living in Karachi for two
years? (Interrogative: Negative)
Note: "Since" shows the point of time or beginning
of an action; whereas, "for" denotes total amount
or period of time of an action.
a) I have been teaching English since 2003.
(Shows beginning or point of time the action
began)
b) I have been teaching English for 7 years.
(Shows the total period or amount of time the
action remained continuous)
Usage:
1.The action that remains continued for long span
of time in present:
I have been living in Karachi since 1990.
2.The action that is done but its influence yet
prevails:
I have been watering the plants so my clothes ate
wet.
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5. PAST INDEFINITE TENSE

Definition: The work done in past time

(Helping Verb: did) [Verb: Past form / 2nd form of
verb]
Sentences:
(a) I sang a song. (Affirmative)
(b) I did not sleep (Negative)
(c) Did you shriek? (Interrogative)
(d) Did you not dream? (Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1.The work done in past time:
I went to Karachi yesterday.
2.The work done in past for indefinite time:
Allah created Adam from clay and mud.
3.The work done in past for definite time:
Christopher Columbus discovered America in
1492.
4.To know or mention the past time:
Last year brought the heaps of pleasure for us.
5.For the habits of past:
I worked in a hospital.
6.For future :( Condition)
If my father came, I will inform you.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 81

6. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

Definition: The tense denotes an action, which

remained continuous in past for short span of time.
(Helping Verbs: was / were) [Verb: Present Participle /
4th form]
Sentences:
(a) I was waiting for my father. (Affirmative)
(b) Were they playing cricket? (Interrogative)
(c) The teacher was not delivering lecture on essay.
(Negative)
(d) Was Imran not planning to join Medical
College? (Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1.An action continued in past for short span of
time:
I was waiting for my brother.
2.When one action interrupted the other which was
in progress in past time:
When you phoned I was sleeping.
3.The action in progress in past time:
They were constructing a training wing for the
teachers.
4.The action taking place in past with no confirmed
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end:
They were trying to come up with new ideas to
meet the exigency of time and space.
5.In lieu of past indefinite tense:
We were gossiping.

7. PAST PERFECT TENSE

Definition: The action, which had been completed

in the past time.
(Helping Verb: had) [Verb: Past Participle / 3 rd form]
Sentences:
(a) I had adequately completed my professional
qualification. (Affirmative)
(b) She had not adorned her house. (Negative)
(c) Had Danish quenched his thirst?
(Interrogative)
(d) Had we not said adieu to the nostalgic beauties
of the university life? (Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1.The action completed in past:
We had had food.
2.When an action completed in past is interrupted
by other action:
When I reached the railway station, the train had
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left.
3.The action remained continuous for particular
time in past:
I had worked in a firm for two years.
4.It is the equivalent of present perfect in past time:
By morning we had reached the destination
aimed at.

8. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Definition: The action which remained continuous

for long span of time in past.
(Helping Verb: had been) [Verb: Present Participle / 4 th
form]
Sentences:
(a) I had been writing in newspaper for ten years.
(Affirmative)
(b) Abbas had not been bullying his son since
childhood. (Negative)
(c) Had you been facing the jerks and jolts of life
since childhood? (Interrogative)
(d) Had the train not been coming for two weeks?
(Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1.The action, which remained continuous in past
for long span of time:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 84

We had been working in a firm since 1990.

2.For an action done in past (instead of past perfect
tense):
We had been waiting for you.
3.To show the link of an action with present time:
Since they had been watering the plants, so their
clothes are still wet.

9. FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE

Definition: The action, which will happen in the

upcoming or future time.
(Helping Verbs: shall / will) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st
form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall go to Karachi. (Affirmative)
(b) She will not take a cup of tea. (Negative)
(c) Will Imran write a letter? (Interrogative)
(d) Shall we not play cricket match? (Int. Negative)
Usage:
1.The action, which will happen in upcoming or
future time:
I shall go to Karachi tomorrow.
2.The actions, which are beyond our control:
The sun will rise at 5:47 a.m.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 85

3.The habits in future time:

I will take exercise daily.
4.Generally news papers, magazine, news caster use
this tense to mention the events which are
supposed to occur or take place in future time:
The Prime Minister of Pakistan will visit America
in the next month.
5.The use of “going to” for future:
We are going to organize a farewell party in the
honour of outgoing student.
6.The use of “about to” for future:
It is about to rain.
7.The use of present indefinite for future:
They leave tomorrow.
8.The use of present continuous for future:
We are going to Karachi tomorrow.
9.The show a condition:
If my father comes I will inform you.
If my father came I will inform you.

Note: We generally use “shall” as a helping verb

with subject “I” and “We”, when the action is done
without their active involvement; otherwise we use
“will” as helping verb with the afore-mentioned
subjects when they are going to do an action with
their active participation or intention or consent.
Whereas, the rest of the subjects like: "he, she, it
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 86

they, Ali" take "will" as helping verb.

10. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

Definition: The action which will remain

continuous in future time for short span of time.
(Helping Verbs: shall be / will be) [Verb: Present
Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) I shall be washing and wringing clothes.
(Affirmative)
(b) She will not be paying tariffs. (Negative)
(c) Will he be waiting or us? (Interrogative)
(d) Will they not be bicycling? (Interrogative:
Negative)
Usage:
1.For an action, which remains continuous in
future time:
The students will be waiting for their results.
2.For an action, which will take place with out
intention:
They will be gossiping and making fuss about in
the corridor.
3.For question:
When will you be watching TV?
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 87

4.For an action already planned:

They will be convening a seminar on the standard
and quality education.
5.Be + To.
The Prime Minister is to visit America next
month.

11. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

Definition: The action will be completed in future

time.
(Helping Verbs: shall have / will have) [Verb: Past
Participle / 3 rd Form]
Sentences:
(a) When you will come, Imran will have slept.
(Affirmative)
(b) By the end of the month, they will not have
completed their assignments. (Negative)
(c) Will the clerks have dispatched the letters?
(Interrogative)
(d) Shall we not have arrived at Lahore by early
morning? (Interrogative: Negative)
Usage:
1.The sentence beginning with “By”:
By the end of this month I will have worked here
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 88

for five years.

2.The action which will be completed in infinite or
finite time in future:
When you will pass intermediate I shall have
completed my studies then.

12. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Definition: It denotes the action, which will remain

continuous for long span of time in future.
(Helping Verb: shall / will have been) [Verb: Present
Participle / 4th form of verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall have been writing in newspaper for ten
years. (Affirmative)
(b) Abbas will not have been bullying his son for
months. (Negative)
(c) Will she have been facing the jerks and jolts of
life since childhood? (Interrogative)
(d) Will the train not have been coming for two
weeks? (Interrogative Negative)
Usage:
1.The action, which will remain continuous in
future for long span of time.
I shall have been writing in newspaper for ten
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 89

years.

13. PRESENT TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: It shows the state of somebody or
something in present time. There is no action on the
part of the subject. The verb used in this kind of
structure is called "state verb".
(Helping / Verb: am / is / are) [No Action Verb]

Sentences:
(a) Asma is a teacher. (Affirmative)
(b) It is not a fictitious story. (Negative)
(c) Am I a liar? (Interrogative)
(d) Are they not players of chess? (Interrogative
Negative)
(e) Aren’t you a doctor? (Interrogative Negative)

14. PAST TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: It shows the state of somebody or

something in past time. There is no action on the
part of the subject. The verb used in this kind of
structure is called "state verb".
(Helping Verb: was, were) [No Action Verb]

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 90

Sentences:
(a) Asma was a teacher. (Affirmative)
(b) It was not a fictitious story. (Negative)
(c) Was I a liar? (Interrogative)
(d) Were they not players of chess? (Int.
Negative)
(e) Weren’t you a doctor? (Interrogative
Negative)

15. FUTURE TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: It shows the state of somebody or
something in future time. There is no action on the
part of the subject. The verb used in this kind of
structure is called "state verb".
(Helping Verb: shall be / will be) [No Action
Verb]
Sentences:
(a) Asma will be a teacher. (Affirmative)
(b) It will not be a fabricated story. (Negative)
(c) Shall I be a lawyer? (Interrogative)
(d) Will they not be players of chess? (Int.
Negative)
(e) Won’t you be a doctor? (Interrogative
Negative)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 91

16. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: The subject has attained the state of

completion in present time for a considerable
amount of time.
(Helping Verb: have been / has been) [No action
verb]
Sentences:
(a) I have been a doctor for two years.
(Affirmative)
(b) He has not been a lawyer for two years.
(Negative)
(c) Have they been addicted to heroin since 1990?
(Interrogative)
(d) Has he not been a computer operator for ten
years? (Interrogative: Negative)

17. PAST PERFECT TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: The subject has attained the state of
completion in past for a considerable amount of
time.
(Helping Verbs: had been) (No action verb)
Sentences:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 92

(a) He had been good in moral since childhood.

(Affirmative)
(b) She had not been an early-riser. (Negative)
(c) Had I been habitual of late sleeping?
(Interrogative)
(d) Had he not been latecomer in the school?
(Interrogative: Negative)

18. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE OF “TO BE”

Definition: The subject will attain the state of
completion in future for a considerable amount of
time.
(Helping Verbs: shall / will have been) [No action
verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall have been a teacher for one year?
(Affirmative)
(b) She will not have been good at operating
computer. (Negative)
(c) Will you have been good at English after
completing the course? (Interrogative)
(d) When Imran will come from London, will he
not have been old in age? (Interrogative:
Negative)
19. PRESENT POTENTIAL TENSE
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 93

Definition: It shows the capacity or potency of a

subject of doing an action in present time.
(Helping Verb: Can) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st
form]
Sentences:
(a) I can write a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) She cannot play dice. (Negative)
(c) Can you drive a car? (Interrogative)
(d) Can Ali not submit his assignment? (Int.
Negative)

20. PAST POTENTIAL TENSE

Definition: It shows the capacity or potency or
ability of a subject of doing an action in past time.
(Helping Verb: could) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st
form]
Sentences:
(a) It could mitigate the intensity of pain.
(Affirmative)
(b) Abbas could not forget me. (Negative)
(c) Could you exhort / urge / request / implore /
beseech him? (Interrogative)
(d) Could Ali not blackmail / deceive / doge us?
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(Interrogative: Negative)

21. FUTURE POTENTIAL TENSE

Definition: It shows the capacity or potency or
ability of a subject of doing an action in future time.
(Helping Verb: shall be able, will be able) [Verb: Bare-
infinitive]

Sentences:
(a) I shall be able to submit the assignment in next
week. (Affirmative)
(b) They will not be able to vent their ideas.
(Negative)
(c) Will they be able to snare birds? (Interrogative)
(d) Will she not be able to learn computer within
two months? (Interrogative: Negative)

22. PRESENT PERFECT POTENTIAL TENSE

Definition: It shows that the subject can have done
an action if certain conditions have been fulfilled in
present time.
(Helping Verb: can have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form of
verb]

Sentences:
(a) If you gave me money I can have bought the
car. (Affirmative)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 95

(b) If you did not give me money I cannot have

bought the car. (Negative)
(c) If you gave me address can I have written
letter to you? (Interrogative)
(d) If you gave me cell number can I not have
informed you? (Interrogative: Negative)

23. PAST PERFECT POTENTIAL TENSE

Definition: It shows that the subject could have
done an action if certain conditions had been
fulfilled in past time.
(Helping Verb: could have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form]

Sentences:
(a) If you gave me money I could have bought the
car. (Affirmative)
(b) If you did not give me money I could not have
bought the car. (Negative)
(c) If you gave me money could I have bought the
car? (Interrogative)
(d) If you gave me money could I not have bought
the car? (Interrogative: Negative)

24. PRESENT POSSESSIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows the possession of the subject in
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 96

present time.
(Helping Verbs: have, has)[Verb: No Action Verb]
Sentences:
(a) I have four pens. (Affirmative)
(b) She does not have room to stay at. (or) She has
no room to stay at. (Negative)
(c) Does Ali have a book on history?
(Interrogative)
(d) Do I not have a chance to attempt?
(Interrogative: Negative)

25. PAST POSSESSIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows the possession of the subject in
past time.
(Helping Verb: had) [Verb: No Action Verb]
Sentences:
(a) I had that car as white elephant (as a burden).
(Affirmative)
(b) I did not have time to roam about. (Negative)
(c) Did she have a charm in her voice?
(Interrogative)
(d) Did they not have clothes to put on? (Int.
Negative)

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 97

26. FUTURE POSESSIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows the possession of a subject in
future time.
(Helping Verbs: shall have / will have) [Verb: No Action
Verb]
Sentences:
(a) I shall have a pen. (Affirmative)
(b) I shall not have a splendid house in the next
year. (Negative)
(c) Will Wasim have an opportunity to bid her
farewell / adieu? (Interrogative)
(d) Will he not have a job to join? (Interrogative
Negative)

27. PRESENT AORIST TENSE

(Helping Verb: may) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st
form]
Definition: This tense can be used for under
mentioned entries:
Sentences:
1.For Permission:
You may sit in the chair. (For giving permission)
May I come in, sir? (For seeking permission)
2.For a Chance / Possibility/ Probability:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 98

It may rain today. (Affirmative)

3.For Pray / Wish / Curse:
May you be successful in your aim! (Optative
Sentences) [Wish]
May God blacken her / his face! (Optative
Sentences) [Curse]
May it rain! (Wish/pray)

4.For a Purpose:
We work hard that we may succeed.
(Affirmative)

28. PAST AORIST TENSE

(Helping Verb: might) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st

form]
Definition: This tense can be used for under
mentioned purposes in past time.
Sentences:
1.For Permission:
You might take my cordless phone. (Affirmative)
2.For a Chance / Possibility/ Probability:
I did not come to you because I thought you
might stay at office. . (Affirmative)
3.For Wish / Pray / Curse:
Might Allah give him long life! (Optative
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Sentences) [Wish]
4.For a Purpose:
I went to Karachi that I might get an opportunity
to fly abroad. (Affirmative)

29. PRESNT DUBIOUS TENSE

Definition: It shows that the action taking place in
present time is uncertain or in doubt.
(Helping Verb: may be) [Verb: Present Participle / 4th
form]

Sentences:
(a) Katherine may be studying in her room.
(Affirmative)
(b) Imran may not be lending money in those days.
(Negative)
(c) May they be waiting for their parents?
(Interrogative)
(d) May Ali not be dyeing his hair? (Int. Negative)

30. PAST DUBIOUS TENSE

Definition: The tense shows that the action, which
has taken place in present time, is in doubt.
(Helping Verb: might have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 100

form]
Sentences:
(a) They might have gone home. (Affirmative)
(b) They might not have borrowed money.
(Negative)
(c) Might Imran have wiped out her tears?
(Interrogative)
(d) Might I not have called at him? (Int.
Negative)

31. PAST DUBIOUS COUNTINOUS TENSE

Definition: It shows that the action might have been
taking place in past time.
(Helping Verb: might have been) [Verb: Present
Participle / 4th form]
Sentences:
(a) They might have been phoning us since
morning. (Affirmative)
(b) She might not have been playing for two
days. (Negative)
(c) Might they have been waiting for you?
(Interrogative)
(d) Might Imran not have been sleeping? (Int.
Negative)

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 101

32. PRESENT HABITUAL TENSE

Definition: This tense shows the habits in present
time. Present indefinite is also used to show the
habits in present time.
(Helping Verb: do / does) [Verb: Bare-infinitive /
1st form]
Sentences:
(a) I write in the Daily Dawn.” (Affirmative)
(b) She does not sweep her home. (Negative)
(c) Does Ali play cricket daily? (Interrogative)
(d) Do we not go to London? (Int. Negative)
Note: The Present Indefinite Tense is generally
used as Present Habitual Tense. But it will be
incorrect to write that:
(a) I use to work in a hospital. (Incorrect)
(b) I work in a hospital. (Correct)

33. PAST HABITUAL TENSE

Definition: It shows the habits in past that are no
longer in existence in present time.
(Helping Verb: used to) [Verb: Infinitive / 1st form]
Sentences:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 102

(British English)
(a) I used to play cricket. (Affirmative)
(b) She did not use to smear hina on hands.
(Negative)
(c) Did he use to play dice? (Interrogative)
(d) Did you not use to set houses of enemy on fire?
(Interrogative: Negative)
(American English)
(a) I would play cricket. (Affirmative)
(b) They would not go to school. (Negative)
(c) Would she teach English? (Interrogative)
(d) Would Asma not surf sites? (Interrogative:
Negative)

34. PRESENT CONJUNCTIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows that the end of one action
causes the start of other in present time.
(Identification: having) [Verb: Past Participle/3rd
form]
Sentences:
(a) Having washed hands, I eat food.
(Affirmative)
(b) Having taken rupees, he does not buy book.
(Negative)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 103

(c) Having played match, do they go home?

(Interrogative)

35. PAST CONJUNCTIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows that the end of one action
caused the start of other in past time.
(Identification: having) [Verb: Past / 2nd form of
verb]
Sentences:
(a) Having written a letter she went to her
friends. (Affirmative)
(b) Having had food he did not change his
clothes. (Negative)
(c) Having played match did they go home?
(Interrogative)
36. FUTURE CONJUNCTIVE TENSE
Definition: It shows that the end of one action
causes the start of other in future time.
(Identification: having) [Verb: Bare-infinitive / 1st
form]
Sentences:
(a) Having sold my abode, I shall fly for London.
(Affirmative)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 104

(b) Having played game, he will not take bath.

(Negative)
(c) Having played match, will they go home?
(Interrogative)

37. PRESENT INFINITIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows that the subject has to do a
particular action in present time. The subject has
either to do or is compelled to do an action.
(Helping Verb: have to / has to) [Verb: Infinitive / 1 st form of
verb]

Sentences:
(a) I have to write a letter. (Affirmative)
(b) He does not have to withdraw from his plea?
(Negative)
(c) Do you have to inform all members?
(Interrogative)
(d) Does she not have to pay rent? (Interrogative
Negative)

38. PAST INFINITIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows that the subject had to do a
particular action in past time. The subject had
either to do or was compelled to do an action.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 105

(Helping Verb: had to) [Verb: Infinitive / 1st form]

Sentences:
(a) I had to play a match. (Affirmative)
(b) He did not have to work for extra time.
(Negative)
(c) Did she have to play dice? (Interrogative)
(d) Did I not have to teach? (Interrogative:
Negative)

39. FUTURE INFINITIVE TENSE

Definition: It shows that the subject will have to do
a particular action in future time. The subject will
have either to do or will be compelled to do an
action.

(Helping Verb: shall / will have to) [Verb: Infinitive / 1st form]

Sentences:
(a) If you do not give me the book, I shall have to
go to Karachi. (Affirmative)
(b) He will not have to play cricket match.
(Negative)
(c) Will she have to come to London?
(Interrogative)
(d) Will I have not to make tea? (Interrogative:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 106

Negative)
40. PRESENT CONDITIONAL TENSE
Definition: It is used to show a condition in present
time.
(Helping Verbs: would) [Verb: Bare-infinitive/1st
form]
Sentences:
(1) I would play cricket. (Affirmative)
(2) Asma would not go to Iran. (Negative)
(3) Would Aslam and Abbas have food?
(Interrogative)
(4) Would they not meet her? (Interrogative
Negative)

41. PAST CONDITIONAL TENSE

Definition: It shows the unfulfulled condition of
past.
(Helping Verbs: would have) [Verb: Past Participle / 3rd form]

Sentences:
(1) He would have informed you. (Affirmative)
(2) You would not have phoned me. (Negative)
(3) Would she written a letter to her friends?
(Interrogative)
(4) Would I not quit the candle? (Interrogative:
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Negative)

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Present Conditional Sentence -1:
It shows that an action will take place if certain
conditions are fulfilled in present time.
Sentences:
(a) If you give me address I would write you.
(Affirmative)
(b) If you call me I may help you. (Affirmative)
(c) If they come I might / may / would inform
you. (Affirmative)

Past Conditional Sentences-2:

It shows that an action would have taken place if
certain conditions had been fulfilled in past time; as
the conditions had not been fulfilled so the action
would not have taken place.
Sentences:
(a) If you had given me your address I would
have informed you. (Affirmative)
(b) You had not given me your address I would
not have informed you. (Negative)
(c) Had I been there I would / could / might have
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 108

helped you. (Affirmative)

(d) If I had been doctor I would have saved her
life, since I had not been doctor so I could / would
not have saved her life.

Other Conditional Sentences:

These sentences denote the unfulfilled condition,
desire, wish, craving, yearning or earnest longing,
which cannot be materialized in future either.
(a) Had I been a doctor.
(b) If I were a Prime Minister.
(c) Would that I had been a doctor.

SOME IMPORTANT SENTENCES OF

COMMON USE
It is / was essential: It is / was essential to inform
her father.
Know how to: I know how to drive a car. She did
not know how to operate computer.
Feel like: (doing sth) He feels like smelling flowers.
Like: ( sth) I like flowers.
Keep on: She always keeps on writing.
About to: The doctor is about to come.
Almost: I almost broke my leg.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 109

If need be: If need be call me.

Was / were to have: I was to have plucked the
flower.
To be used to: He is used to getting up early in the
morning.
Want to: I want to write a letter to the editor of the
newspaper.
She wanted to play forcefully.
Be to: She is / was/ to write.
Go and get: Go and get salt.
Otherwise: (For threat) Hand it over to me,
otherwise…
It seems as if: The way he walks it seems as if he
were a king.
No harm: There is no harm in taking this medicine.
I think that: I think that he is a doctor.
Let: Let me write. Let’s play cricket.
It is no matter: It is no crying matter.
Still: She is still sleeping.
Yet: She has not gone yet.
Already: She has already gone.
Unless: I will not allow you to sit in the class unless
you bring your father.
Until: We won’t be able to go home until it stops
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 110

raining.
If I were you: If I were you, I would have settled the
issue then and there.
Whether…or: Whether he sings or not, but I sing.
Tag question; He is your friend, isn’t he? You are
not a teacher, are you?
Wonder: I wonder at your company.
KINDS OF VERB
1) Transitive Verb: A transitive verb requires an
object to complete its meaning. It denotes an action,
which passes over from the subject to the object.
Example: a) The boy learnt this lesson.
b) The parents love their children.
c) Does lion eat grass?
2) Intransitive Verb: These are the verbs, which
show that the action stops with the subject of the
sentence. It does not pass over the object.
Example: a) I sleep. b) We walk every day. c) It is
raining.
3) Copular Verb: We use a special kind of verb to
join an object or a noun complement to a subject.
These verbs can be called “Copulas” or “Copular
verb”. They also are known as “Linking verb” or
“Verb of in-complete predication”. The common
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 111

copular verbs are: be; seem; appear; look; sound;

smell; taste; feel; become; get.
Example: a) Your decision seems/ sounds illogical.
b) The story is horrible.
c) Vinegar tastes sour and bitter.

4) Auxiliary Verb or Helping Verb: These are the

verbs, which help to form tense:
Example: do, does, is, am, are, has, have, has been,
have been, did, was, were, had, had been, will, shall,
shall have been, will have been.

Verb Present Past tense Past Present

tense participle participle
3rd form 4th form
be am; is; was, been being
are were
do does; do did done doing
hav had had had having
e

5) Modal Verb: The common words, which are

generally used as modal verbs, are: can, could,
may, might, should, had better, ought to, and used
to; for example:
a) I can drive a car. ("can" for potential, ability,
or capability)
b) May I come in? ("may" for permission)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 112

c) He may phone you. ("may" for possibility)

d) May God bless you! ("may" for wish, curse or
desire)
e) He goes to Karachi so that he may attend the
meeting. ("may" for purpose)
f) You should consult doctor because you are ill
with malaria. (Advice)
g) You had better consult doctor because you are
ill with malaria. (Advice)
h) You ought to consult doctor because you are ill
with malaria. (Advice)
i) The Arabs used to worship idols before the
arrival of the Holy Prophet. (Past habits)

6) Causative Verb: There are two causative verbs

namely “get” and “make” that cause some one to
work for others:
Example:
a) She makes me laugh. (Make is followed by a
subject)
b) I get my hair cut. (Get is followed by an
object)
Note: There are two voices of verbs:
1) Active voice
2) Passive voice
N.B: Only transitive verbs are used in passive voice.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 113

ACTIVE VOICE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Active Voice: It is used to represent the subject of

the verb.
Passive Voice: It is used to represent the object of
the verb.

The verb has two voices viz. active and passive. In

passive voice the object of the sentence becomes the
subject of the sentence followed by the third form
of the verb. The subject becomes the agent of the
action preceded by “by”. The subjective case of the
pronoun in active voice is changed into the
objective case in passive voice when it is used as the
agent of the action.
Active voice: subject + verb + object
Example: Wasim writes a letter.
Passive voice:
subject + tense verb +3rd form of action verb + by +
agent or doer of action
Example: A letter is written by Wasim.
Note: It is not necessary to always mention the
agent or doer of the action but is conditional to the
requirement.
ACTIVE TENSES AND THER PASSIVE
EQUIVALENTS
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Tense / Verb Active Passive Voice

form Voice
Present Writes is written
simple
Present is keeping is being written
continuous
Present has written has been written
perfect
Present has been has been (being)
perfect writing written
continuous
Past simple Wrote was written
Past was was being written
continuous writing
Past perfect had had been written
written
Past perfect had been had been (being)
continuous writing written
Future will write will be written
indefinite
Future will have will have been
Perfect written written
Modals can / may / can / may / might /
might / could be written
could write
Conditional would would be written
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write
Perfect would would have been
conditional have written
written
Present to write to be written
infinitive
Perfect to have to have been written
infinitive written
Present Writing being written
Participle /
gerund
Perfect having having bee written
participle written

1. Present Indefinite Tense:

Active Voice Passive
Voice
writes / write is / am /
are written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

Wasim writes a letter. A letter is written by
Wasim.
She does not write me. I am not written by her.
Do they play cricket? Is cricket played by
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them?
Does he not teach Is English not taught by
English? him?
Who does teach English? By whom is English
taught? Or
Who is English taught
by?

2. Present Continuous Tense:

is / am / are writing is / am /
are being written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

He is writing a letter. A letter is being written
by him.
Wasim is writing a letter. A letter is being written
by Wasim.
She is not writing me. I am not being written
by her.
Are they playing cricket? Is cricket being played
by them?
Is he not teaching Is English not being
English? taught by him?
Who is teaching English? By whom is English
being taught? Or
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Who is English being

taught by?

3. Present Perfect Tense:

has / have written has / have
been written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

They have written a A letter has been written
letter. by them.
Wasim has written a A letter has been written
letter. by Wasim.
She has not written me. I have not been written
by her.
Have they played Has cricket been played
cricket? by them?
Has he not taught Has English not been
English? taught by him?
Who has taught English? By whom has English
been taught? Or
Who has English been
taught by?

4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense:

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 118

has / have been writing has /

have been written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

She has been writing the The book has been
book for ten years. written by her for ten
years. (OR) The book
has been being written
by her for ten years.
(American English)
Have you been writing Has the book been
the book for ten years? written by you for ten
years?
Who has been cooking By whom has food been
food since morning? cooked since morning?
(OR) Who has food been
cooked by since
morning?

a) She has been writing the book for ten years.

(Active voice)
The book has been written by her for ten years.
(Passive voice) OR
The book has been being written by her for ten
years. (Passive voice: American English)
NB: This pattern can also be followed for past
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perfect continuous tense and future perfect

continuous tense.
Note: This kind of voice, though possible, is not
usually used in Standard English. The sort of
structure could be applied for Past Perfect
Continuous Tense but it is strongly recommended
that same structure should be avoided in Future
Perfect Continuous Tense.

5. Past Indefinite Tense:

wrote was/ were
written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

Wasim wrote a letter. A letter was written by
Wasim.
They did not drink wine. Wine was not drunk by
them?
Did she deposit the loan? Was the loan deposited
by her?
Did they not rig the Was the election not
election? rigged by them?
Who did sweep the By whom were the poles
poles? swept? OR
Who were the poles
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swept by?

6. Past Continuous Tense:

was/ were writing was/were
being written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

They were plucking Flowers were being
flowers. plucked by them.
She was not writing me. I was not being written
by her.
Were they playing Was cricket being played
cricket? by them?
Was he not teaching Was English not being
English? taught by him?
Who was teaching By whom was English
English? being taught? OR
Who was English being
taught by?

7. Past Perfect Tense:

had written had been
written
Example:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 121

Active Voice Passive Voice

They had written a A letter had been written
letter. by them.
Wasim had written a A letter had been written
letter. by Wasim.
She had not written me. I had not been written by
her.
Had they robbed money? Had money been robbed
by them?
Had they played cricket? Had cricket been played
by them?
Had he not taught Had English not been
English? taught by him?
Who had taught By whom had English
English? been taught? Or
Who had English been
taught by?

8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

had been writing had been
written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

She had been writing the The book had been
book for ten years. written by her for ten
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 122

years.
(OR) The book had been
being written by her
for
ten years.(American
English)
She had not been sewing Clothes had not been
clothes since childhood. sewn by her since
childhood.
Had you been writing Had the book been
the book for ten years? written by you for ten
years?
Who had been cooking By whom had food been
food since morning? cooked since morning?
(OR) Who had food been
cooked by since
morning?

9. Future Indefinite Tense:

shall/ will write shall/ will be
written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

Wasim will finish the The task will be finished
task. by Wasim.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 123

She will not accept the The proposal will not be

proposal. accepted by her.
Will they concede the Will the point be
point reluctantly? reluctantly conceded by
them?
Who will bell the cat? By whom will cat be
belt? OR
Who will the cat be belt
by?

10. Future continuous: No Voice

Example:
a) Wasim will be playing in an annual
tournament.(No voice)

11. Future Perfect:

shall/ will have written shall/ will
have been written
Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

Asma will have finished The book will have been
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 124

the book by next finished by Asma by next

Monday. Monday.
They will not have The theses or
submitted their theses or dissertation will not have
dissertation by the end of been submitted by them
the month. by the end of the month.
Will she have sought Will admission have
admission in the been sought by her in the
forthcoming semester? forthcoming semester?

12. Modal Verb:

can/ could/ may/ might write
can/could/may/ might + be
written

Example:

Active Voice Passive Voice

He can drive the car. The car can be driven by
him.
He may write a letter. A letter may be written
by him.
They might amend the The constitutional bill
constitutional bill. might be amended by
them.

13. Conditional:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 125

would write would have written

Example:
a) She would keep her promise. (Active voice)
b) Her promise would be kept by her. (Passive
voice)

14. Perfect Conditional:

would have written would have been written
Example:
a) She would have kept her promise. (Active voice)
b) Her promise would have been kept by her.
(Passive voice)

15. Present Infinitive:

to write to be written
Example:
a) Oxford Press is to publish her debut novel.
(Active voice)
Her debut novel is to be published by Oxford
Press. (Passive voice)

16. Perfect Infinitive:

to have written to have been written
Example:
a) They are to have published the book. (Active
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 126

voice)
The books are to have been published by them.
(Passive voice)

17. Present Participle / Gerund:

writing to be written
Example:
a) She preferred writing books. (Active voice)
Books were preferred to be written by her.
(Passive voice)

18. Perfect Participle

having written having been written
Example:
a) Having tied one end of the rope to his bed, he
threw the other end out of the window. (Active
voice)
The one end of the rope having been tied to his
bed, the other end was thrown out of the window.
(Passive voice)

THE PLACE OF ADVERB IN PASSIVE VOICE

An adverb in passive voice is preferably kept before

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the 3rd form of the verb and after the helping

verb(s).
Example:
a) He writes weekly a letter to his father. (Active
voice)
A letter is weekly written by her to his father.
(Passive voice)

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
Example:

a) Shut the door. (Active voice)

b) Let the door be shut. (Passive voice) (OR)
It is ordered to shut the door.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
Example:
a) Who does play the match? (Active voice)
By whom is the match played? (Passive voice)
(OR)
Who is the match played by? (Passive voice)
b) When / Where / Why / did he pay money?
(Active voice)
When / Where / Why was money paid? (Passive
voice)

Miscellaneous Sentences:
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a) Sentences having two objects – direct and indirect

objects – can have two possible passive formats:

a) Someone has written her a letter. ( Active voice)

She has been written a letter. (Passive voice) Or
A letter has been written to her. (Passive voice)

Note: Preposition “by” is not used in these kind of

sentences:
Example:

a) The snow covers the hills. (Active voice)

The hills are covered with snow. (Not by snow)
(Passive voice)
b) The sheet covers the table. (Active voice)
The table is covered with sheet. (Not by sheet)
(Passive voice)

5. ADVERB

Definition: An adverb is a word, which adds to the

meaning of a verb, adjective or another adverb.
Example:
a) Wasim worked fast. b) Asma writes
slowly.
c) He is exceptionally good. d) He plays very
fast.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 129

But: Sometimes, an adverb also modifies a

preposition or conjunction; as:
a) The stone fell exactly onto the head of boy.
b) He is heated simply because he is cruel.
In the first sentence the adverb “exactly” modifies
the preposition “onto”. While in the second
sentence the adverb “simply” modifies the
conjunction “because”. Therefore, an adverb can
comprehensively be defined as under:

A Comprehensive Definition Of Adverb: An adverb

is a word that adds something to the meaning of
any part of speech or word class or lexical unit,
except a noun or pronoun.

KINDS OF ADVERB

1) Adverbs of Time: Words, which indicate when

the action took place, are called adverbs of time.
For instance: “yesterday; daily; few minutes ago;
afterwards; eventually; lately; now; recently; soon;
then”
Exp: a) We met him yesterday. b) Do you see him
daily?
c) He came here few minutes ago.

2) Adverbs of Place: Words, which indicate the

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place of action, are called adverbs of place. For

instance: “here; there; outside; away; everywhere;
somewhere; nowhere”
Exp: a) Please, come here. b) He stood there long
time.
c) Why are you standing outside?

3) Adverbs of Frequency (Numbers): Words, which

indicate that how many times an action takes place.
For instance: “twice; again; continually;
frequently; occasionally; often; once; periodically;
repeatedly; sometimes; ever; hardly ever; never;
rarely; scarcely ever; seldom”
Exp: a) I seldom go there.
b) I have given you the money twice.
c) The Policeman called him again.

4) Adverbs of Manner: Words, which show that

how an action takes place are called adverb of
manner.
Exp: a) They came late. b) She is working hard.
c) He writes slowly.

5) Adverbs of Negation and Affirmation: Words,

which show affirmation and negation of an action.
Exp: a) I do not know the man.
b) You will certainly achieve your goal.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 131

c) Surely, you are mistaken.

6) Adverbs of Degree: Adverbs of degree indicate

degree or quantity. For instance: “quite; fully; too;
absolutely; almost; barely; completely; enough;
entirely; fairly; far; hardly; just; much; nearly;
only; rather; really; scarcely”
Exp: a) I am quite happy. b) I am fully satisfied.
c) He is too careless to pass the examination.

DEGREES OF ADVERBS

Rule#1: As an adverb has a comparative and

superlative degrees; therefore, the rules for the
formation of degrees of adjective are applicable in
case of an adverb. The most of adverbs add “er”
and “est.” to make comparative and superlative
degrees respectively:

Positive Comparative Superlative

late later latest / last
near nearer nearest
soon sooner -
angrily more angrily most angrily
bravely more bravely most bravely
cunningl more cunningly most cunningly
y
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 132

Rule#2: Certain adverbs make their comparative

and superlative degrees irregularly:

Positive Degree Comparative Superlative

far farther farthest
little less least
much more most
forth further furthest
late later last
near nearer nearest
well better best

7) Interrogative Adverbs: When adverbs are used

for asking questions, they are called Interrogative
adverbs:
Example: a) Where do you live? b) When did you
come?
c) Why are you crying?
8) Relative Adverbs: When an adverb relates or
refers back to its antecedent is called relative
adverbs.
Example: a) This is the house where Iqbal lives.
b) This is the reason why I am against.
c) I know the time when he arrives.
Note: In above sentences the adverbs “where”;
“why” and “when” refer “house”, “reason” and
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 133

“time” respectively.

9) Adverbs of Cause: Words and phrases, which

answer the question “why” are adverbs of cause.
Example: a) He went there to attend meeting.
b) He went in to attend the guest.
c) He rang bell to call the peon.

Formation of Adverb
Generally, for the formation of an adverb “ly” is
added to an adjective; for instance: final-finally;
happy-happily; extreme-extremely;

Words used as both Adjective and Adverb: “daily;

meekly; monthly; kindly”
Words used as Adjective only: “friendly; likely;
lonely”
Adverb having different meaning and context than
adjective: “coldly; coolly; warmly (these refer to
feelings and manner thing treated”

ORDER OF ADVERBS

a) If there are adverbs of more than one kind in a

sentence, the usual arrangement is:
a) Adverbs of manner
b) Adverbs of place.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 134

c) Adverbs of time.
Example: He did well at school in the annual sport
this year.

b) When a sentence has a verb, which indicates

movement like: "reach, walk, arrive" the adverb of
place acts as a kind of object to the verb and comes
immediately after it.
Example: a) The train arrived at the station late by
half an hour.

c) Sometimes, the adverbs of time are placed in the

beginning of the sentence for the purpose of
emphasis or clarity:
Example: Last Saturday, we have a jolly good time
picnicking on the riverbank on the other side of the
forest.

d) If there are two or more adverbs of a category in

the sentence, the more exact expression usually
precedes the general ones:
Example: He came here at 5 o’clock in the evening
of Friday last.

e) Sometimes, the adverb of place is used in the

beginning of a sentence for the sake of emphasis:
Example: Outside the hotel, the car stopped
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 135

suddenly.

6) PREPOSITION

Definition: Prepositions are words that connect a

noun or a pronoun with a verb, adjective, pronoun
or another noun to indicate position and relation in
time and space. Prepositions are also used to form
adjectives and adverb equivalent. Here are some
frequently used prepositions:
at; on; in; to; for; which; after; by; into; out; of;
regarding.

PLACE OF PREPOSITION
a) Generally, the preposition comes before its
object.
Example: a) He boasted of his achievement.
b) Sometimes, it follows its object.
Example: a) Where are you coming from?
b) What have you aimed at?
c) When a preposition is followed by pronoun as its
object, the latter is always in the objective case:
Example: a) He talked to me about his future plan.
b) You will not crowd around him.
c) They all laughed at him.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 136

THE USE OF COMMON PREPOSITIONS

to: When somebody or something move to a
particular place or direction.
a) I go to school. She goes to Karachi.
b) I go home. (Not: I go to home. Because home
has no direction)
in: When somebody or something is present in a
particular area or circumference.
a) She lives in Karachi. Wasim is in class.
at: When something or somebody is present very
near to a particular place or thing.
a) I live in Karachi at Malir.
b) She is in the class at the board.
on: When something or somebody is present on
a place or thing, which is in stationary or static
state.
a) The book is on the table.
"0n, at, in" for time:
on is used for date or day:
a) Wasim came on Monday.
b) He was born on 6th September.
at is used for specific time:
a) The train will reach at 7 p.m.
b) I will depart at midnight / dawn.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 137

in is used for time comprising long span:

a) The doctor will come in the next week /
month.
over: When somebody or something goes moving
high over something, which is in stationary
state.
a) The cat jumps over the wall.
b) The plane flies over the mountain.
under / beneath: When something or somebody is
present under the surface of something.
a) They sat under / beneath the trees to rest a
while.
upon: When something or somebody falls upon
another thing or person, which is in the state
of movement.
a) The tiger runs after a deer and jumps upon
it.
into: It is compound preposition made of in + to.
It is used when something or some-body goes
moving into something, area or circumference.
a) The ship sinks into water.
b) Ali goes into his house then he goes in his
room.

onto: It is also a compound preposition made of

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 138

on + to. It is used when somebody or

something falls on a thing that is in stationary
state.
a) Please keep the book onto the topmost shelf
of the cupboard.
b) I want to throw the stone onto the roof.
above: To go upwards.
a) They are present above in the room.
b) The temperature went above the normal
routine.
below: To go down in vertical position or graph.
a) The price went below the expectation.
b) The temperature went below the freezing
point.
around: Moving in a circle.
a) The earth moves around the sun.
about: When something or somebody is in
continuous movement and changing its place
thereof.
a) The girl dances about the room.
b) The sun shines about the sky.
between / among: "Between" is used when
something is present between two
things; whereas, "among" for more
than two.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 139

a) There is a quarrel between Ali and Aslam.

b) There is fight among the students of class x.
against: It is used when two things are opposite in
direction.
a) Keep the ladder against the wall.
beside: When something or somebody is present
on the either side.
a) Wasim sits beside me.
b) He lives in the room beside.
behind: When something or somebody is present
exactly behind.
a) They live behind our house. She sits behind
me.
before: Something or somebody present in front of
somebody or something.
a) A lion suddenly appeared before me.
in Front Of: When somebody or something is
present in the front having no medium in
between.
a) The bus stop is in front of my house. (There
in no medium or thing in between of the house
and the bus stop, the both are at the same side.)
opposite: It is used when something is present in
the opposite side.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 140

a) The bus stop is opposite the house. (The bus

stop is on the other side of the road from the
house.)
facing: When somebody is present facing to you.
a) Wasim sat facing to me in dining room.
through: Through, unlike across, is used for a
movement in a three-dimensional space, with
things on all sides.
a) The dog ran through the wood.
b) The water flows through the pipe.
across: Across, unlike through, is used for the
movement which is not in three-dimensional
space.
a) The dog ran across the desert.
b) They went across the border.
along: When something or somebody moves side
by side to the other.
a) I walked along my father.
b) She went along the wall.
by / with: “By” is used for primary source while
“with” for secondary source.
a) I write by hand with a pen.
b) Wasim draws a picture by hand with a
brush.
from…to: It shows the span of time something
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 141

remains continuous in between of that

period or time.
a) I will teach you from 7 a.m. to 12 p.m.
till / up to: It shows the point of time something
remains continue up to.
a) The match remained interesting till / up to
the loss of 7th wicket.

SOME WORDS FOLLOWED BY

APPROPRIATE PREPOSITION
abstain /refrain from: The patient should abstain /
refrain from the rice and fish.
accuse sb of sth: They accuse Ali of theft.
afraid of: He is afraid of dogs.
agree with: (a person, opinion, policy) I agree with
you and also with your policy.
agree about: (a subject of discussion) We agree
about most things.
agree on: (a matter of decision) We must agree on a
date.
angry with: (a person for doing something) I am
angry with you for coming late.
angry about: (something) What are you so angry
about?
anxious about: (worried about) She is very much
anxious about deteriorating health of her father.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 142

anxious for: (Eager to know or have sth) All the

students are anxious for their results.
apologize to: (Sb for sth) I apologize to you for my
misbehaviour.
arrive at/ in: We shall have arrived at Karachi by
next morning.
The ship arrived in the harbour safely.
bad at: a) She is bad at handwriting.
believe: no preposition (Sb or sth that is said) You
should not believe her.
believe in:(God, Father, Christmas or sth that exist:
trust)
She believes in Allah and in the Day of Judgment.
belong in/ on/ etc: (go, fit, have its place in / on / etc)
Those glasses belong on the top shelf.
belong to: (= be a member of) She belongs to local
political body.
blue with: (Cold) Her hands were blue with cold.
red with: (anger) My father was red with anger.
clever at: She is very clever at cooking.
congratulate on sth or for doing sth: I congratulate
you on your success and I also congratulate your
brother for completing his dissertation or thesis.
crash into: The rough and unscrupulous driving
caused a crash into the bus in front.
despite (no preposition / in spite of: Her voice was
shaking despite all her efforts to control
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 143

it
In spite of applying for hundreds of jobs, he is still
out of work.
died of/ in/ from: He died of malaria. His father
died in accident. She died from injuries.
difficulty with / in doing sth: If you feel any
difficulty (in completing) with your
research paper you
should consult your tutor. If you feel any difficulty
in completing your research paper you
had better
consult your tutor.
disappointed with sb with / at / about sth: I am
altogether disappointed with you at
your
passiveness.
discussion about: They had a thorough discussion
about the uplift of education.
discuss (no preposition) I want to discuss some
problems with you.
divide into:The book is divided into seven chapters.
dream of: (=think of, imagine) I often dreamed of
being famous when I was younger.
dream about /of: (while asleep) What does it mean
if you dream about / of mountains?
dressed in: She was dressed in green.
drive into: Imran drove into a tree again yesterday.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 144

enter into (= an agreement, a discussion etc) We

have already entered into a contract with
another
party on the same objectives.
enter: (a place: no preposition) When a teacher
enters the classroom everybody stands up.
example of: There is no example of such heroism in
the annals of history.
explain sth to sb: Will you please explain this rule
to me?
fight or struggle with: They fought with guns.
They struggle with much spirit and enthusiasm to
retain their social status.
good at: Wasim is very much good at Math.
ill with: She is ill with cancer.
impressed with / by: She is very much impressed
with the performance of her seniors
increase in: There is an increase in the price of the
household articles, which will cause
inflation.
independent of: She got a job so that she could be
independent of her parents.
independence from: The Muslims of sub-continent
got independence from the British.
insist on: Why do you insist on going to Karachi
now?
interest / interested in: When did your interest in
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 145

social work begin?

She is interested in Mathematics.
kind to: My father is very much kind to me.
lack of: (noun) There is lack of confidence in her.
lack: (verb)She lacks confidence.
lacking in: She is lacking in confidence.
laugh/ smile at: (a) They always laugh at me.
listen to: (a) They listen to music.
look at: (point one’s eyes at) All students should
look at the board.
look after: (take care of) Her grandfather looked
after her after the death of her father.
look for: (search for) It is the book I have been
looking for since morning.
make, made of / from: The chain is made of gold.
marriage to; get / be married to: (not with) Her
marriage to David did not last very long.
How long have you been married to Rabia?
marry: (no preposition) She wants to marry a
doctor she works with.
near to: He lives very near to me.
nice to: My mother was very nice to me for the
whole course of her life.
operate on: ( a patient) The doctor will operate on
the patient tomorrow.
pay for: I have nothing to pay for the bill because I
have run out my whole money.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 146

persist in:Why does she persist in buying this

shabby toy?
pleased with sb / at / about sth: My father is pleased
with me at my getting first position.
polite to: (not: with) A good teacher is always polite
to students.
prevent from: The medicine prevents germs from
spreading.
proof of: The judge wants the proofs of murder.
reason for: What is the reason for coming late?
remind of: I will remind you of the payment of the
bill in the next week.
responsible / responsibility for: You are responsible
for your action.
rude to: She is pretty rude yet beautiful.
run into: (=meet) I ran into Wasim at Murree last
year.
search for: ( = look for) The customs were
searching for drugs at the airport.
search: (no preposition) (look through; look
everywhere in / on)
a) The police searched everybody’s luggage.
sick of: (a) I am sick of your holier than thou
attitude.
shocked at / by: I am very much shocked at your
misconduct.
shout at: (aggressive) If you don’t stop shouting at
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 147

me I’ll come and hit you.

shout to:(= call to) When I passed by, they shouted
to me to go there.
sorry about: (something that has happened) I am
really sorry about the Lal mosque tragedy.
sorry for / about: (something that one has done) I
am sorry for my misconduct.
sorry for: (a person) She is very sorry for her
father.
speak to/ with: She speaks to / with her father.
suffer from: She suffers from diabetes.
surprised at / by: My father was quite surprised at /
by my result.
take part in: I am going to take part in the
Annual Science Fair.
think of / about: What do you think of / about my
result?
throw at:(aggressive) The mad rabble threw stones
at the police.
throw to: (in a game etc) If you get the ball, throw it
to me.
translate into: Translate the passage into English.
trip over: If the short-circuiting occurs, the auto
breaker trips over and goes off.
typical of: (a) The wine is typical of the region.
wait for: (a) I cannot wait for you anymore.
wrong with: (a) What is wrong with you?
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 148

SOME NOUNS FOLLOED BY APPROPRIATE

PREPOSITION
(Reference: Saadat Hussain: Exploring the World of English)
Abhorrence of: An honest man has abhorrence of
deceit.
Abstinence from: Abstinence from alcoholic drinks
is conducive to health.
Abundance of: There is an abundance of food
supply in our country.
Access to: He has no access to the President.
Accession to: Queen Elizabeth II’s accession to the
throne was celebrated with great splendour.
Accomplice with/of: Apte was an accomplice
with/of Godse in the assassination of
Gandhi.
Affection for: Asma has great affection for her
father.
Affinity with: Iqbal has great affinity with Maulana
Rum.
Antidote to: Do you know what is the antidote to
opium poisoning?
In accordance with: I went and met Mr. Kalim in
accordance with the instructions of my
chief.
According to: According to his statement he was in
England for six years.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 149

Accusation of : An accusation of theft has been

brought against the old servant.
Acquaintance with sb/sth: I have no acquaintance
with the new officer.
Advantage of: The students took advantage of the
teacher’s absence and made much noise.
Advantage over sb: He has an advantage over me.
Allegiance to sb/sth: All the disciples showed
allegiance to the great saint.
Admittance into: Admittance into this room is
strictly prohibited.
Alternative to: There is no alternative to this plan.
Amazement in/at: She looked at him in amazement.
I was struck with amazement at this daring.
Amateur in: He is amateur in photography.
Answer for: I have no answer for my misconduct.
Anxiety about: His anxiety about my mother’s
health has been relieved.
Anxiety for: Great is my anxiety for my son’s
safety.
Aptitude for: She has no aptitude for Physics.
Appetite for: Saeed has no appetite for food since
he had fever.
Assault on: He made a murderous assault on his
enemy.
Aversion to: He has great aversion to smoking.
Apology for: you must offer an apology for your
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 150

misconduct.
Approach to: The approach to this house is very
attractive.
Assent to: He have his assent to my proposal.
Bias against: Even a judge sometimes feels a bias
against habitual offenders.
Capacity for: He has great capacity for organizing
big meetings.
Care of: I shall give you some hints on the care of
eyes and teeth.
Confidence in: He has complete confidence in his
servant.
Contemporary of: Keats was a contemporary of
Shelley.
Contempt for: I have nothing but contempt for
him.
Control over: He has no control over his children.
Carving for: He has no craving for wealth.
Compact with: Clive entered into a compact with
Mir Jafar.
Complicity in: He was charged with complicity in
the riots.
Connivance (at/in sth) (with sb): Constant connivance
at the faults of children leads to grave consequences.
Descent from: Some Rajput families claim descent
from the sun.
Desire (for sth/sb): The desire for wealth is almost
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universal.
Disgrace (to sb/sth): He is a disgrace to his parents.
Distaste (for sb/sth): Some students have a distaste
for mathematics.
Drawback (of/to sth): Poor health is always a
drawback to success in life.
Esteem for: He has great esteem for his teachers.
Eminence in: Dr. Salam has achieved great
eminence in Physics.
Encroachment (on/upon sth): A busy man does not
like encroachment on his time.
Exception to: This is an exception to the rule.
Evasion of: Deliberate evasion of a law is to be
condemned.
Exposure to: Exposure to chills and colds may
prove harmful to health.
Familiarity with: Excessive familiarity with a
person often leads to contempt.
Freedom from: True peace of mind means freedom
from care.
Gratitude to and for: The boy showed gratitude to
the lady for the present she gave him.
Glance at: He cast a glance at me.
Hatred of/for (sb/sth): All civilized human beings
have a hatred of cruelty to animals.
Hatred for: Iago’s hatred for Othello led to
Desdemona’s death.
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Hindrance to: The cast system has been a great

hindrance to social progress in India.
Heir to: Shamim is heir to his grandfather’s
property.
Incentive to: Poverty is often a great incentive to
work and success.
Inclination (to do sth) (towards/for sth): I have no
inclination for riding.
Indulgence in: Indulgence in drink is one of the
roads to ruin.
Influence over/with: Have you any influence
over/with manager?
Inquiry into: The police made an inquiry into the
case.
Insight into: Shakespeare has a marvelous insight
into human nature.
Key to: Try is key to success.
Liking (for sb/sth): An upright man has no liking
for flattery.
Limit (to sth): There is a limit to every man’s
patience.
Lust (for sb/sth): Lust for gold prompted him to
commit this murder.
Malice against: To cherish malice against a person
is a sign of spiteful nature.
Menace (to sb/sth): The increase of mosquitoes is a
menace to public health.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 153

Match for: You are no match for him.

Nerve for: Many learned men have no nerve for
public speaking.
Passion (for sb/th): His sister has a passion for
music.
Pity (for sb/sth): Who does not feel pity for
suffering children?
Pretext for: Some persons always find a pretext for
interfering in the affairs of others.
Proof of: What proof of guilt is there?
Quarrel (with sb) (between A and B) (about/over
sth): Nobody likes a quarrel with his
neighbor. There was a quarrel between Ali
and Aslam.
Regard for: I have great regard for him.
Regret for: I have great regret for what I have
done.
Reason for: I can see no reason for your coming
late to the office.
Resemblance to sb/sth (between A and B): He bears
a resemblance to his brother.
Reliance on: I have very little reliance on his words.
Revolt against: Revolt against duly constituted
authority leads to trouble.
Resistance to: Resistance to injustice is a mark of
moral courage.
Slur (on sb/sth): Such a charge is a great slur on his
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character.
Sympathy with: They all showed sympathy with me
in my troubles.
Taste for: He has no taste for Mathematics.
Taste in: She has no taste (judgment) in pictures.
Taste of: Now we shall have a taste of (experience
of) hard work.
Tenacity of: He shows great tenacity
(determination) of purpose in bringing the
work to completion.
Trust (in sb/sth): Trust in God and do the right.
Use for: I have no use for him.
Use of : What is the use of examining him?
Victory over: He achieved a victory over his
passions.
Victim to: He fell a victim to this disease.
Witness of/to/for: I was a witness of/to that
transaction. (to appear as a witness for
defence).
Zeal for/in sth: His zeal for social reform is
unbounded.
Zest for sth: In his old age he has lost all the zest of
his youth for enjoyment.

IMPORTANT ADJECTIVE FOLLOWED BY

SUITABLE PREPOSITIONS

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 155

Accountable to: Man is accountable to God for his

actions here.
Amenable to: All men are not amenable to reason.
Acceptable to: Your terms are not acceptable to
me.
Accessible to: Our Principal is accessible to all the
students.
Alive to: We want our leaders to be fully alive to
public needs.
Anxious about: We are all very anxious about our
mother’s health.
Anxious for: During the riots I felt anxious for my
safety.
Aware of: I was not aware of your intentions.
Angry with sb/ at/for sth: I am angry with you
at/for your misconduct.
Apart from: Apart from his inherited wealth, he
has earned a good deal of money.
Appropriate to: The speech was not appropriate to
the occasion.
Averse to: I am not averse to living in the country.
Blind to: Most men are blind to their own defects.
Careful of/about/with sth: He is very careful of his
money.
Careless about/with: He is very careless about his
health.
Certain of: She is certain of her success in the
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 156

examination.
Compatible with: Your conduct is not compatible
with the principles you uphold.
Characteristic of sb/sth: That speech was quite
characteristic of the man.
Conducive to: Rich food is not conducive to health.
Confident of: We were confident of victory.
Conversant with sth: He is conversant with the art
of pleasing people.
Congenial to: I am sorry if my suggestions are not
congenial to you.
Consistent with: This action is not consistent with
his teachings.
Contrary to: What he did was contrary to my
orders.
Deaf to: The landlord is deaf to the protests of his
tenants.
Deficient in: He is deficient in social etiquette.
Devoid of: A reader devoid of all sense of humour
cannot enjoy some of the novels of Dickens.
Desirous of: He is desirous of winning this prize.
Destined for: He was destined for the profession of
a doctor.
Detrimental to sb/sth: Smoking is detrimental to
health.
Different from/than/to sb/sth: His outlook on life is
different from mine.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 157

Disappointed (at/by sth) (in/with sb/sth): (bitterly

disappointed at result)(I am disappointed in
you)
Disgusted (at/by sb/sth) (with sb/sth): I was
disgusted with his behaviour.
Distinct from sth: The business of the judge is
distinct from that of the jury.
Eligible for sth: You are not eligible for the post.
Endowed with: He is endowed with all the qualities
of a great leader.
Envious of: I am not envious of anybody.
Equal to sb/sth: He is not equal to the task he has
undertaken.
Favourable to/for sb/sth: This weather is
favourable to a good harvest.
Familiar to sb with sth: The smell is familiar to all
living near to the bakery. (familiar with
computer)
Fit for: He is quite fit for this post.
Foreign to: This argument is foreign to the subject I
am discussing.
Grateful (to sb) (for sth): I shall feel grateful to you
for this act of kindness.
Good (at sth) (for nothing): He is good at English.
Ali is good for nothing.
Hostile to/towards sb/sth: He showed himself
hostile to my proposal.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 158

Ignorant of/about sth: You should not be ignorant

of the elementary rules of health.
Incumbent on/upon sb: It is incumbent on
everybody to serve his country.
Indebted (to sb) (for sth): I am greatly indebted to
him for this timely help.
Intimate with sb: Is he intimate with the Governor?
Indicative of sth: His pale face is indicative of his
poor health.
Indifferent to sb/sth: He is indifferent to both
praise and blame.
Indignant at/about sth: She was very indignant at
the way she had been treated.
Innocent of sth: He has been proved innocent of the
charge.
Insensible to/of sth: (Insensible to pain; insensible
of risks) He is insensible to the beauties of
nature.
Jealous of sb/sth: He is jealous of all his friends.
Liable to/for sth: We are all liable to make
mistakes. He is liable for the loss.
Loyal to sb/sth: He is loyal to the Government.
Mad at/with sb, about sth: I was almost mad with
rage when I found him behaving so rudely.
Mindful of sb/sth: Be mindful of your promise to
me.
Notorious for: He is notorious for his violent
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 159

crimes.
Obedient to sb/sth: He is obedient to his father.
Obligatory (for sb) (to do sth): It is obligatory for
all employees to wear protective wearing.
Oblivious/forgetful of/to sth: He is not oblivious of
his past sins and sincerely repentant.
Obnoxious to: His very presence is obnoxious to
me.
Overwhelmed with: He was overwhelmed with
sorrow at the loss of his friend.
Partial to (sb/sth) (towards sb/sth): This man is
partial to his friends.
Popular with sb: He is popular with his companions
for his sportsmanship.
Prompt in: This officer is very prompt in his
decisions.
Proficient in/at sth/doing sth: He is quite proficient
in Mathematics.
Proof of sth: Keep the receipt as a proof of
purchase.
Proud of sb/sth: He is proud of his friends.
Relevant to sb/sth: This argument is quite relevant
to the subject.
Responsible (to sb/sth in authority) (for sb/sth): I
do not hold myself responsible to you for his
behaviour. (responsible for designing
project; responsible for children)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 160

Requisite for/of sth: The university degree has

become essential requisite for the entry into
jobs.
Successful in/at sth/doing sth: I hope you will be
successful in your examination.
Sacred to: The Bible is sacred to the Christians.
Sanguine about: They are less sanguine about the
company’s long-term prospects.
Sensitive to sth: Do not criticize him; he is very
sensitive to criticism.
Short of sth: As I was short of money, I requested
him to lend me some.
Sick of: He is a regular bore; I am sick of him.
Solicitous for: I am solicitous for the safety of my
brother.
Synonymous with sth: No two English words are
absolutely synonymous with each other.
Temperate in: Be temperate in eating and drinking.
Thankful (to do sth) (for sth): I am thankful to see
them all safe; thankful for darkness that
saved)
True to sb/sth: He was true to his creed.
Well-versed in: He is well-versed in astronomy.
Tired of sb/sth: We are tired of waiting.
Uneasy about sth: I am feeling uneasy about his
sudden disappearance.
Useful (to sb)(for sth): He might be useful to us.
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The plants are useful for environment.

Wanting in sth: He is not wanting in noble
qualities.
Weary of sth/of doing sth: He was weary of
listening to his adventures.
Worthy of: He is worthy of respect because of his
selfless spirit.

7) CONJUNCTION

Definition: A conjunction is a word, which connects

words, phrases and clauses.

a) Conjunction Co-ordinate: A conjunction of co-

ordinate kind connects words, phrases and clauses
of equal rank.
Some co-ordinate conjunctions viz. and; also; then;
moreover; likewise – add ideas while certain other
co-ordinate conjunctions as but; still; yet;
nevertheless; nonetheless; however – contrast ideas.
Co–ordinate conjunctions like “hence; therefore;
consequently” indicate result.

b) Conjunction Subordinate: Subordinate

conjunction connects clauses of unequal rank i.e.
independent and subordinate clause. Some of the
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sub – ordinate conjunctions are: "when; because;

for; since; so; that; if; unless; until; though;
although.
Note: Some words are used both as conjunction
and preposition; as: before; but, etc.
Example:
a) Before the sun arose, they prepared their
breakfast (Conjunction).
b) A lion appeared before me (Preposition).
c)I called on him but he refused to recognize me
(Conjunction).
d) He cares for none but you (Preposition)

SOME CONNECTIVES THAT ADD IDEAS

And: It was a happy day of my life and all my

relatives were present in my birthday party.
Also: All the teachers in my school are diligent and
hardworking; they also take much interest in
the uplift of our both mind and heart.
Then: The judge scrutinized all the documents and
evidence pertaining to the case; then, he
announced final judgment.
Moreover: A talented artist, he was, moreover, a
writer of some note.
Likewise: He voted for the change and he expected
his colleagues to do likewise.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 163

In order to: She arrived early in order to get a good

seat.

SOME CONNECITVES THAT SHOW

CONTRAST

But: I came to see you but you were sleeping.

Still: Although he promised faithfully to come, I
still did not think he would.
Yet: It is a small car, yet it is surprisingly spacious.
Nevertheless / Nonetheless: There is little chance
that we will succeed in changing the law.
Nevertheless/Nonetheless it is important that we
try.
However: He was feeling bad. He went to work,
however, and tried to concentrate.
On the contrary: I anticipated that the test would
be the toughest one; on the contrary, it
was quite
an easy.
Whereas: Some of the studies show positive results,
whereas others do not.

SOME CONNECTIVES THAT SHOW RESULT

Hence: We suspect they are trying to hide

something; hence the need for an independent
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 164

inquiry is indispensable.
Therefore: He is only 17 and therefore not eligible
to vote.
Consequently:
This poses a threat to agriculture and the food
chain, and consequently to human health.
Subsequently: (afterwards; later; after)
The original interview notes were subsequently lost.

SOME SUB-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES

When: I loved history when I was at school.

Because: I work hard because I intend to be a
doctor.
Since: Wasim has not phoned since he went to
Karachi.
For: I believed her – for surely she would not lie to
me.
That: She said that the story was true.
If: If you see him, give him this note.
Unless: You won’t get paid for time off unless you
have a doctor’s note.
Until: Let’s wait until the rain stops.
Although: Although the sun was shining it was not
very warm.
Though: Though she gave no sign, I was sure she
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 165

had seen me. (Although is more formal than

though)
SOME CONNECTIVES THAT ARE ALWAYS
USED IN PAIR

Although…yet: Although she is poor yet she is

honest.
Not only…but also: He is not only my teacher but
he is also my good friend.
As…so: As you are ill, so you had better not go to
school
So…that: She is so weak that she cannot walk.
As soon as: As soon as the teacher comes, all the
students stand up.
No sooner…than: No sooner does the teacher come
than all the students stand up.
On the one hand / side…on the other hand / side:
On the one hand / side, you help me; on the other
hand / side, you abet them to tease me.

SOME OTHER CONNECTIVES

Thus: The universities have expanded, thus
allowing many more people the chance of higher
education.
Besides: Besides computer, I give you all of my
books.
In addition to: In addition to the certificates, all the
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 166

students were given shields.

According to: According to Wasim, it is a great
movie.
In accordance with: We acted in accordance with
my parents’ wishes.
While: Her parents died while she was still at
school.
Notwithstanding: Notwithstanding some major
financial problems, the school has had a successful
year.
Even if / though: I’ll get there, even if I have to
walk. I like her, even though she can be annoying at
times.
Even now /then: I have shown him the photographs
but even now he won’t believe me. Even then she
would not admit her mistake.
Instead of: You should give me your car, and I
would give you my old house instead of
it.
In lieu of: You should give me your car, and I
would give you my old house in lieu of
it.
8) INTERJECTION

Definition: An interjection is a word thrown

among other words in a sentence to express an

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 167

emotion. It is followed by an exclamation mark (!).

It has no grammatical relation to the other part of
the sentence because it is an involuntary expression
of some sudden felling or sentiment. Some of the
interjections are: Ah!; Oh!; Hurrah!; Lo!; Well
done!; Bravo!; Tut!; Pshaw!; Good Heaven!.
I) Hurrah! We have won the match. (II) Oh! He is
dead.
Note: The words following the exclamation mark should
start in a capital letter.

THE USE OF SOME IMPROTANT

NTERJECTIONS
Surprise: Oh, what a lovely present!
Satisfaction: Ah, that is a much neat essay!
Great satisfaction: Aha, those are the books I have
been looking for.
Great surprise: Wow, did you see that goal?
Excitement / delight: (a) Yippee, grandfather is
coming to visit us! (b) Hurrah! We have
won the match.
Pain: (a) Ouch, you are treading on my foot! (b)
Ow, I have hurt myself!
Disgust: (a) Ugh, what a filthy kitchen. (b) Pooh,
what a stinking smell!
Pleasure / pain: (a) Ooh, the water is lovely and
cool! (b) Ooh, my back aches terribly!
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Exhaustion: Phew, I am hot!

Regret: Alas! He is killed brutally.
Appreciation: Bravo! You have played well.
Well done! You have written an extremely
marvelous essay.
Address: Lo! We have given good tiding unto you.

9) ARTICLES
There are two articles in English language viz.
“Definite Article” and “Indefinite Articles”.

1) Definite Article: The word “the” is used as

definite article to make a singular, common
countable noun specific or particular.

WHERE THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IS USED

Rule # 01: When we want to particularize one thing

from its class.
Example:
a) I want to eat the red apple. (a specific apple)
b) I have sold the car. (a particular car)

Rule# 02: It is used before a common singular,

countable noun that has been mentioned
before.
Example:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 169

I went in a jungle, I saw a lion in the jungle; the

lion was lame. A lioness accompanied the lion,
the lioness had two cubs and the cubs were
following their mother.

Rule # 03: We use “the” before a common, singular,

countable noun when that noun is used to
indicate a class.
Example:
a) The dog is a faithful animal.
b) The cat is a domestic pet.
c) The peacock is a beautiful bird.

Rule # 04: Use “the” before the names of rivers.

Example: The Ganges; the Indus; the Thames.

Rule # 05: Use “the” before the names of groups of

islands.
Example: The Andaman island; the East Indies.

Rule # 06: Use “the” before the names of ranges of

mountains.
Example: The Alps; the Himalayas.

Rule # 07: “The” is placed before the names of

oceans, seas, bays, gulfs and straits:
Example: The Indian Ocean; the Mediterranean Sea;

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 170

the Bay of Bengal; the straits of Dover.

Rule # 08: “The” is used before the proper name of
the books:
Example: The Quran; the Bible; the Ramayana; the
Mahabharata.

Rule # 09: “The” is placed before certain objects,

which are unique in nature.
Example: The moon; the sun; the star; the sky.

Rule # 10: “The” is placed before the superlative

degree of an adjective:
Example: (a) Asif is the best boy of the class.
(b) It is the most wonderful invention of our
time.

Rule # 11: “The” is placed before the names of

certain newspapers and magazine:
Example: The Pakistan Times; the Tribunes; the
States Man.
N.B: But this rule has certain exceptions.

Rule # 12: “The” is placed before the word

"Punjab" because it is a meaningful name.
Example: (a) Wasim lives in the Punjab.

Rule # 13: “The” is placed before the adjectives

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used as noun in the plural sense.

Example: a) The poor are generally God-fearing.
b) The rich do not generally care for the poor.

Rule # 14: “The” is used in such sentence.

Example: (a) The more the merrier. (b) The faster
the better.

Rule # 15: Use “the” when you idiomatically like a

proper noun or name to another.
Example: (a) Latif is the Shakespeare of the Sindh
(b) Kashmir is the Switzerland of Pakistan.

Rule # 16: “The” is used before ordinal numbers:

Example: a) The second edition will be published
next year.

Rule# 17: We use “the” with these words:

The cinema, the radio, the police, the
environment, the government and the
newspapers etc
Rule# 18: "The" is used before the names of theatre
or cinema.
Example: (a) Shakespeare’s plays were staged in the
Globe theatre.

Rule# 19: “The” is used before the names of the

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family:
Example: (a) He belongs to the Simths.
Rule# 20: “The” is used before direction.
Example: (a) Wasim lives in the North America.

Rule# 21: “The” is used before the names of

musical instruments.
Example: (a) She can play the piano.

Rule# 22: “The” is used before special titles.

Example: The Quid-i-Azam; the Bi Aman; the
Madir-i-milat

Rule# 23: “The” is used before the names of special

days.
Example: The Christmas; the Easter; the Holly; the
Eid-ul-fitar.

b) WHERE THE DEFINTIE ARTICLE IS NOT

USED

Rule # 1: When a common, countable noun is used

in plural number, the definite article should not be
placed before it, unless it is meant to be
particularized.
a) Cows are grazing (Not: The cows are
grazing)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 173

b) Dogs bark (Not: The dogs bark)

NB: But “the” can be used with plural in order to specify
them:
Example: a) The books, what you gave me, are
interesting. (Specific books)

Rule # 2: The” is not placed before the names of:

"towns; caps; countries; continents; single island;
single mountain.

Rule # 3: “The” is not used before a proper noun

except the idiomatic sentence as mentioned in “rule
# 15” above.

Rule # 4: “The” is not placed before the abstract

noun.

Rule # 5: “The” is not used before the material

noun.

Rule # 6: “The” is not used before a common noun

used in a general sense.

Rule # 7: “The” is generally not used before

combination of an adjective and an abstract noun.
Example: The Quaid was opposite to British
imperialism (Not: the British imperialism)
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Rule # 8: “The” is not used before names of titles or

professions when they precede a proper noun.
Example: a) Queen Elizabeth (not: the Queen
Elizabeth)
b) King Faisal (not: the King Faisal)

Rule # 9: “The” is not used in certain well-

established phrases:
Example: a) The boys leave school at two o’clock.
(Not: the school)

Rule # 10: “The” is not used before the names of

disease.

Rule # 11: “The” is not placed before an adjective

used as nouns and signifying languages, but it is
used to particularize a native.
Example: (a) I know French. (French language)

Note: When “the” is kept before these adjectives they

give the sense of a particular native.
Example: (a) I know English. (English language)
(b) I went to London to understand the
English. (It means the English native)

Rule # 12: “The” is not placed before Roman

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 175

numerical and cardinal numbers.

Example: (a) George V, Alamgir II.
(b) She has one book. (Not: the one book)

Rule# 13: “The” is not used before the names of

sports.
Example: (a) I want to play cricket or tennis.
(Not: the cricket or the tennis).

INDEFINITE ARTICLES “A” AND “AN”

Rule # 1: If we wish to generalize the noun, we use

the indefinite articles.
Example: (a)I want to eat a mango. (Any mango)

Rule # 2: As a general rule common noun in the

same singular number should have an indefinite
article (“a” or “an”) placed before it.
Example: (a) Rafique saw a tiger.

Rule # 3: We use the indefinite article before a

combination of an adjective and a common noun in the
singular number.
Example: (a) He is a rich man.
(b) He is a bad boy.

Rule # 4: We may use the indefinite article with the

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 176

superlative degree of adjective “much” (“most”

when we use the superlative degree in the sense of
“very”)
Example: (a) This is a most amazing story.

Rule # 5: The indefinite article is not used before an

abstract and material noun.
Rule # 6: The use of “an” or “a” depends upon the
noun following it; if it begins in the sound of /ë/
then use “an”, if otherwise use “a”.
Example: An apple; an orange; an honest; an IMF;
an M.A; an hour; a book; a dog a copy; a pen; a
bag.

Rule # 7: “An” is not used before “U” when U is

pronounced as “you”.
Example: I went to a University (not to an
university).
Rule # 8: “An” is not used before “o” when
pronounced as “wa”:
Example: A one-eyed man (not an one-eyed man).

Rule# 9: The indefinite article “a” is used before

“very, fairly and really”.
Example: (a) My school is at a fairly long distance.
(b) It is a really true story.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 177

Rule# 10: The indefinite article “a” or “an” is used

after “quite”.
Example:(a) It is quite an old house.
(b) He is quite a good student.
Rule# 11: The indefinite article “a” is used before
“rather” and both “a” and “an” can be used after
rather.
Example: (a) It is a rather true story.
(b) It is rather an untrue story.
(c) He is rather a good person.
Rule# 12: The indefinite article “a” or “an” is used
after “what” and before a countable noun.
Example: (a) What a wonderful goal!
(b) What fun we made.
(Not: a fun because fun is an uncountable
noun.)
Rule# 13: The indefinite article “a” or “an” is used
after “such”.
Example: It is such an interesting book that one
cannot help
reading.
Note: Sometimes, we use “some” as an article
before plural, countable noun or uncountable noun.
Example: (a) I need some books.
(b) She needs some water.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 178

*******************************

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 179

NARRATION: DIRECT AND INDIRECT

Direct Speech: The original words of speaker.

He said to me, “I am coming in a jiffy.”
(Reporting speech) (Reported speech)

Note: The reporting speech informs us about the

speaker and to whom is spoken. Whereas, the
reported speech informs that what is being said.
Besides, the verb used in the reporting speech is
called “reporting verb” and the verb in the
reported speech is called “reported verb.”

Indirect Speech: When the original words of the

speaker are changed according to the person
speaking.
For Example:
He says to me, "I write a letter" (Direct speech)
He says to me that he writes a letter. (Indirect
speech)

RULES REGARDING DIRCET AND INDIRECT

SPEECH

1. RULES FOR PRONOUN

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 180

Rule # 1: All the first person pronouns in the

reported speech will be changed according to the
subject of reporting speech.
Example:
You say to me, "I am writing a letter to my
brother." (Direct)
You say to me that you are writing a letter to
your brother. (Indirect)

Rule # 2: All the second person pronouns in the

reported speech will be changed in accordance with
the object of the reporting speech.
Example:
He says to me, "You are not working well"
He says to me that I am not working well.

Rule # 3: All the third person pronouns in reported

speech will remain unchanged.
Example:
He says to me, "They are okay"
He says to me that they are okay.

2. RULES FOR TENSES

Rule # 1: When the reporting verb is either in

present or future tense; thereafter, there will be no
change in the tense of the reported verb.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 181

Example:
She says to me, "You are a painstaking
student".
She says to me that I am a painstaking student.

Rule # 2: When the reporting verb is in past form,

thereafter the reported verb will be changed in
accordance with its corresponding past.

a) Present Indefinite Tense would be changed into

Past Indefinite Tense:
Example:
She said to me, "I take exercise daily"
She told me that she took exercise daily.

b) Present Continuous Tense would be changed

into Past Continuous Tense:
Example:
She said, "I am reading a book".
She told that she was reading a book.

c)Present Perfect Tense would be changed into Past

Perfect Tense:
Example:
He said to me, "We have met ago"
He told me that they had met before.
d) Present Perfect Continuous Tense would be
changed into Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 182

Example:
They said to me, "We have been searching you
since morning"
They told me that they had been searching me
since morning.

e)Past Indefinite Tense would be changed into Past

Perfect Tense:
Example:
He said me, "You ate an apple"
He told me that I had eaten an apple.

f) Past Continuous Tense would be changed into

Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
Example:
She said to him, "I was waiting for you"
She told him that she had been waiting for him.
g) Past Perfect Tense would remain Unchanged:
Example:
He said to me, "Razi had gone before I
reached"
He told me that Razi had gone before he
reached.

h) Past Perfect Continuous Tense would remain

unchanged:
Example:
She said to me, "He had been serving for one
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 183

year."
She told me that he had been serving for one
year.

i) Will, Shall, Can, May” would be changed into

“Would, Should, Could, Might” respectively:
Example:
He said to me, “I shall go."
He told me that he would go.
She said to me, "She will write an application"
She told me that she would write an
application.
He said to her, “I can seek first position"
He told her that he could seek first position.
They said, "We may join you"
They told that they might join us.

3. OTHER CHANGES

“This” would be changed into “that”

“These” would be changed into “those”
“Now” would be changed into “then”
“Ago” would be changed into “before”
“Come” would be changed into “go”
“Here” would be changed into “there”
“Hence” would be changed into “thence”
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 184

“Hither” would be changed into “thither”

“Thus” would be changed into “so, same away”
“Today” would be changed into “that day, the same
day”
“Tonight” would be changed into “that night, the
same night.”
“Yesterday” would be changed into “the previous
day, the last day”
“Tomorrow” would be changed into “next day”
“Day before yesterday” would be changed into
“day before previous day”
“Day after tomorrow” would be changed into “the
day after the next day.”

4. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

Rules:

1.Words of command are: “command, order,

forbid, tell, desire, reprimand, admonish, threat
and warn.”
2.Words for request are: “request, implore, urge,
beseech, solicit, apologize.”
3.Words for advice are: “advise, suggest, counsel,
forbid.”
4.Change reported verb into infinitive having
preposition "to" before of it.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 185

5.No conjunction should be applied.

Example:
He said to me, "shut the door"
He commanded or ordered me to shut the door.
He said his children, "Don't go out"
He forbade his children to go out.
They said to me, "Shut the door and don't switch
on the fan."
They ordered me to shut the door. They further
forbade me to switch on the fan.
He said to me, “Fetch me a glass of water please.”
He requested me to fetch him a glass of water.

5. INERROGATIVE SENTENCES
Rules:

1.Words for question are: "ask, enquire, demand,

desire.”
2.Change interrogative statement into assertive
one.
3.Replace question mark (?) with full stop (.).
4.Remove coma (,) and inverted coma (" ") without
inserting any conjunction.
5.Interrogative pronoun like: “which, who, what,
whose, whom” or interrogative adverb like:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 186

“why, how, where and when” would remain

same.
6.Interrogative statements commencing from finite
verb like: ”do, does, did, has, have, had, can and
may etc” should be changed with the words either
"if" or "whether" as does it suit.
Examples:

He said to me, "Where do you live?"

He enquired of me where I lived.
He said to me, "What is your name?"
He asked me what my name was. (OR)
He asked my name.
He said, "How did you play this match?"
He asked me how I had played that match.
He said me "Do you play cricket?"
He asked me if I played cricket.
He said to me, "Who is the letter written by?
Who do you go with? Do you take food timely?”
He asked me who the letter was written by. He
further enquired of who I went with. He also
further asked if I took food timely.

6. EXCLAIMATORY SENTENCES

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 187

Rules:

1.Words for exclamation: “To exclaim with sorrow,

pain, grief, joy, happiness, pleasure, hatred or
applaud, pray, desire, wish.”
2.Insert conjunction "that".
3.Follow all the rules pertaining to changing tenses
and pronoun.
Examples:

He said: "Alas! He is dead now".

He exclaimed with grief that he was dead then.

The beggar said: "May you live long!"

The beggar wished me to live long.

She said to me, "Well done!"

She applauded me.

She said to me, "Hurrah! We have won the

match".
She exclaimed with joy that they had won the
match.

***************

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 188

REMOVE “TOO”, “ENOUGH” AND “NO

SOONER………THAN”

A) “Too” is used in the sentences having negative

sense or connotation; it should not be used in the
sentences having positive sense.

Sentences:

1) He is too weak to walk.

He is so weak that he cannot walk. OR
He is very weak. He cannot walk.
2) She was too poor to buy a car.
She was so poor that she could not buy a car.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 189

3) He is too weak.
He is very weak.
4) He too is invited.
He also is invited.

B) “Enough” is used in the sentences having

positive sense; it should be avoided in the
sentences having negative sense or connotation:

Sentences:
1) He is intelligent enough to pass the
examination.
He is so intelligent that he can pass the
examination. (OR) He is intelligent. He can pass
the examination.
2) He was rich enough to buy a car.
He was so rich that he could buy a car.
3) She is generous enough.
She is very generous.

B) The sentences having “as soon as” are changed

into
“no sooner….than” according to the pattern
mentioned below:
1) As soon as I arrived at the railway station,
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 190

the train had left.

No sooner did I arrive at the railway station than
the train had left.
2) As soon as the teacher enters the class, all
the students stand up.
No sooner does the teacher enter the class than all
students stand up.

***************

IDIOMS
1. Apple of one’s eye: (Very dear) Hardworking
makes a student apple of his teacher’s eye.
2. A rainy day: (A difficult time) One should save
something for a rainy day.
3. A man of letters: (An educated person)
Friendship with a man of letter is far better and
worthwhile than the company of an ill-educated
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 191

scholar.
4. A bone of contention: (A cause of dispute)
Kashmir is a bone of contention between
Pakistan and India.
5. A narrow escape: (Being saved unexpectedly)
Usama-Ben-Laden had narrow escape from the
indiscriminate bombardment of American
planes.
6. At eleventh hour: (At the last moment) He
participated in the ceremony though he was
invited at eleventh hour.
7. At large: (At liberty, or free) The people were
afraid because the murderer was at large.
8. A jack-of-all-trades: (Knowing something about
everything but not in details) It is futile and
useless trend in our new generation of being jack
of all but master of none.
9. An old hand: (Expert or adept in something)
Wasim is an old hand in teaching English.
10. A white elephant: (An unaffordable
undertaking)
11. For Aslam a stupendously huge bungalow is
a white elephant.
12. A red letter day: (An important day)
Christmas is a red-letter day for Christians.
13. A white lie: (A lie without harm) Fiction is
full of white lies.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 192

14. A dead letter: (An old affair) The Monica-

Clinton affair is a dead letter nowadays.
15. At arm’s length: (At some distance) A good
teacher always keeps his student at arm’s length
notwithstanding his intimacy and close
attachment.
16. At home: (An expert, adept) Aslam is at home
in English.
17. At Sixes and Sevens: (In disorder, confusion,
disarray) When I shouldered the responsibility
of the office, its record was at sixes and sevens.
18. At dagger’s drawn: (At enmity, discord, ill-
will) India and Pakistan are turning to be at
dagger’s drawn over the dispute of Kashmir.
19. Again and again: (Repeatedly) He telephoned
me again and again for the result of
examination.
20. At large: (Widely) The American attack on
Iraq was condemned by the people at large.
21. A bird’s eye view: (A general look / over view)
A bird’s eye view is at least indispensable to
resolve any problem.
22. A wild goose chase: (An effort without result)
Preparing for the competitive examination
without knowing English is a wild goose chase.
23. A fair weather friend: (An insincere person; a
selfish person, an opportunist person) A fair
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 193

weather friend is a blemish on the transparent

face of friendship.
24. A hen packed husband: (A man under the
influence of one’s wife.) A hen packed husband
is too frail to meet the expectation of his parents.
25. A cat and dog life: (A life full of disputes and
quarrels.) An unhappy couple always lives a cat
and dog life.
26. An Eye-wash: (Deception) All his sympathy
and concern for me was merely an eye-wash.
27. Apple of discord: (Reason of dispute) An
Infallible quantity of oil is apple of discord of the
American-led war against Iraq.
28. All and sundry: (Every body) In democratic
state all and sundry has the right to vote.
29. At a loss: (Puzzled, not knowing what to do)
When the journalist asked the minister for the
misappropriation in the national funds he was at
a loss for words.
30. Bad blood: (Angry and vindictive feelings)
The America’s attack on Iraq has helped to
create bad blood between the two races.
31. Bed of roses: (Very comfortable) Life is not
bed of roses but too of thorns.
32. Bed of thorns: (Full of miseries; hardships)
The unending paucity and deprivation make the
life of poor a bed of thorns.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 194

33. By hook or by crook: (By fair or foul means)

America wants to occupy Iraq by hook or by
crook.
34. By leaps an bounds: (Very rapidly, quickly)
Viral diseases, like aids or hepatitis, spread by
leaps and bounds.
35. Black sheep: (A mischievous, miscreant)
Every department does have few black sheep
that cause its disgrace and devaluation.
36. By dint of: (By virtue of, because of) Man can
make every thing possible by dint of his
brilliance and potentialities he is bestowed with.
37. Beat about bush: (To talk irrelevantly) One
should not beat about bush, while one does not
know the actual answer.
38. Breathe one’s last: (To die) David’s father-in-
law, due to heart attack, breathed his last in
Jinnah Hospital.
39. By and by: (Bit by bit; soon) By and by one
can achieve one’s destination.
40. Break the Ice: (To break silence) Having
entered the room, I broke the ice.
41. Blow one’s own trumpet: (To praise oneself)
Those, who blow their own trumpet, are fickle
minded.
42. Bring to light: (To make known to all) The
Muslim leaders have brought the Kashmir cause
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 195

to light.
43. Birds of same feather: (Persons of same
habits) The birds of same feather flock
together.
44. Bosom friend: (An intimate, boon or close
friend) A bosom friend does not say adieu in the
critical situation.
45. Bolt from the blue: (An unexpected event)
Her dismissal came as a bolt from the blue.
46. Bag and baggage: (With all belongings) He
was banished from his country with bag and
baggage.
47. By fits and starts: (Discontinuously, stopping)
He often speaks by fits and starts.
48. Casting vote: (Decisive vote) Since the both
contesting parties have secured equal votes, now
the vote of the presidents will be the casting vote.
49. Crocodile tears: (Pretending to weep, false
tears.) Most of the people shed crocodile tears
at the death of their nearest and dearest.
50. To carry the day: (To win; to emerge
victorious) The world cup 2003 is at its full
swing, let us see who carries the day.
51. Cold blood murder: (To kill some one
deliberately) Bhutto`s execution was a cold
blood murder.
52. Cock and bull Story: (A fabricated account)
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 196

Some analysts believe that the involvement of Al-

Qiada in 11 September attack on America is a
cock and bull story.
53. Cry in wilderness: (An undertaking brining
no result) All projects of NGO's pertaining to
poverty alleviation proved a cry in wilderness.
54. Close fisted man: (A miserly person) A close-
fisted man sooner loses the soft feelings of others.
55. Day in and day out: (Daily, day after day) We
have to work day in and day out to achieve the
aimed target.
56. Far and Wide: (Over a large area) The police
searched far and wide, consequently they
arrested the burglar.
57. For good: (Forever) Moin Khan left cricket
for good.
58. Feather one’s own nest: Pursue one’s own
interests) In the National Assembly every party
intends to feather its own nest.
59. Fall flat: (To prove failure) An advice to a
stupid falls flat.
60. A fish out of water: (Behave uneasily) He
behaved like a fish out of water at the departure
of his beloved.
61. French Leave: (Leave without permission)
The names of those students would be struck off,
who often celebrate French leave.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 197

62. Fair and square: (Honest; straight forward)

A true human being must be fair and square in
his attitude and dealings.
63. Few and far between: (Rare; seldom) The job
opportunities are few and far between in these
days.
64. Get through: (To pass; succeed) It is too
difficult to get through entrance test of Medical.
65. Harp on the same string: (To talk repeatedly
about same matter) The speaker of the National
Assembly harps on the same string in the
meeting.
66. Hit the nail on the head: (To avail an
opportunity) The market rate of chilies is every
low, so it is the high time for those who believe in
speculation to hit the nail on the head.
67. Heart and soul: (Completely, out and out) A
devoted teacher must feel interested heart and
soul in his profession.
68. Hale and hearty: (Healthy, fit physically and
mentally) Rural people live in the lap of nature
so they are often remain hale and hearty.
69. Hue and cry: (Reaction; protest) There is
much hue and cry against the anti-Muslim
policies of the United States of America.
70. Hand in glove: (Very close, intimate, or
working closely with somebody, especially in a
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 198

secret and / or illegal way) Blair and Bush were

hand in glove with each other in projecting the
policies against Muslims.
71. In addition to: (Besides) In addition to prizes,
the certificates were also distributed among the
winner students.
72. In lieu of: (Instead of) Pakistan has
accumulated the stupendous amount in lieu of
hers assistance in the America-led war against
Afghanistan.
73. In a nut shell: (Briefly) Aslam narrated the
soul-touching story of his ruination in a nut
shell.
74. In to to: (Completely; altogether) One should
not believe the stranger in to to.
75. Ins and outs: (Full information; complete
details) The General Assembly has given ins
and outs of its three- years planning.
76. In a fix: (In a difficulty; in anxiety) His
termination from job has thrown him in a fix.
77. In good books: (In positive view; in favour of)
Every employee wants to be in good books of his
boss.
78. In black and white: (In written) The teacher
has provided all material in black and white.
79. In hot water: (In a fix, in a difficult situation.)
The criminal must be thrown in hot water.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 199

80. It is a high time: (The moment has already

come) It is high time to bring the matter to light
when all the stake holders are present in the
meeting.
81. Kith and kin: (Relatives) I will be with you by
kith and kin through all your thick and thin.
82. Lion’s Share: (A bigger part) Ahmed, being
the principal partner, claims for lion’s share in
the business.
83. Leave no stone unturned: (To try by every
way) He left no stone unturned to pass the
examination.
84. Look down upon: (To show hate) The rich
people generally look down upon the poor.
85. Look forward to: (To wait keenly) Nasir is
looking forward to seeing his friend.
86. Lend a hand: (Help) One should lend a hand
to those who are in dire need of it.
87. Maiden speech: (First time speech) Aslam
did well, though it was his maiden speech.
88. Nip in the bud: (Stop at the beginning) All
social evils and abuses should be nipped into
bud.
89. Null and void: (Rejected; invalid) A contract
without free consent is null and void.
90. Odds and ends: (A collection of objects not
belonging to any group or order; left over and
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 200

discarded) The library does not have complete

collection of the books of law but just in odds
and ends.
91. On the whole: (Over all) On the whole, the
Pakistan government has taken positive steps
maintain law and order situation.
92. Once in a blue moon: (Rarely, seldom) The
fall of hailstone in hot areas is once in a blue
moon.
93. Out and out:(Completely; wholly solely) One
cannot believe the statement of a politician out
and out.
94. Over and above: (Besides, in addition to)
Over and above his teaching skills, he was
appreciated for his good humane nature.
95. Off and on: (Not regularly) The students who
attend their class off and on would sustain an
irreparable loss.
96. Pocket an insult:(to face dishonour) A
conscientious person cannot pocket an insult.
97. Part and parcel: (An essential part) The
character building is the part and parcel of true
education.
98. Pros and Cons: (Advantages and
disadvantages) Information Technology has
many pros and cons.
99. Smell a rat: (To sense a danger; to see an
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 201

unhappy result) The dubious performance of Ali

makes his boss smell a rat in his motives.
100. A snake in the grass: (An insincere man) He
was disappointed by her love out and out; she
seemed to be a snake in the grass.
101. To die in harness: (To die prior to the
completion of a work or in the state of slavery)
Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar died in harness
for the sake of the Muslims’ independence.
102. To leave in lurch: (To abandon; to leave in
difficulty) Imran was a fair weather friend; no
sooner did the misery approach than he left me
in the lurch.
103. To throw stone at: (To find fault with) To
throw stone at other is likely to forget one’s own
shortcoming.
104. To get wind: (To come to know or be known)
The story of their secret affair soon got wind.
105. To be on the horns of dilemma: (To be in a fix
of dilemma) The marriage ceremony of my
cousin and a tour to Karachi have thrown me on
the horns of dilemma.
106. Safe and Sound: (Unwounded, unhurt) Aslam
has arrived at his village safe and sound.
107. To turn a deaf ear: (Be careless of something)
The government has turned a deaf ear to the
people protesting against increasing
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 202

unemployment.
108. To turn over a new leaf: (To do a significant
job) Pakistan has turned over a new leaf by
calling to third party for the supervision of
control line.
109. To be caught red handed: (To be found busy
in a misdeed) The police caught the thief red
handed.
110. To find fault with: (To criticize) We should
not find fault with others.
111. To cut a poor / sorry figure: (Unsuccessful
attempt) Hitherto, we have been cutting sorry
figures, but the now we should endeavour for a
profound and substantial attempt this time.
112. To while away: (Pass) The great many people
were wandering at the beach just to while away
their time.
113. To take after: (To look or behave elders with
respect) He is sent to an asylum and his children
do not take after him.
114. To make the most of: (To take the fullest
advantage of the circumstances) He has been
nominated for higher studies on scholarship
basis; it is golden opportunity for him to make
the most of it.
115. To make both ends meet: (To be able to live
within one’s income) Their income is meager, so
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 203

they feel much difficulty with to make both ends

meet.
116. To be at one: (To agree with somebody
altogether) Bush and Blair seem to be one at
Iraq’s invasion.
117. To back out of something: (To withdraw from
an agreement) One must not try to back out of
the contract one has made.
118. To have a bone to pick with someone: (To
have a grievance about something) Her husband
has been beating her since marriage, so she has a
bone to pick with him.
119. To keep the wolf away from the door: (To
meet expenses without any problem) It is the last
week of our tour, yet we have enough amount to
keep the wolf away from the door.
120. To make for something: (To move towards
something) Constant bickering does not make
for long-lasting negotiation or decision.
121. To put up with: (To accept something
unwillingly) The attitude of the husband is
immensely arrogant and impolite, I do not know
how she puts with him.
122. To be at one’s fingertips: (To be expert in
something)Wasim is adept in Mathematics;
moreover, all the equations and formulae are at
his fingertips.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 204

123. To bury the hatchet:(To befriend and forget

enmity) Israel and Palestine have signed a sweet
accord, yet they have not buried the hatchet in to
to.
124. To poke one’s nose into: (To meddle or
interfere) A decent and motivated person never
tries to poke his nose into the problems he has no
concern so for.
125. To kick up a row: (To make a noise, or
disturbance) When the students were not
allowed to play cricket they started the kick up
the row.
126. To wind up: (To bring to an end) He wound
up his speech with a quotation form the Holy
Quran.
127. To see eye to eye with someone: (To have the
same opinion, or to agree with) The Quaid-i-
Azam did not see eye to eye with the Hindu
leaders when they said the Sub-continent must
not be split into two parts.
128. To take to a task: (To call to account, to
blame, to rebuke) The teacher took me to task
for not completing the home work.
129. Turn turtle: (To go upside down) The
accident left their car turn turtle.
130. To cry over spilt milk: (To grieve over
something uselessly) Since they have married in
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 205

the court, so there is no use of crying over the

split milk.
131. To put in practice: (To carry out in deeds) His
all ideas are very much pragmatic and practical
ones, it would be the wisest strategy to put them
in practice.
132. To end in smoke: (To have no result; to come
to nothing) He left no stone unturned to succeed
in the CSS examination, but all his toil ended in
smoke.
133. Tall talk: (Boasting) The self-fearing person
uses tall talk as a tool to divert the attention of
their boss.
134. Under one’s nose: (Immediately within reach)
I have been looking for the spectacles about the
room but they were lying under my nose.
135. Ups and down: (Success and failure) Life is a
fantastical blend of ups and down.
136. Uphill task: (Very difficult / arduous job) To
secure first position in the Board examination is
an uphill task.
137. With open arms: (Whole heartily, warmly)
The people of Medina welcomed the Holy
prophet with open arms.
138. Ways and means: (Resources, method,
technique) Every country should find ways and
means to stabilize her economy.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 206

139. With a high hand: (Disregarding the feelings

of others) As the judge had already been bribed
so he passed the judgment with a high hand.
140. With flying colours: (To emerge successfully
from some difficult task) Wasim has passed all
exams with flying colours through the whole
course of his academic career.

****************

PARAGRAPH-WRITING

The article shows the essential ingredients of a

model paragraph, and also discusses the necessary
requisites and strategies adopted in writing a good,
composite and well-knit paragraph.

MODES OF WRITING

a.Descriptive Writing: The paragraph showing the

external outlook of a place, or the description of
natural objects. The explanation of usual facts
related to a thing, or object does fall into the
ambit of descriptive writing; for instance the
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 207

common features of a car, bungalow, place,

object, things etc.

b.Expository Writing: The expository writing

encompasses the unusual or inner look of things.
For instance, the quarrel or opposition for the
sake of chair, it is a thorough and deep
exploration or insight for that writer has to probe
deep into the subject, its reason, involving factors
which differs from the common statements
showing mere characteristics of the chair, such
kind of analytical writing is called expository
writing.

c. Narrative Writing: The narration or

contemplation of any historical or common event,
incident, occurrence or happening or story telling
is included in the form of narration.

d.Reflexive Writing: Reflexive writing consists of

personal observation, experiments, and ideas,
showing the point of view of the writer about
particular subject.

e. Imaginative Writing: The piece of writing

grasping or consisting of imaginative explanation
is called imaginative form of writing. It can reveal
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 208

the image of a real or fictitious thing. Novel,

Drama, Fiction and Poetry are best example of
imaginative writing.

f. Argumentative Writing: The piece of writing

which consists of the statements regarding the
ideas which may be controversial; therefore, the
writer explains it in an argumentative way to
convince and persuade the reader.
Note: The descriptive, expository, narrative and
argumentative are objective form of writing;
whereas, reflexive and imaginative are subjective
form of writing.

DEVELOPMENT OF PARAGRAPH

Generally, there are various ways one can adopt to

develop a composite paragraph, it depends on the
topic of the paragraph and the nature of the
contents included therein.

1.Facts: Whenever the writer develops a paragraph

by using simple facts and figures of something to
describe it.

2.Comparison and Contrast: When the comparison

or contrast is made between usual and the things
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 209

of same species or characteristics; as one model of

camera with another model of it.

3.Analogy: It is also a kind of comparison, in which

comparison or contrast is made on eccentric,
idiosyncratic or unusual grounds. For instance, to
compare eye with camera is a best example of
analogy.

4.Process: Whenever the process of anything is

described in a proper and orderly manner. For
instance, to explain the process of earthquake or
eruption of volcano.

5.Classification: A paragraph can be developed by

classifying the things or material into different
classes according to their characteristics.

6.Definition: A paragraph can be developed by

writing the definition of various things mentioned
therein.

7.Cause and Effect: A paragraph can be developed

by showing certain causes or effects of something
or any problems and their consequences.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 210

8.Illustration / Exemplification: A paragraph can

be developed by using some illustration or
exemplification.

9.Analysis: A paragraph can be developed by

analyzing, elaborating, interpreting the things or
different aspects of it logically.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH

1.Unity: The proper development of ideas, thought,

facts and figures is called unity. It means the
orderly expression an explanation of one
controlling idea. There must not be shift from one
idea to another in a paragraph. If a paragraph
comprises the poetry if Iqbal, it must not switch
over from poetry to his role in politics.

2.Coherence: The cohesive devices which link the

sentences and bring a sense of proper
development in a paragraph. The common
cohesive devices are: "but, so, therefore,
thereafter, consequently, thence, hence,
moreover, however, in fact, on the whole etc."

3.Variety and Balance: If a paragraph consists of

one point which further comprises of variety or
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 211

varieties, it must have a proper and reasonable

balance and harmony in those varieties.
4.Order: The proper lay out of things, pertaining to
the order as they exist. For instance, the order in
the arrangement of material or object or
circumstance and situation described in the
paragraph.

5.Linguistic Qualities: The diction or language is

the part and parcel of any piece of writing. The
proper use of appropriate words at the
appropriate place and context is of paramount
importance. The grand diction elevates the
essence and appeal of piece of writing which
transports the reader irresistibly.

TECHNIQUES OF ORDER IN PARAGRAPH

There are different techniques which are generally

used to maintain an order in a paragraph:

1.Climax: When the things or situations are

developed from less important to more
important. If the arrangement is vice versa is
known anticlimax. For instance: On the same day
she lost her purse, dog and husband.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 212

2.Space: The paragraph describing the place and

space included in the narration. Order of place
means the things should be presented in their
natural or physical order.

3.Time: When order of time is observed generally

from past to present.

4.General to Specific: When inductive order is

applied in which the writer starts from the
general things and ends with the specific thing.
But, if the opposite order is applied then it is
called specific to general order.

1) Find out various modes of writing applied in the

following paragraphs:

1. It was springtime, and by daylight I could see the

blue combers rolling in, screened occasionally as I
drove past clumps of rhododendron with
outrageously beautiful bursts of pink and purple
blossoms. By moonlight the waves moved in
majesty out of the mottled sea, flaunting long pale
crests as they broke onto the sand. Sometimes I saw
the faint lights of coastwise ships, and from time to
time we rumbled over wooden bridges where wild
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 213

rivers like the Rogue came roaring out of the

mountains.
(- Adapted from Richard L. Williams. "The
Northwest Coast")

2. There is probably no element of society that has

been engineered or tinkered with more often in the
seventy-eight years of its existence that the juvenile
justice system. Accepted methods for reforming
"wayward" juveniles have at different times
included approaches as diverse as physical
punishment, isolation, individual psychotherapy,
and mountain survival schools. Programs have
been instituted in many different settings, from
detention in locked facilities to living situations
within the community (including foster homes and
group homes of various sorts). The latest approach
(or fad, depending on your point of view) to
reforming juvenile offenders is called "Juvenile
Diversion." In theory this approach attempts to
identify mild or potential offenders before their
entry into the formal justice system and to "divert"
them into a community treatment program that is
far cheaper and perhaps more effective than a
youth training school or probation camp.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 214

(- Michael M. McAleenaan, "Taking a Closer Look

at Juvenile Diversion," Occidental College
Magazine, May 1978.)

3. The baying of the hounds drew nearer, then still

nearer, nearer, ever nearer. On a ridge Rainsford
climbed a tree. Down a watercourse, not a quarter
of a mile away, he could see the bush moving.
Straining his eyes, he saw the lean figure of General
Zaroff; just ahead of him Rainsford made out
another figure whose wide shoulders surged
through the tall jungle weeds; it was the giant Ivan,
and he seemed pulled forward by some unseen
force; Rainsford knew that Ivan must be holding
the pack in leash. They would be on him any
minute now. His mind worked frantically. He
thought of a native trick he had learned in Uganda.
He slid down the tree. He caught hold of a springy
young sapling and to it he fastened his hunting
knife, with the blade pointing down the trail; with a
bit of wild grapevine he tied back the sapling. Then
he ran for life. The hounds raised their voices as
they hit the fresh scent. Rainsford knew now how
an animal at bay feels.
(- Richard Connell, "The Most Dangerous Game")

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 215

4. There is currently an intense debate being waged

over the nature of the heating system employed by
a group of creatures extinct now for 70 million
years. This debate has to do with dinosaurs.
Recently it was suggested, rather revolutionarily,
that these reptiles were, unlike others, warm-
blooded rather that cold-blooded. Only warm-
blooded animals walk erect with their legs vertical
and that's what dinosaurs did, it is said, their
anatomy and footprints being evidence; cold-
blooded things like lizards have a sprawling stance
with a good part of their legs horizontal. Warm-
bloodedness requires high blood pressure; so does a
creature with its head carried above its heart.
(Brachiosaurus' neck was eighteen feet long, calling
for enough blood pressure on sheer hydraulic
grounds to permit the notion of warm-
bloodedness.) Dinosaurs have vascularized bones
like mammals and birds. Dinosaur tracks have
been found as far north as Spits Bergen in the
Arctic and you need to be warm-blooded to live up
there.
(- James K. Page, Jr." Phenomena, Comment and
Notes," Smithsonian, June 1978)

5. I had the island to myself on its western reaches.

The mainland, far behind, was lost in haze. As I
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 216

climbed over, the shoulder near the sheer west end,

the wind came fresh in my face, and with it the
shrill cries of the sea birds. On the way back, I
suddenly encountered a small flock of wild sheep. A
fierce-looking ram stared at me, and then, to my
relief, led his flock plunging down the steep side of
the island to shelter under a rocky ledge far below.
Their wool had never been shorn; it hung to the
ground.
(- Robert S. Ryf, "Faces out of Stone, "Occidental
College Magazine, May 1978)

Key to Test 1:

No Mode of Writing Unity Order

1. D Descriptive Unified Space, Fact
2. E Expository Unified Facts, Climax
3. N Narrative Unified Process
4. A Argumentative Unified Comparison
5. D Descriptive Unified Space

2) Find out various methods of developing a

paragraph in the following examples:

1. There is tropical plant that blooms white one day

and turns purple the next, heats up at night and

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 217

imprisons its insects pollinators, but is most often

remarked on for quite a different quality: size. The
plant is the legendary giant water lily of the
Amazon. Named for Queen Victoria very early in
her reign, Victoria Amazonica has been known to
science for more than a century and a half. For the
greater part of that time it has been kept in green
houses but, like so much in the Amazon, most of its
natural history has been unknown. While one
might have thought that water lily with pads five
feet are more in diameter would have been studied
in the field, the complexity of its reproductive
biology was revealed only in 1975.

2. Volcanic eruptions and earthquaks often occur

together. Both results from the movements of the
giant plates that make up the rigid outer shell or
the earth. The continents lie embedded in these
plats which make up the earth's crust and below,
part of its mantle. The plates move about slowly in
relation to each other, at a rate of only about 1.3 to
10 centimeters per year. Most earthquaks and
volcanic eruptions occur at the edges of these giants
plates where they push against each other or are
pulled apart. Geologists describe the motion of the
plates and the consequences of such motion as plate
tectonics.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 218

3. Imaginative literature can be classified in several

ways, but one the common ways to understand its
divisions is according to the different forms it takes.
The three major forms of literature are prose,
poetry, and drama. Each of these can be further
subdivided. Prose can be categorized into the novel
a book-length work of fiction; the short story,
usually centering around a single incident and with
less complicated development than that of novel;
and the novelette, somewhere between the novel and
the short story in length and complexity. Poetry can
be classified as narrative, dramatic and lyric. Drama
can be divided into tragedy, comedy and
tragicomedy. Each of these forms can be further
divided into more precise units, of course; but these
at least provide an overview of the forms of
imaginative literature.

4. When a beam of white light passes through a

glass prism, it is broken up into a rainbow like
band of colours called a spectrum. The shortest
rays of light bend the most and or found in the
violet end of the spectrum. The longest rays bent
the least and are found in the red end of the
spectrum. All the other colours are found in
between violet and red, and they tend to blend into
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 219

each other. All the colours found in the spectrum,

when mixed together, give white light.

5. Even though they will rarely admit it, little boys

do like little girls and vice versa. A teacher recently
observed this courting ritual between second
graders during recess break. A little boy, the
acknowledged tough guy in the class, found a dead
snake on play ground. To the accompaniment of
cheers and jeers from the other boys, he picked it
up and slung it carelessly around his neck. Then he
marched purposefully across the playground to
where the girls were huddled, shrieking and
squealing. Unerringly he sought her out, the loudest
squealer of them all, and stopped in front of her. In
the silence that followed, the young lover cast his
trophy at the feet of his beloved. Secure in the
knowledge that he had bestowed a gift of
inestimable value, he turned and strode away, while
behind him shrieks and squeals of outraged
faminity broke out anew.

6. Most of the poverty in the USA today results

from lack of education. And in this day of almost
free universities, it would be easy to assume that the
children of today's poor could go out and get an
education so as not to be poor themselves. But the
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 220

fact of the matter is that children in these

impoverished environments are not motivated in
the least to get an education, because there is
nothing in the value systems of their families or
friends that would suggest that they should. With
this being the case, available education is not the
solution to poverty. A better solution is
governmental aid to the poverty-stricken.

7. Clay is a kind of earth made up of extremely fine

particles which is important for agriculture. It
absorbs ammonia and other gases necessary for the
growth of plants, it also holds in the soil the
fertilizing substances supplied by manures.
Without a certain amount of clay, soil will not keep
its fertility from season to season.

8. There are not nearly enough words in any

language to express all the feelings we are capable
of experiencing. It's as if there were a stream
flowing by, and you put a big wooden board across
it, big enough so that it stopped the water flow
flowing. Suppose now that you cut holes in the
board so that the water could get through the holes,
but only through the holes. Those holes stand for
the feeling words we have, like anger, sadness, love,
hate. But the water stands for the feeling
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 221

themselves. We have only a fixed number of holes,

words with which we can express feelings. But the
water, the range of feelings we are capable of
experiencing, is limitless.

Key to Test 2:
No Development of Paragraph Mode of Writing
1. Facts Expository
2. Process Expository
3. Classification Expository
4. Analysis Expository
5. Exemplification/ illustration Narrative
6. Cause and effect Expository
7. Definition Expository
8 Analysis Expository
3) Find out "Unity" in the following paragraphs:

1. Novel is also called pocket theater, for it renders,

in a pocket size book, things, which can be staged.
The history of stage is almost as old as the history
of man. Man, according to the scientists, has been
living on earth for about one millions years. During
this long period man has suffered so many
upheavals. Plagues, famines and world wars are
examples of these shocks. Plagues and famines are
natural deserters where as wars are political,
economic and of our own choice. We can, to a large
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 222

extent, control wars but we can pray to God to keep

us from the evils of plagues, famines etc. All these
evils can be presented in dramas and novels.

2. Renaissance plays are model plays in English

Literature for the time to come. Besides,
Shakespeare and Ben Johnson, the seven university
wits are the famous figures for the sixteenth
century action literature. The poetry of this period
also talks of the peculiar characteristics of
Renaissance. The poets wrote about their
enthusiasm for love, power, beauty and wealth.
Shakespeare sonnets are replete with the
description of love and beauty along with human
miseries and misfortunes. The same elements are
found in his plays also, which are called,
undoubtedly, the best plays of all times.
3. The tragic heroes of Shakespeare also are "men
of high state" and noble stature. Romeo is an
aristocrat; Titus Andronicus a general; Richard II
a king, as is Richard III; Timon as an exceptionally
rich aristocrat, Coriolanus a general; Brutus is
highly placed; Antony, more than a king, is an
emperor. The heroes of the major tragedies are also
men of high degree or of public importance.
Macbeth is first a general and then a king; Othello
is a general, Hamlet is a prince, wrongly deprived
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 223

of his throne; King Lear is every inch a king. They

are not all embodiments of virtue or goodness. They
are much above the average level of humanity. But
they "made of the stuff we find within ourselves
and within the persons who surround them."

Key to Test 3:

No Unity
1. It does not have unity.
2. It does not have unity.
3. It has got proper unity.

4) Fill in the blanks with befitting "Cohesive Device

or Linking Words" given in the choice list.

HAZARDS FROM NUCLEAR POWER

There are three separate sources of hazard in

the process of supplying energy by nuclear power.
(1) First, the radioactive material must travel
from its place of manufacture to the power station.
(2) Although the power stations themselves are
solidly built, the containers used for the transport
of the materials are not. There are normally only
two methods of transport available, (3) namely
road or rail. Unfortunately, both of these involve
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 224

close contact with the general public, (4) since the

routes are sure to pass near or even through,
heavily populated areas.
(5) …….. , there is the problem of waste. All
nuclear power stations produce wastes that in most
case will remain radioactive for thousands of years.
It is impossible to make these wastes
nonradioactive, and (6) …… they must be stored in
one of the inconvenient ways that scientists have
invented. (7) …….. they may be buried under the
ground, or dropped into abandoned mines, or sunk
in the sea. (8) ………, these methods do not solve
the problem, (9) ……. An earthquake could easily
crack the containers open.
(10) ……, there is the problem of accidental
exposure due to a leak or an explosion at the power
station. As with the other two hazards, this is not
very likely, (11) …… it does not provide a serious
objection to the nuclear program. (12) ……… it can
happen.
Separately, these three types of risks are not a
great cause for concern. Taken together, (13) ……..
, the probability of disaster is extremely high.

Choices:
5. a) second b) third (c) in that case
6. a) because b) so (c) after
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 225

7. a) besides b) for example (c) after all

8. a) by the way b) lastly (c) however
9. a) though b) since (c) after
10. a) third b) for instance (c) in conclusion
11. a) so b) instead (c) namely
12. a) although b) nevertheless (c) therefore
13. a) although b) though (c) even though

Key to Test 4:
5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. b) 13.
c)

5) Rewrite the following sentences in you own

words:

a) At the very least, our concept of God's

domain would expand.
b) It is possible that our image of ourselves
could change drastically as a result of such
contact with extraterrestrial life.
c)The social and philosophical implications of
contact with another civilization on another
planet in another galaxy require the most careful
consideration.
d) As a result we might come to depend too
heavily upon a superior form of intelligence, thus
destroying our own initiative.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 226

e)So, although it is hard to ascertain just what the

consequences of interstellar communication with
other intelligent beings would be, it is clear that
such communication would have profound
reverberations among the inhabitants of earth.
f) But we might develop such different ideas about
religion that the basic beliefs we have held for
centuries would face a severe challenge.
g) We might find that we are really more
advanced and more civilized than we now think
we are.
h) Man's idea of God would undoubtedly
undergo a change if we were to discover other
intelligent beings in the universe.
i) On the other hand, we might find that we are far
less advanced and far less civilized than other
social organizations of intelligent beings which
would certainly be a blow to the self-image of
human beings.

Key to Test 5: Series code: c-b-g-i-d-h-a-f-e

The social and philosophical implications of contact

with another civilization on another planet in
another galaxy require the most careful
consideration. It is possible that our image of
ourselves could change drastically as a result of
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 227

such contact with extraterrestrial life. We might

find that we are really more advanced and more
civilized than we now think we are. On the other
hand, we might find that we are far less advanced
and far less civilized than other social organizations
of intelligent beings which would certainly be a
blow to the self-image of human beings. As a result
we might come to depend too heavily upon a
superior form of intelligence, thus destroying our
own initiative. Man's idea of God would
undoubtedly undergo a change if we were to
discover other intelligent beings in the universe. At
the very least, our concept of God's domain would
expand. But we might develop such different ideas
about religion that the basic beliefs we have held
for centuries would face a severe challenge. So,
although it is hard to ascertain just what the
consequences of interstellar communication with
other intelligent beings would be, it is clear that
such communication would have profound
reverberations among the inhabitants of earth.

6) Find out techniques in "Order" in the following

paragraphs.

1. Cooking an entire meal over an outdoor fire was

easy, according to a scout I know well. The first
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 228

thing he did, of course, was to start fire. Then,

without waiting for the flames to settle into glowing
embers, he thrust in the foil-wrapped potatoes.
Next, he assembled some chocolate pudding that
became a badly scorched dessert through a
combination of high flames and lack of stirring.
The final and crowning touch to the feast was the
biscuit – one large one, baked in a kettle. It had a
beautiful brown crust, it smelled wonderful, and it
tasted delicious, even though he had mixed a whole
egg, shell and all, into the batter. Now this scout
with whom I am well acquainted asserts that he
would never mind cooking every meal over a
campfire.

2. She passed down the wide hall and through a

door at the end. Then she was in the farm premises.
The scent dairy, and of farm-kitchen, and of farm-
yard and of leather almost overcame her; but
particularly the scent of dairy. They had been
scalding out the pans. The flagged passage in front
of her was dark, puddle, and wet. Light came out
from the open kitchen door. She went forward and
stood in the door way. The farm-people were at tea,
seated at a little distance from her, round a long,
narrow table, in the center of which stood a white
lamb. Ruddy faces, ruddy hands holding foods, red
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 229

mouths working, heads bent over the tea cups: it

was tea time, feeding time.

3. I received a wickedly irreverent letter yesterday,

from a woman who considers herself deeply
religious. She wrote, in part: "a God-fearing man
does not need to know the facts; his love of God will
make him sense the truth." What a dreadful
impiety this is, masquerading as religion. For if you
believe in God and love Him, you believe that He
gave man his reason to use for discovering the
facts-and the faculty of reason is what makes us in
God's image.
4. Throughout the ages, man has taken seriously
the biblical injunction to multiply and to take
dominion over land, sea and air, to subdue the
beast the fish and the fowl. He has been very good
at subduing. He used his marvelous brain to invent
ways to subdue and exploit his environment. He
dug its coal, he cut its forests, he dammed and
dirtied its streams, he befouled the very air about
him and he prospered. So he continued his wasteful
ways. As he added to his numbers, he multiplied his
demands on the earth at an ever increasing rate. He
depleted resources at a frantic pace. And now he
may prosper no more. Now that gift of earth is

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 230

almost used up. Its waters stinking with oil and

algae, its skies darkened by the filth of factory and
machines, its hillsides denuded and its flat places
paved, the earth can no longer sustain rapacious
man. The plundered planet decays beneath his feet.
Mankind today stands on the brink of final
disaster. Can we step away from the abyss in time?

5. If an international commission which has

reported to UNESCO is right, education
throughout the world is likely to change out of
recognition in the next generation. To begin with,
education will start much earlier as the importance
of per school education is more widely recognized
then it will never end, for the signs are that the
concept of lifelong education, already an ideal, is
about to become a practical reality. Examination,
the bane of every students existence may wither
away. Fixed subjects and curricula are likely to go
into the melting pot and schools themselves, if not
as physical locations then at least as places
exclusively for children, are threatened with
extinction. Above all, sprits aims will change; the
emphasis will be on learning, not teaching, and
educations product will not be measured in terms
of so much knowledge dispensed but of completely
developed human beings.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 231

Key to Test 6:
a.Order of "Time" is followed.
b.Order of "Space" is followed.
c. Order of " Specific to General " is followed.
d.Order of "Climax" is followed.
e. Order of "General to Specific" is followed.

7) Write down the "Topic Sentence" for the

following paragraph:

1.
…………………………………………………………
………………………………. No matter how hard
they try, they cannot lower their anxiety. Some of
them enjoy talking their fears while others resent
being asked to discuss their personal feelings. Some
people try to hide their nervousness. They try to
disguise their anxiety by telling jokes. They believe
that those flying with them cannot see through their
disguise, but that is more often than not an illusion.

2.
…………………………………………………………
………………………………….. As late as the
eighteenth century, physicians admitted that
watching animals discovered many medicines. The
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 232

American, Indians and the early settlers learnt the

rudiments of medicine in the same way by watching
a bare digging for the roots of fern and eating them.
They observed how a wild deer would dig up and
eat the roots of the sweet fig. they also saw a wolf,
bitten by a rattlesnake, confidently chew
snakeroots. As such a number of medicines were
innovated by watching animals conduct.

3.
…………………………………………………………
………………………………………. First typing is
much less fatiguing than writing, especially when
one uses an electric typewriter. One can type for
hours without fatigue, while steady writing for a
time will soon tire one's hand. Second, no matter
how tired a person becomes, the characters of typed
letters never changes. On the other hand, script will
tend to become sloppy after long periods of writing.
Next, typing is always legible with a minimum of
effort. At times personal script is so poor that it is
difficult, if not impossible, to read. Legibility can
contribute to an improved grade, since a teacher is
more likely to give a low grade to a sloppy written
paper than to a neat typewritten one. An other
advantage is speed. A good typist can type from
forty to seventy words per minute, while the same
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 233

person can write only about twenty to thirty words

per minute by hand. Hence, people rightly prefer
the use of typewriters to using hand writing.

Key to Test 7:

1.People while flying pretend to look confident,

but it is not generally so.
2.The conduct of ailing and injured animals
helped a lot in discovering the means of cure and
medicines.
3.A typewriter has got much advantages and
merits to become preferable to hand writing.

8) Find out the "Topic Sentences" for the following

paragraphs from the given choices below:
1.
…………………………………………………………
…………………….. There are reason. First, the
number of automobiles has doubled in the past five
years, with the result that there are more cars than
the streets can accommodate. Second, the streets
are old and narrow. Because there are few garages
or parking lots, these narrow streets are made
narrower by the cars that are parked along the
side. Third, many drivers do not obey the

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 234

regulations, so that many traffic jams result from

cars going the wrong way on a one-way street.
These factors, indeed, cease the smooth flow of
traffic in the city.

2.
…………………………………………………………
……………………… The court and the King's
government used the London dialect and, since
London was the largest city and port in Britain, it
was the most useful and generally acceptable kind
of English for commerce. Its prestige as a literary
dialect was established by the popularity to two
writers, Chaucer and Gower, who spoke and wrote
the English of London. Up to their time, English
literature was written in a variety of dialects. Since
their time very little non-dramatic literature has
been written in any of the provincial dialects. Thus,
the London dialect got to be the Standard English
of the day.

3.
…………………………………………………………
……………………… A dog will follow his master
anywhere but a cat keeps to the house it is used to;
and even when the house changes hand, the cat will
remain there, so long as it is kindly treated by the
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 235

new owners. A cat does seem to be capable of the

personal devotion often shown by a dog. It thinks
most of its own comfort, and its love is only
cupboard love.

Choices:
b) The provincial dialect became the Standard
English Language of London.
c)For a number of reasons, accidents and traffic
jams are natural to occur on the roads.
d) There is some truth in the common saying
that while dogs became attached to persons, cats
are generally attached to places.
e)It was natural that the English of London should
become the standard model for the whole
country.
f) Traffic has recently becomes a serious problem
in the cities.
g) Dogs are said to be more faithful than cats
to their masters.
h) English is no doubt an international
language.

Key to Test 8)
1.Traffic has recently become a serious problem in
the cities.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 236

2.It was natural that the English of London should

become the standard model for the whole
country.
3.There is some truth in the common saying that
while dogs become attached to person, cats are
generally attached to places.

9) Write "conclusive sentence" for these

paragraphs:

1. Biography should be distinguished from history

with which it is sometimes confused. History deals
with the life of nations while biography deals with
the life of an individual. History studies the
movements affecting a nation or an age, whereas
biography studies the personality of a man.
Biography seeks to isolate the individual from the
age, and unfolds the charm of his distinctive
personality. Biography is a study sharply defined
by tow definite events, birth and death. It fills its
canvas with one figure, and other characters,
however great in themselves, must always be
subsidiary to the central figure. Again biography
deals with a man both from within and without. It
exhibits the external life of the subjects, gives a
vivid picture of his character, and unfolds the
growth of his mind
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 237

…………………………………………………………
…………………………………….

2. A man of polite imagination is let into a great

many pleasure that the vulgar are not capable or
receiving. He can converse with a picture and find
an agreeable companion in a statue. He meets with
a secret refreshment in a description, and often
feels a greater satisfaction in the prospect of fields
and meadows than another does in their possession.
It gives him, indeed, a kind of property in
everything he sees, and makes the most rude,
uncultivated parts of nature administer to his
pleasures, so that he looks upon the whole world, as
it were, in another light, and discovers in it a
multitude of charms.
…………………………………………………………
……………………………….

3. Rainy days are welcome in a hot country like

Pakistan. The scorching heat of plains makes life
intolerable in the months of June and July. As
majority of people are poor and cannot afford to go
to hills, they anxiously look forward to the breaking
of monsoon. Rainy days provide the much-needed
relief to people tormented by excessive heat.
Everybody enjoys a brisk shower, especially the
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 238

children. They run about in the streets shouting

happy slogans and obviously in high sprits. The joy
of the peasants knows no bounds, as rain helps
them in growing their crops, the women folk
indulge in all sorts of frivolities – they sing songs,
dance and enjoy swing in the garden.
…………………………………………………………
…………………………………

Key to Test 9:
a.Therefore, biography is the study of a man in
particular; whereas, the history is of a nation in
general.
b.Thus, a man of celestial gleam or imaginative
power can visualizes and feel pleasure in every
object present in his surrounding no matter
natural or artificial by the dint of his
imagination, whereas, a wanderer can only roam
about.
c. Hence, the soothing shower of rain becomes
boon and source of much pleasure for the people
of all ages in the hot country like Pakistan.

************************

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 239

ESSAY WRITING

An academic essay, basically, is an attempt to

respond any topic systematically. An essay consists
of there parts viz. introduction, body and
conclusion.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 240

1. Introduction: The introduction of an essay

consists of one paragraph, which is called
introductory paragraph. Its prime purpose is to
introduce the topic of the essay. A good
introductory paragraph encompasses the slant of
the topic which is supposed to be developed in the
body of the essay. The introductory paragraph
generally is written in deductive logic, in which
general to particular approach is rather preferred.
2. Body: The body of essay consists of "Paragraph
of Development"; the number of paragraphs
depends upon the number of controlling ideas. One
paragraph of development consists of one
controlling ideas. A Paragraph of Development
consists of three parts. First, "Topic or
Introductory sentence" which introduces the
controlling idea; second, "Body or development"
which develops the controlling idea of the
paragraph; third, "Conclusive Sentence" which
logically concludes and winds up the controlling
idea of the paragraph. It is essential to encompass
only one idea in a paragraph. For instance, if one is
writing about the poetry if Iqbal, there must not be
any sentence about role of Iqbal in politics, if any
irrelevant idea is added it will break the unity of
the paragraph. Hence, it is tantamount to break the
whole unity of the essay as well. Besides, if the
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 241

writer intends to write a paragraph showing the

advantages and disadvantages of something in a
one paragraph; therefore, it is obligatory to put the
less important point first, and the more important
in the end; if the advantages are more than
disadvantages, thereafter, the paragraph must end
with the advantages leaving a positive impact upon
the mind of reader. As the topic sentences
introduces the controlling idea in a paragraph;
likewise, the conclusive idea winds the controlling
idea up logically and substantially. The conclusive
sentence must encompass all the essence, aspect,
and spirit followed in the body of the paragraph.
Conclusion: The conclusion of an essay consists of
one paragraph, which is called: "Conclusive
Paragraph". Basically, it concludes the whole essay
in a logical manner, by summarizing all the
controlling ideas in brief which are being developed
in the body of the paragraph. The good conclusive
paragraph does not include anything which is not
mentioned in the body of the essay. It will be true to
mention that the conclusion of essay consists of its
body but in abridged form. The series of controlling
ideas should be followed in the conclusion. The
basic approach to a conclusive paragraph is
inductive logic, in which ideas are supposed to be
laid down in particular to general order. The
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 242

conclusive paragraph should not be put to end

abruptly but it is likely to part way from the reader
without letting him notice it!

SAMPLE ESSAYS
THE ROLE OF MEDIA
Outline:
a.Introduction
a.As a source of communication
b.As a befitting source of information
c. For the preservation and promotion of
cultural heritage
d.An advocate of truth
e. Its impact on life
f. Conclusion

By gone are the days when the unbridgeable

gap of communication made the life of a savage
quite aloof and isolated on the face of earth, having
no fast and fittest tool to engulf the gap between the
man and his surrounding. But, now the media, no
matter whether electronic or print, has filled the
big gulf and it has revolutionized the life of the
modern man.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 243

Media is the best source of communication at

the disposal of the present man ever rejoiced by the
man of the past. It is media, which has turned the
vast chest of the earth into a small global village.
Nowadays, the media brings forth the knowledge of
whatsoever kind taking place in the any nook and
corner of the world just within an eyewink time.
We, by sitting in the one corner, can easily have an
access to the very far corner of the world. The
entire credit, in this respect, goes in the account of
media. It has reduced the distance, time and labour.
Now our impatience or thirst is quenched to the
brim within a short span of time, for what our
forefathers needed months even years to acquire.
Media, at the same time, is an exact and
accurate source of information. Now the inventions,
discoveries and accomplishments are no longer
national, but they have become international and
cosmopolitan in their outlook. Media shares
prejudice-free and impartial information having no
streak or iota of doubt or misinformation. The
authentic and reliable facts pertaining to science,
technology, diseases, cures, corruption, and
terrorism have become public only because of
media. The role of media in natural disasters
remains praiseworthy. For instance, the role played

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 244

by the media in Tsunami, Qatrina and the

earthquake in Pakistan is worth mentioning.
Media is considered the greatest promoter of
culture of any nation. It assimilates and dispenses
the culture of a nation. As the culture is the soul of
the skeleton of the society, which strengthens a
nation, so it is the true representative of cultural
heritages and it also longs for its perpetuity or
prevalence. It reveals the disposition, behaviour,
attitude and understanding of a nation, which
enables one to go for psychoanalysis of that nation.
In addition to it, media promotes the best and
fruitful aspects of culture and later on it publicizes
it in order to make it all-pervading and all-
prevailing. Thus, mutual configuration and
harmony between the different cultures of the
nations takes place. It endeavours to know and
propagate truth, which is known and thought in the
world.
Media is a fast advocate of truth. It digs deep
and brings forth the bitter facts, mind-boggling
realities, unfathomed fabrication, complicated
issues, and bilateral problems on the screen for
open discussion. It has become easy only because of
media that at least the viewpoint of the weaker
party also comes on the screen. It allots an
opportunity for the logical and plausible resolution
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 245

and solution of the issue of what so nature. It also

shatters the monopoly of one party. Thus, media,
by doing this, jerks and jolts the conscience of a
man to lean towards mercy and justice. So many
frail, weak and sourceless souls have received the
good deal of justice only because of media.
Media influences and moulds up the life of a
person tremendously. It has got both good and bad
impacts. As it is the onus of every generation in
general and man in particular to condemn vice and
condone virtue. Thus, media had got vital role to
play. It can strengthen the code and conduct of a
man and can uplift him to the pinnacle or apex of
success. In the meanwhile, it can also mar, corrupt
and deteriorate the sublime course of human life.
Especially the transmission of pornographic and
obscene elements leaves a negative impact upon the
life of the new generation.
It would be just to conclude that media
shoulders the integral part of the responsibility of
uplifting man to the pinnacle or apex of success. It
does the advocacy of truth, facts and justice. It
provides exact information very fast; besides,
media is the greatest source of communication.
Thus, media is befitting tool at the disposal of the
present man either to exploit or to uplift society to
the state where upon life, if not in to to yet will be
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 246

free from many devouring evil forces to great

extent. Media is a weapon, which benefits and
favours only to whom, who does possess it.

COMPARISON ESSAY

ARE PRIVATE SCHOOLS BETTER THAN

STATE SCHOOLS?
Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Similarities in aims, teaching and assessment
3. Difference of the curriculum
4. Difference in the quality of teachers
5. Differences of Class size, discipline and academic
standards
6. Conclusion

For parents, few things are more important than

their child’s education. In many countries, parents
of school-age children can chose to send their child
to a private school rather than to a state school. In
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 247

this essay, state schools are defined as those that do

not charge tuition fees because they are funded and
run by local or central government; private schools,
on the other hand, are funded almost entirely by
the fees that they charge. Before deciding where to
educate their child, parents need to examine the
difference between the two types of school,
particularly as regards the curriculum, the quality
of tuition and student achievement.

Private and state schools are comparable in some

respects. Like state schools, private schools aim to
develop the knowledge, skills an character of
students, in order to prepare them for their future
lives. Both types of school are also very similar in
the way they organize their teaching and
assessment, using terms or semesters with
assessments at the end of the academic year.

Despite these similarities, there are number of

marked differences in the way that state and
private schools operate. The range of subjects
taught at state schools is largely limited by the
demands of the national curriculum. In contrast,
private schools can offer a greater choice of
subjects, because they generally have more money
to spend on equipment, technology and staff than
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 248

state schools do.

Teachers working within the state system must

have recognized teaching qualifications and are
paid according to a national scale. Private schools,
however, are in a position to offer higher salaries
and may therefore be able to attract subject
specialists who have considerable expertise in their
fields.

In general, it is true to say that while state schools

have a high student-teacher ratio, private schools
tend to offer smaller classes. This may lead to
better discipline in private schools with the result
that students may achieve somewhat higher
academic standards.

It is clear, therefore, that there are significant

differences between private and state schools, and
that private schools may offer advantage. The
benefits of private schooling must, however, be
balanced against the cost involved and each
family’s budget priorities.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 249

AN ARGUMENT ESSAY

“Manned space mission should now be replaced

with unmanned missions”

It is clear that the study of space and the planets is

by nature expensive. Scientists and politicians must
constantly attempt to balance costs with potential
research benefits. A major question to be
considered is whether the benefits of manned space
flight are worth the costs.

For Nobel Prize-winning physicist Steven Weinberg

the answer is clear. As he noted in 2007 in a lecture
at the Space Telescope Science Institure in
Baltmore. “Human beings don’t serve any useful
function in space. They radiate heat, they’re very
expensive to keep alive, and unlike robotic missions,
they have a natural desire to come back, so that
anything involving human beings is enormously
expensive.”
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 250

Unmanned missions are much less expensive than

manned, having no requirement for airtight
compartments, food or life support systems. They
are also lighter and therefore require less fuel and
launch equipment. According to NASA, the 1992
manned Space Shuttle Endeavor cost $1.7 billion to
build and requires approximately $450 million for
each launch. In contrast, the entire unmanned
Voyager mission from 1972 until 1989, when it
observed Neptune, cost only $ 865 million.

In addition to their relative cost effectiveness,

unmanned projects generally yield a much greater
volume of data. While manned flights have yet to
extend beyond the orbit of Earth’s moon,
unmanned missions have explored almost our
entire solar system, and have recently observed an
Earth-like planet in a nearby solar system. Manned
missions would neither be able to travel so far, be
away so long, nor collect so much data while at the
same time guaranteeing the astronauts’ safe return.

Some may argue that only manned space flight

possesses the ability to inspire and engage the
general population, providing much-needed
momentum for continued governmental funding
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 251

and educational interest in mathematics and the

sciences. However, media coverage of recent
projects such as the Mars Rover, the Titan moon
lander, and the Hubble telescope’s photographs of
extrasolar planets demonstrates that unmanned
missions clearly have the ability to attract and hold
public interest.

Thus, taking into account the lower cost, the

greater quantity of data and widespread popular
support, I would argue that for now, at least,
unmanned space missions undoubtedly yield the
most value in terms of public spending.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 252

PRÉCIS-WRITING

The term “Précis” is derived from a French

word, which means “precise” or “accurately
expressed.” Roughly speaking, it means a “gist” of
a longer passage or document. Thus, to make a
précis of a given passage amounts to extracting its
main points and expressing them as clearly and in
as few words as possible.

RULES FOR PRECIS-WRITING

The important rules for précis-writing are

enlisted below. A composite précis needs the proper
observance of all these rules altogether.

1.First read or peruse the given passage carefully

and with deep concentration. If need be reread it
several times to grasp its theme, contents and
general purport.
2.Examine the passage in detail and make sure of
the meaning of each sentence, phrase and word.
3.Supply a short title, which sums up or indicates
the main theme.
4.Note down all the important points essential to
the expression of the main theme.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 253

5.Do not extend the limit of words prescribed i.e.

the one-third of the original passage. Suppose the
original passage contains 90 words thereafter the
précis should be summed up to 30 words.
6.Do not borrow the phrases and sentences from
the original passage.
7.The précis should be in your own words,
condensed by remodeling rather than by mere
omission.
8.It should contain all the essentials points of the
original without any superfluous, unnecessary
and irrelevant material.
9.It should be self-contained and connected whole.
It must not bear the aura of fragmentation.
10. Do not add anything on your part.
11. Do not remove any important point.
12. Do not add any comment on your
part.
13. Do not correct any statement.
14. First write the rough draft and
count the words and then go for the second and
eventually for the final draft.
15. Possibly avoid the error in spelling,
tense, grammar, composition and idioms.
16. The précis should be properly
punctuated and paragraphed.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 254

17. Its language should be simple, plain,

and apt; besides, all the ideas should be laid down
in a coherent manner.
18. The sentences comprising “Direct
Speech” in the original passage should be
converted into “Indirect Speech.”
19. Use one-word substitute for long
phrase or sentences like “Portable” for the thing,
which can easily be moved from one place to
another. As the word “Monotheist” means the
person who believes in one and only God.

SAMPLE PRECIS
1. Make the précis of the passage given below and
give it a suitable title.
Now, to get great ideas we require great
teachers. The teachers may be great persons with
whom we come in daily contact, or they may be
dead and yet reach us through great books, which
they have given to the world. In which every way it
comes, the teaching required is that which guides to
large outlook and to none but a large outlook. Yet
after all it is only to a limited extent that the
teacher, be he living or one who though dead yet
speaks, can mould his students. There is no royal
road to learning. The higher it is, the harder is the
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 255

toil, of the spirit that is required for its attainment.

But this toil brings with it happiness. As we
advance along the path, we see more and more new
territory to transverse, now highest, which are
accessible only by patient lobour, but the scaling of
which promises us a new sense possession. In all
this there is much of the sweet in sad and the sad in
sweet. Yet the mere endeavour, even apart from the
result, brings its reward.

Title: Teacher vis-à-vis Learning

Teacher, being the fountain of sublime notion,
teaches us practically when alive and through
books when dead. A teacher broadens the vision
and perspective of students and transforms them
altogether. The course of learning is arduous;
hence, highly-fruitful ends require more
endeavours; thus, exertion coupled with enthusiasm
determine the new horizons of knowledge, which
lead to the result-oriented and pragmatic actions.
Words: 61
188
**********
2. Make the précis of the passage given below and
give it a suitable title.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 256

Citizen are made, not born, though men may be

social animals, they are very apt to regard society
as made for them, and as for as possible to use it for
their own ends. It is an individual, not a member of
a community that issues from womb, though these
individual have to live in the state and must learn
how to do it. All human beings have the capacity to
be citizen, but mere capacity is not enough, it needs
developing and training. The vocational and
personal sides of education will help little here. Men
must learn how to earn the living; they must have
the chance of developing body, mind and character
to their full capacity. But earning a living and
developing a personality are private matters, a
concern of the individual, they will make a man a
more useful member of the state but not necessarily
a better citizen. They are no guarantee that he will
serve it, study its interests, and carry out his duties
to it. Indeed, if over emphasized they may – and
obliviously often do – make him selfish and
indifferent to the common good. Vocational and
personal training are dangerously incomplete
without the discipline, which teach men how to play
their part in the state and make them wish to do it.
Education is a trinity and one of its members is
training in citizenship.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 257

Title: Citizenship
Man, having gregarious nature, constitutes
society, but for compulsory living in a state as
citizen he needs professional training, character-
building and individual uplift. Hence, he becomes a
useful member of state but not a practical citizen. It
is indispensable for him to observe strict discipline,
selfless conduct and responsibility-oriented
inclination for discharging his duties for general
betterment. Professional learning without altruism
and discipline is fatal. To dispense true citizenship
is one of the three aims of education.

Words: 77
214
************

3. Make the précis of the passage given below and

give it a suitable title.
Even so it is well to remember that history is
not a bare record of facts, as a diary quite often is.
History puts facts into a system and tries to
discover their meaning in inter-relationship.
Moreover, history is not personal in outlook and is
rarely concerned with day-to-day happenings.
History tries to understand how and why country-
wide (and world-wide) changes take shape in the
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 258

affairs of men. A diary may provide the new

material for history, it is not itself history.

Title: History Versus Diary

History, unlike chronically-arranged diary, is a
systematic, objective, inter-dependant and causally-
connected collection of national and international
events and their impact on life; whereas, diary is
not history but can contribute for it.

Words: 32
88
**********

4. Make the précis of the passage given below and

give it a suitable title.
The scholar should remember that a book
ought not to be read for mere amusement. Only
persons of undeveloped mind read for pure
amusement. A truly educated person seeks
intellectual food from his reading. He is not
satisfied with a book that does not exercise his
intellect. On the contrary, the habit of reading for
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 259

pure amusement merely helps one to pass the time.

This, habit gradually leads to a dulling and
blunting of intellectual faculties.

Title: The Use Of Reading

A sage reads sophisticated books to nourish his
mind; whereas, an undiscerning person reads for
passing time and pleasure; subsequently, he mars
his cognitive and rational development.

Words: 27
75
*********

5. Make the précis of the passage given below and

give it a suitable title.
Whosoever has been to bear baiting is justified
in saying that out of all mammals exploited by
humans, the bear is abused in the worst manner.
The tribes of gypsies known as Kalandars are
considered enemies of bears. While many fakirs
have made bear dancing and bear-dog fight into
their profession.
Bear baiting was alien sport to the region and
was introduced by British, when they ruled India.
Our feudal Lords patronized this cruel sport. The
way the cubs are caught by hardhearted hunter is a
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 260

sad tale. They search for a bear den and after

locating it; they wait for the cubs to appear. When
these innocent cubs come out of the den along with
mother, these hunters fire shots in the air merely to
frighten the mother. After the mother and its cubs
become separated, the cub is chased and caught by
the hunter. Occasionally, these hunters face
problems from the police and wildlife authorities
but this is taken care of by a little palm greasing.

Title: Bear-baiting
The bear is the most victimized mammal by
man, which is induced into many fatal games by
vagabonds, lords and beggars. Bear-baiting,
augmented by British in India, was inherited by the
feudal. The hunters brutally catch the cubs having
scattered them and terrified their mother by air-
firing. Agencies curb the heinous crime yet it
prevails owing to bribery.

Words: 58
166
**********

6. Make the précis of the passage given below and

give it a suitable title.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 261

It is that wonderful aroma which like a soothing

whiff from heaven enters the nostrils and takes
control of minds. Whether at home or in the office,
our heads turn and our mouths water when we
smell the tiny granules, which brew with our foods
to give it lip-smacking taste.
From simple snacks to delicate cuisines, we use
spices to season our foods. They provide us with
that tinge on our taste buds, which makes us want
them even more. Spices do not just reveal our
voracious appetite; they also show the great taste
that we Pakistanis have developed as a nation.
Spices add a special tang to almost every dish
cooked in Pakistan. The most commonly used ones
are ginger, garlic, chilies, cumin and coriander.
These can be found lying in cabinets and drawers in
almost every kitchen and in every household. Spices
are the heart and soul of our curry dishes. If some
one were to describe us, we could easily be labeled
“the spicy nation.”

Title: The Spices And Food

The mouth-watering fragrance, what the
crumbs of food carry, allure our gluttonous
appetite everywhere. The spices likes ginger, garlic,
chilies, cumin and coriander used in every hotel,
restaurant and home add tempting flavuour to
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 262

curry; subsequently, the excessive use of spices has

made Pakistanis spices-addicted nation.

Words: 46
167
**********

7. Make the précis of the passage given below and

give it a suitable title.
Young men get plenty of leisure because at this
stage in life, they do not have to face many worries
and anxieties. Their hopes are yet young, their
nature fresh, they have strength in their limbs, and
are full of eager and zeal for work. Young people
ought, therefore, to keep trying at this stage to
improve themselves not only physically but also
intellectually. Moments of leisure are most
precious, but undiscerning people go on wasting
them in idle gossip of, in playing cards, chess etc.
They do not know their spare hours are even more
playing than time they spend in making money. The
proper use of leisure hours provides real happiness.
The people, who have made a name for themselves
in the world, never wasted their leisure.

Title: The Use And Abuse Of Free Time

Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 263

The energetic, tension-free and enthusiastic

young have good deal of free time to nourish their
minds and bodies by investing it not wasting in
fruitless activities like an ignorant person. Free
time, like working hours, is also productive if
utilized positively what sages always did.

Words: 45
129
**********

8. Make the précis of the passage given below and

give it a suitable title.
The daily reading newspapers rightly occupies
a good deal of our leisure. Through the newspapers
we are presented with cinematography like pictures
of mankind at work and play throughout the world.
Now, most newspapers have a bias that is these are
more particularly concerned with the views of one
section of the people and distinctly opposed to those
of another section. As the proprietors and editors
are anxious to sell their papers, they not
infrequently present their readers with one-sided
views. This practice may be all very well from the
selling point of view but it is very bad for a reader
who always reads the same paper. One cannot
exercise one’s judgment and took on both sides of
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 264

the question if only one side is read about and

considered. In every public library will be found a
variety of newspapers, and in our leisure it is an
excellent plan to read both sides of a burning topic
of the day as represented by different accounts. By
so doing we shall better be able to form a fair
judgment of the matter.

Title: The Newspaper Reading

Newspaper, besides pastime, is picture-gallery
of human life in action of whatsoever sort. But the
partial and one-sided presentation of any matter
either for ulterior or mercenary motives baffles the
one-paper reader to infer the reality. For better
understanding of any problem, one had better to
peruse the diverse newspapers easily accessible in
any neighbouring library.

Words: 56
186
********

9. Make the précis of the passage given below and

give it a suitable title.
Mumbai is the financial and trading center of
the Republic of India. It is the chief seaport on the
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 265

western coast with an excellent harbour sheltered

from the Arabian Sea.
Mumbia’s history takes it back to the 9 th
century when it was ruled by Hindu rajas. That
ended in 1348 when it became part of the Sultanate
of Gujrat. In 1534, the ruler of Gujrat handed over
the city to the Portuguese who in turn gave it to the
British in 1661 as part of the dowry of Catherine
Bragauza, when she married Charles-II of
England. The British government leased it to the
British East India Company and they moved their
headquarter there in 1672. Since, Mumbia, which is
named after the goddess “Mumba Devi”, has held
its place in the world.

Title: Mumbai At a Glance

Mumbai, named after Mumba Devi, is
internationally-commercial city and seaport of
India on Arabia Sea. It was ruled by Hindu Rajas
upto 1348, Gujrat Sultante upto 1534, Portuguese
upto 1661; then British king Charles-II received it
as matrimonial gift for Catherine his wife, and
leased to East India Company to headquarter there
in 1672.

Words: 54
133
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 266

**********

10. Make the précis of the passage given below and

give it a suitable title.
There is striking and unhappy contrast between
man’s brilliant success at solving scientific
problems and his miserable failure to solve so many
of his political and social problems. It is natural,
indeed wise, to ask whether science cannot be
applied more effectively to the cure of the social
and political ills of the world. There is, of course,
much that science can do and is doing. Science adds
enormously to the comfort and interest of the
modern living. It is doing much to diminish the
social evils of poverty and diseases. Beyond doubt,
many social, political and economic problems
would be more wisely handled if they were treated
with the unprejudiced objectivity and strict regard
for truth, which characterize the work of the
physical scientist.

Title: Science Vis-à-vis Socio-political Problems

Man has solved scientific problems marvelously
but has fallen flat in resolving socio-political
problems. Besides, easiness and luxury, science has
alleviated impoverishment and maladies; moreover,
science can redress socio-political and economic
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 267

problems if used with impartially-objective

approach to ascertain truth as scientists often do.

Words: 44
127

**************************

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 268

LETTER-WRITING

A letter is a source through which a person

shares his ideas, opinions, feelings and messages
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 269

with somebody else living at distant place.

KINDS OF LETTER

1. Formal Letters:
A formal letter is written to a Bank Manager,
Editor, Sales Manager, Managing Director, and
Govt. Public Officer or to a person of higher rank
and status.

2. Informal Letters:
An informal letter is written to a friend, son,
daughter, father, mother, brother, sister, uncle,
intimate friend, colleague, companion and fellows.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS

a) Social Letters: Including friendly letters and

Notes of Invitation.

b) Business Letter: Including Letters of

Application, Letters to government officers and
Letters to Newspapers.

PARTS OF LETTER

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 270

1.Heading: It includes writer’s address and date.

2.Salutation: It addresses the person whom the

letter is written either by name or by title.

3.Body: It comprises the contents of the letter.

4.Subscription/ Closing: It closes the letter; besides,

it consists of writer’s name.

5.Signature: The writer should put his initial

signature on the informal letter but the formal
letter must be endorsed with complete signature.

SALUTATION VIS-A-VIS SUBSCRIPTION /

CLOSING

Salutation Subscription

1. My dear father/mother Yours affectionately

Your affectionate son

2. My dear friend Yours most sincerely

My dear Faraz Your sincere friend

3. Dear Sir/Madam Yours faithfully

Dear Ms Walker Yours sincerely
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 271

Respected/Editor/Manager Yours truly

4.Respected Teacher
My dear sir Yours respectfully
My dear professor

SPECIMEN FOR AN INFORMAL LETTER

Address of the
writer

Heading

Date

Salutation

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 272

Body

Subscription

Signature Closing

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 273

PAPER PREVIEW OF AN INFORMAL LETTER

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 274

1. Address of the writer

2. Date
3. Salutation
4. Body
5. Subscription
Closing
6. Name/Initial signature

A LETTER TO A FRIEND (INFORMAL)

A letter to a friend inviting him to join you in a trip

to Moen-jo-Daro: a historical place
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 275

House # 15 Block
C
Ward # 4
Defence
Karachi

16 February
2012

Dear friend Nasir

I hope this letter will find you in the best of your

health; I am hale and healthy here with all my
family members. Since you know that the summer
vacation is approaching soon; we, therefore, have
scheduled a tour of Moen-jo-Daro. As you also have
shown your interest in a quite many letters of
yours; so keeping it in view I cordially invite you to
join us in a trip to Moen-jo-Daro. It is, of course,
one of the oldest cities and worth-visiting place. I
hope you will really enjoy this trip.

We are supposed to depart on Monday 5 th March,

Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 276

2012 at 9:00 am sharp. It is discretionary for you to

join us on the same day or a day before. I would
avidly be waiting for you.

Convey my regards and feelings to all the family

members; the especial love for little cute Asama.

Yours sincerely

Wasim Raza
Wasim Raza

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 277

SPECIMEN FOR A FORMAL LETTER

Address of the
writer

Heading

Date
Address to whom the
letter is written.
Inside Address

Salutation

Body

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 278

Closing

Signature Closing

Note: The formal letter bears the address of the

person to whom it is written on the left side of the
paper. Besides, the writer will endorse the complete
signature; the initial is not conformed in this
respect.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 279

PAPER PREVIEW OF A FORMAL LETTER

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 280

1. Address of the writer

2. Date
3. Inside Address
4. Salutation
5. Body
6. Closing/ subscription
7. Signature

A FORMAL LETTER
(A Letter of Complaint)

6 Fore Street
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 281

Kensington
London W8
9NW
Customer Services Manager
FlyHigh Airways
PO Box 574
London W3 5NJ

1 August 2009

Dear Sir/Madam
Booking reference: Porter POR 1359AZ

My wife and I and our two children, aged 2 and 4,

were passengers on flight LZ238 from London to
Orlando, USA on July 23rd 2009. I am writing to
complain about a number of aspects of the service
we received.

Firstly, when the flight was delayed, the staff at the

airline’s information desk were very unhelpful. We
were not even given a voucher for a drink or meal,
when it was clear the delay would be at least seven
hours. This meant that we had to spend a
considerable amount of money in the restaurant.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 282

Then, when we were finally able to board, families

were not allowed to board first, although we had
paid for this. As a result we were not able to sit
together, making our children, already very tired,
extremely distressed.

It is a legal requirement for airline operators to

provide suitable refreshments in the event of a long
delay. I would therefore expect some compensation
for your failure both to comply with this regulation
and to provide with the priority boarding for which
we had paid.

I enclose our boarding passes and look forward to

hearing from you shortly.

Yours faithfully

S R Porter (Dr)

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 283

A FORMAL LETTER

A letter to the Controller of Examination

requesting him for correct endorsement of your
mis-spelt name

Examination Hall
Center A.B.C.

4 June 2005

The Controller
Board of Intermediate & Secondary Education
Hyderabad

Dear Sir/Madam
Correction in a mis-spelt name on
marksheet

I reverently submit following lines for your

favourable consideration and kind action as well.
My name has wrongly been endorsed on the Marks
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 284

Certificate as Adeel instead of Adil. This clerical

mistake will cause me unimaginable loss in future.

I, therefore, earnestly request your greatness for

the proper and actual endorsement of my name. I
have enclosed the copy of School G.R to support my
plea. I am hopeful for your optimistic response and
will be earnestly grateful to you for this act of
kindness.

Thanking in anticipation.

Yours faithfully

Adil.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 285

APPLICATION
To
His Excellency
Chief Justice
Supreme Court of Pakistan

Subject: REQUEST TO STRAGHTEN OUT ALL THE

GRIEVENCES AND PRBOBLES
OF GRIEF-STRICKEN TRAINEES OF BBSYD
EDUCATION AND LITERACY
DEPARTMENT HYDERABAD OWING TO STRICT
ATTENDANCE'S RULE

Venerated Sir

Most reverently and respectfully, we all the trainees

of BBSYDP Education and Literacy Department
Hyderabad solemnly submit here that the rule of 90
% attendance has severely victimized and deprived
us of stipend. Because, the great number of trainees
belongs to poverty-stricken class, who can hardly
bear the regular expenses. In addition to it, a large
number of trainees have not been paid even a single
penny for the last four months. Besides, most of
students come from the remote and far corner of
the district catching one and dropping the other
means of transport, which indeed is highly
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 286

expensive and cumbersome too. As the result, if a

Trainee is led by fever, or has no fare to travel, or
misses bus and remains absent for two or three
days in a month then his attendance does not meet
to the strictly prescribed rate of attendance i.e. 90
% - the highest and hardest obligation whose
infallible observance is tantamount to deprive and
oppress rather alleviate the agonies of already
inflation-ridden people. Failing to that highest rate
of attendance, a candidate cannot get the
prescribed stipend. Consequently, all eighty or
seventy per cent investment of time and money, on
the part of the candidate, is not only wasted but it
also fuels their agony and anxiety. He, however,
instead of being benefited is severely victimized.
Therefore this 90 % attendance rule has oppressed
and affected all the trainees and has also deprived
them of the stipend what they had been promised to
receive. This is what, we beseech to thy majesty to
look into our humble request of re-considering the
strict condition of attendance. We in all humanity
approach and solemn humility render few poor
suggestions for your kind consideration to resort a
unique solution for addressing the problem which
will mitigate our sufferance and grievances.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 287

1.That, the rule of 90 % attendance should either

be nullified altogether or should be dragged
down up to 50%.
2.That, if the rule cannot be nullified altogether
then the stipend should completely be paid to
those students whose attendance ranges in
between 50 to 85%.
3.That, if the rule cannot be nullified or dragged
down to 50% then stipend should be paid on
daily wages basis. Thus, the stipend should be
compatible to the number of days one student
has been present in the class.

Therefore, with all sanguine expectation and ardent

optimism coupled with hope we look forward to
listening your sympathetic order of lifting this strict
obligation of attendance. We will remain ever
grateful to you for this act of kindness.

Thanking in anticipation,

Yours truly

All Trainee of
BBSYDP Hyderabad
An application to the Principal requesting him to
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 288

issue you the School Leaving certificate

To
The Principal
Oxford Public School
Badin

Subject: Request for School Leaving Certificate

Venerated Sir

I reverently submit following few lines for your

favourable consideration. As my father has been
transferred to Karachi; my family, therefore, have
to be shifted over there. So, I cannot proceed my
studies here. I earnestly implore your honour to
issue me the School Leaving Certificate, so that I
could continue my studies in Karachi.

I hope that your high self will look into my humble

request sympathetically and my plea would attain
the best of your consideration. I will remain ever
grateful to you for this act of kindness.

Thanking you sir.

Yours obediently
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 289

(Signature)

Charles David
Class: x. y. z
Roll No A-24

4th March 2005

APPLICATION

An application to the Principal requesting him to

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 290

grant you one week’s leave on account of marriage

ceremony of your elder brother

To
The Principal
Oxford Public School
Badin

Subject: Request for one week’s leave because of

the marriage ceremony of elder
brother

Esteemed sir

I reverently submit following few lines for your

favourable consideration. The marriage ceremony
of my elder brother is taking place in the upcoming
week. So, I will not be able to attend my classes. I
request your excellence to grant me leave for one
week.

I apologetically implore that your higher self will

look into my humble request sympathetically, and
will concede my earnest request. I would remain
thankful to you for this act of kindness.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 291

Thanking your sir.

Yours obediently

(Signature)

George Henry
Class: x. y. z
Roll No: 16

5th April 2005

***************

DIALOGUE-WRITING
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 292

When two or more than two persons fall into

conversation over an issue or issues is called
dialogue. Such format is also used for writing the
script of dram/play, movies and short interludes.
To write dialogue, the general approach applied
therein is that in which the name of the speaker is
mentioned in the margin and the spoken words are
mentioned against the name of the speaker. As the
whole statement belongs to the mentioned speaker;
therefore, it is not necessary to write the spoken
statement/dialogue in the quotation marks or
inverted comma. As the dialogue contain spoken
words therefore the contraction is allowed, while
writing them, generally we use expansion and avoid
contraction in formal writing.

Common Contraction followed by Expansion

don’t - do not - can’t – cannot, isn’t – is not, aren’t
– are not, hasn’t – has not, haven’t – have not,
won’t – will/would not, ain’t – is/am/has/have not

Dialogue Reading:

Work in pairs. Read the dialogue below, in which

two students, Sami and Shan, are talking about
what schools will be like in the future.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 293

Sami: Will robots ever replace teachers in

tomorrow’s school?
Shan: No, I don’t think they will, but I think
computers are going to take over a lot of the
teachers’ work. I think we’ll learn most of our
subjects from computers. We’ll be able to learn
things more easily and at our own pace.
Sami: Then what will the teachers do?
Shan: They’ll be there to help us when we need
them. We won’t have to sit in classes as we do
now. We’ll sit in comfortable rooms with our
computers and when we get into difficulties
we’ll call a teacher to help us. That way, we’ll
be able to get personal attention.
Sami: What subjects will students study?
Shan: Any subjects they want to. That’s the
advantages of a computer. It can be
programmed to teach dozens of different
subjects. We’ll be able to choose the ones that
interest us. We’ll be able to make our own
choice of subjects.
Sami: But will learning from a machine be better
than learning from a teacher?
Shan: The computers won’t seem like a machine.
It’ll be more like a robot. We’ll be able to talk
to it and it’ll too be able to talk to us.
Everything it teaches us will be prepared by
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 294

experts, so that when we ask questions on any

subject we’ll be getting answers from the
world’s leading experts. That way, I think we’ll
be able to learn more.

********************

INTERVIEW-WRITING
To conduct an interview is an art, in which the
interviewer asks some questions or intends to
collect the views/opinion of the interviewee on
certain issues or particular subjects.

An interview between a reporter (Tony) and

Elizabeth Blackwell, who is the first girls to seek
admission into a medical college, she lives in the
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 295

society where woman is not considered capable of

seeking education.

Tony: I understand that Geneva college

considered your application for
admission in the college immediately.
Elizabeth: No, in fact, there was a great deal of
delay before the authorities accepted it.
Tony: Did the dean tell you about the
confirmation of your admission in the
college?
Elizabeth Yes. Finally, I received a letter from
him to inform me that my application
for admission had been conceded or
granted. I was very surprised because
such a long time had passed since I had
applied.
Tony: Why do you think that they took much
time to decide?
Elizabeth When the authorities at Geneva
received my application, they didn’t
know what to do with it. So, they
decided to let the students make the
decision.
Tony: Some of the students thought that it
would be amusing to be the only
medical college in the country which
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 296

could boast that it was training some

sort of Amazon as a woman doctor. Is
that right?
Elizabeth Yes, some did find the idea amusing.
Tony: But others believed that women should
be treated equally.
Elizabeth Yes, others believed in women’s rights.
It was very encouraging.
Tony: So the vote in your favour was
unanimous and the authorities found
with dismay that they would now have
to admit you.
Elizabeth That’s right and the dean finally sent
me his letter.
Tony: In his letter, did he tell you that your
admission was considered after the
unanimous vote given by the students?
Elizabeth No, he never mentioned the vote at all.
Tony: How did you feel your first appearance
in the college?
Elizabeth Well, it was both sweet and sour
experience. I was much diffident and
retiring but I had firm determination.
Tony: What was the response of the male
students?
Elizabeth It was quite eccentric, but later on they
became very sober, serious and decent
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 297

because of my presence.
Tony: What was the point of view of the local
people?
Elizabeth Well, they were very much reserved,
reluctant and fed up with the
irresponsible and mischievous
behaviour of the male students, for what
they already have recorded several
complaints to the college authorities.
Tony: Do you think that your presence became
boon for the college?
Elizabeth I, of course, became a beacon for the
rest of female students in addition to the
refinement of the conductance and
behaviour of male students.
Tony: How do you feel now? Are your
comfortable here?
Elizabeth I feel much pleasure and proud being
here as a first female student and I am
quite comfortable and satisfied
altogether.
Tony: What are your priorities in the field of
medical?
Elizabeth I yearn and crave to emancipate women
from the undue dominance and male
chauvinism and intend to pave way for
them so that female can play
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 298

participative role in the uplift of an

individual in particular and humanity
in general.
Tony: What are main hurdles or hitches in
your way at the present time?
Elizabeth I personally believe that common
misgiving, illusion and misconception
harboured by men are that women
can’t discharge such kind of serious
professional duties smoothly and
swiftly. I have a strong conviction that
such kind of beliefs ought to be
shattered and eliminated or eradicated.
Tony: Well, thank you for talking to me, Miss
Blackwell. I would like to say that I felt
much proud and pleasure while talking
to you.
Elizabeth Thank you very much. Please take care.
**************************

EMAIL-WRITING

Electronic mail has different level of formality

depending on the intimacy of the reader and the
level or position of the writer. Email should be
polite, subject line should be descriptive rather
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 299

than consisting of single word-subject. Mention the

attachments if added and formal email should
contain the complete address of the sender in the
end; whereas, the semi formal and informal emails
comprise only name of the sender. Business and
official emails are shorter, formal and brief;
whereas, the informal, personal or academic emails
are comparatively less polite, yet it depends the
level of intimacy and personal position or status of
the writer.

Writing Business Email

Formal – An enquiry to a company (formal, polite)

To:
office@trainersrus.com
Cc:
andera.penn@fgt.com
Subject: Query about
training DVDs

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 300

Dear Mr. Baxter

I am the HR assistant at Feel Good

Training plc. I am contacting you to
say that we have received the promo
material about your sales training
DVDs and are interested in purchasing
some.

Could you please send us some more

information regarding their content as
we are not sure which would be the
most useful for our staff.
We would also require a price list and
payment terms.

Looking forward to your reply

Regards

RenataKlein

Renata Klein, HR assistant

Feel Good Training plc
484 London Road, Uxbridge, UX3
6HO
www.fgt.com
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 301

A reply – less formal (semi formal), polite

To:
renata.klein@fgt.com
Cc:
Subject: Re: Query about
training DVDs

Dear Renata

Thank you for your interest in our

training material. We’re happy to
provide you with more detailed
information regarding the contents of
the DVDs. Attached you’ll find a PDF
containing a brochure plus purchasing
agreement where you’ll find terms and
conditions are clearly explained.

Should you need help choosing a

product to suit your company’s needs,
please feel free to contact us again.
Either email me or alternatively you
can speak to one of our customer
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 302

service team by calling 05 471 375 31.

Best regards

Jim

Jim Baxter, Marketing Manager

Trainers – R – US
J.baxter@trainersrus.com

Writing Academic Emails

Formal – A request from a student to an academic
from a different department
Tone: personal, very formal, very polite

Subject: Request for statistical

help

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 303

Dear Dr Barr

I am a first year PhD student in the

department of linguistics and my
research topic is a quantitative study
of verb forms in academic writing.
As I need to use advanced statistical
tools for processing the data, my
supervisor, Dr John Pugh, suggested I
contact you to ask for advice.
Would it e possible for me to come and
see to discuss what I need? I attach a
copy of my draft research proposal to
give you an idea of the scope of my
study.
I would be bery grateful indeed for
your help.
Best wishes
David Samuels

Writing Academic Emails

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 304

Less Formal – request from a student to their own

supervisor
Tone: personal, less formal, polite

Subject: Meeting this week?

Dear Ruth

I was wondering if you’ve had a

chance to look at my paper yet. If so,
could we have a meeting some time
this week? The best day for me would
be Tues. I start my fieldwork at the
end of the week and it would be very
useful to have some feedback before
then.

Many thanks

Nicole

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 305

RESEMUE/CURRICULUM VITAE-
WRITING SKILL (CV)

When an individual is looking for a job, then it is

essential to learn the art and skill of how to best
offer yourself to an employer. For that reason, one
has to develop a comprehensive CV. Curriculum
Vitae, generally called CV, which is derived from
Latin meaning "Life Story" which in some
countries is called "Résumé" also.
Art and pattern of writing CV varies from country
to country; therefore, it is indispensable that CV
must be compatible with and suitable to the
tradition prevailing the area and era one is
applying for a job.

What is the objective of CV or Résumé?

The prime purpose of CV is to sell yourself or

advertise your skill, expertise, ability, capacity and
potential to provide a profound opportunity to an
employer to short list you for the interview from a
huge bulk or pile of the CVs dispatched there.

WHAT A CV MUST CONSIST OF?

a) Personal Details:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 306

Personal information consists of name, home

address, college address, phone number, email
address, date of birth, gender if the name cannot
determine it, NIC card number, district of domicile
if the job is district of region specified. If you have
your own web homepage, include it if it can serve as
a plus point to your expertise or skill.

b) Education or Academics:
Mention the details of the places you have studied,
include the degrees you have received – the most
recent education first. It means use deductive logic
from the most important to the least important like
MSc/ MA, BSC/BA, FSc/FA and Matric etc. Enlist
the major and minor subjects of studies. Include
any special project, thesis or dissertation work.
Then include the pre-college courses. Mention all
the awards, medals and prizes, grades, classes
against the respective degrees to make it much
comprehensive.

c) Work experience:
If you have worked in a particular field, it is
essential to mention your experience starting from
the most recent one. Give the name of your
employer, job title, and very important what you
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 307

actually did and achieved in that job. If you have

work in various fields, then include that experience
which is relevant to the field of job you are
applying for. Adding all experience relating to
various fields sometimes makes the CV ineffective
and less attractive; it needs proper consideration
depending on the situation. Part-time work should
also be included.

d) Interests:
Under the heading of interests you should include
the particular activities you were interested in. If
you have ever shouldered the responsibilities of a
group leader, captain, include it in your CV.
Individual hobbies do not appeal to the employer,
but if they have any connection with the job, they
need a mention. Give only enough detail to explain.
If you were captain of a sports team, they do not
want to know the exact date you started, how many
games you played, and how many wins you had!
They will ask at the interview, if they are interested.
If you have published any articles, jointly or by
yourself, give details. If you have been involved in
any type of volunteer work, do give details.

e) Skills:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 308

One should include ability in other languages,

computing experience, or possession of a driving
licence or any other mechanical, technical, short-
handwriting skills which have got relevance with
the job one is applying for.

f) References:
As the general practice, two names are selected as a
reference one from the place of study, and one from
any work situation one has had. Or if this does not
apply, then an older family friend who has known
you for some time. Make sure that referees are
willing to give you a reference. Give their day and
evening phone numbers if possible.

g) Mailing Address:
Include your mailing address like postal address, e-
mail address and phone numbers so that the
employer can send you the letter or call for
interview or any screening test.

h) Length:
Usually we use one A-4 sheet for CV, but if one
sheet does not suffice then another sheet can be
used. Don't overcrowd the contents of the CV; but

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 309

don’t exceed beyond two pages. Put page numbers

at the bottom of the pages - a little detail that may
impress.

TYPES OF CURRICULUM VITAE OR RÉSUMÉ

There are various types of CVs targeted to the

description, nature and scope of the job one is
applying for. The major types of CVs are as under:
1) Chronological CV
2) Functional CV
3) Targeted CV
4) Combination CV
5) Inventory CV
6) One page summary CV

1) Chronological CV:
As it is obvious out of the name, a chronological CV
consists of entire history of one's career; as the
common practice, it is written in reverse
chronological order, with the most recent
employment details are mentioned first then to the
past – from the recent past to the remote past. It
includes a complete record of career history along
with a complete education record. This type of CV
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 310

is the most frequently used CV; in length, usually it

consists of 2 sides of A4 paper.
Job Titles and company names are emphasized
with skills, duties and achievements detailed under
each job title. A chronological CV is most useful if
you are staying within the same industry and wish
to show career progression.
Additionally, if your employer was a familiar
household name, it may be wise to highlight that as
often they set a precedent for the type of people
they employ so the mere mention of their company
name may be enough to demonstrate that you are a
high caliber candidate.
Most employers prefer the chronological CV
format, as it is easy to see who you have worked for
and what you did in each particular job. If you do
not have many achievements, you can take the
emphasis off this fact when using a Chronological
CV.
Reasons why a chronological CV may not be the
best format to include:
 If you are changing direction and the most
recent employer is not relevant to your new
chosen career.
 If your career history shows gaps in your
employment due to poor health, unemployment,
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 311

having children, etc. or that you have changed

jobs frequently.

2) Functional CV:
The prime purpose of the functional CV is to
emphasize your skills, abilities and expertise. It is
different from the most common chronological CV,
which focuses on your career history. As you
achieve skills from different working places,
industries, firms so you need to mention all these
places of experience. So for the length is concerned,
a functional CV usually consists of two pages. You
should only include the experience which is relevant
to the position you are applying for. If you are
applying for a position in the field of marketing,
hence, mentioning the experience in the fields of
accounting carries no weight. You had better focus
the experience you have relating to the field of
marketing, its deep understanding and ability to
deal with diverse aspect of marketing.

The Advantages of Using Functional CV:

Functional CV becomes highly useful when:
 If you lack experience or have gaps in your work
history. These de-meritorious aspects of your

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 312

career get covered up, whereas, the emphasis lies

on highlighting skills and potential.
 You have changed jobs frequently and have had a

variety of unrelated work experiences.

 You want to promote skills and experience
obtained through college or volunteer experience.
 You are changing careers or re-entering the job

market, perhaps after taking a career break to be

a full time parent.
 Your most recent work experience is not relevant

to the job, but past experience is.

 You have been working freelance or in temporary

employment.
 You do not want to advertise your age.

A functional CV format is less useful if:

 You have little work experience and thus not
much to highlight, then prefer a chronological
CV.
 You have a progressive career history, which
reflects promotions, and growth and you want to
emphasize that then use chronological format.

The layout of Functional CV:

In order to write a functional CV, it is essential to
begin with a profile highlighting specific skills,
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 313

achievements and relevant personal qualities. For

better presentation group them under subheading.
Then write down the range of skills and abilities
beginning with the most important. Present the
functions as bullet points. Rather than focusing on
experience in a particular job, detail your abilities
as demonstrated in that job in such a way as to
show that they are transferable to the job applied
for. As previous employers are not mentioned by
name you can include voluntary and unpaid work.
Following this section is a list of employers and
employment dates. Qualifications are covered next
including professional and academic qualifications.
The Functional CV may conclude with a brief
outline of your personal details, hobbies and
interests.

3) Targeted CV:
The Targeted CV as obvious from its name
primarily focuses your career towards a particular
objective, within a specific industry or a specific
company.
The targeted CV begins with skills, qualifications
and experience that is compatible with or plays
vital role to advert you better for the position you
are applying for. Some useful points need to be

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 314

undertaken before writing a targeted CV are as

under:
First, find out the basic, key and essential
requirements and requisites for the particular
position you are applying for. Second, it is
indispensable to assure, ascertain and finalize the
name of the company you will be sending your CV
to
Third, keep it in mind that the targeted CV is
always sent in reply to a specific job advertisement.
Fourth, use different CVs for different positions
focusing and highlighting career objectives befitting
to the advertised position.

4) Combination CV:
The format of combination CV is much popular
especially among job hunters, who have a solid
background associated with their career objectives .
There will be different sections in the combination
CV that highlight education and experience,
followed by the job history of the individual. Use
the combination CV when you have a definite
career path and a targeted job area that is related
to your job history and experience. This type of CV
combines the best of the functional and the
chronological CV styles. You can also use it when
each position or job had unique responsibilities and
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 315

when a shorter type of CV would not suffice. List

responsibilities, and or accomplishments and skills
developed after each job experience or training
listing. Stay focused; use less rather than more
words. Begin each sentence or idea with a verb, for
instance, Awarded, Assisted etc.
Advantages of the combination CV:
 It combines the best of the chronological and
functional CV writing styles.
 It emphasizes your achievements and strengths,
as well as experience.
 It starts with a profile and followed by job
history, which is ideal for getting the attention of
the employer.
 It focuses on important skills which are
supported by the job history.
 In a combination CV all the accomplishments
are noticed.

Disadvantage of combination CV:

 It is lengthy.
 If you fail to get attention through the profile,
the recruiter may not even read the job history
section.
 Don't use the combination CV when:
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 316

 Your work experience is limited.

 You have several or unexplained employment
gaps.
 You changed jobs frequently.
5) Inventory CV:
It is preferred to use the Inventory CV when you
intend to send your CV to:
 Various recruiters

 When you do not have a specific job objective.

This kind of CV is a more general overview of your

skills, achievements and qualifications. A general
objective or career strategy behind an inventory
CV helps in being slightly more specific towards
your career goals.
General career goals can be:
 "a secretary working with a local company"
 "a computer programmer"

 "a sales person"

Having a general career objective in mind, it can

help you in focusing on those particular skills,
abilities and experience required for the job. Your
CV should show that you are competent by
demonstrating your relevant previous experience
and qualifications. If you are unemployed or
desperate to switch jobs, the inventory CV is a good
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 317

time saver. You can write a customary covering

letter for each job you apply for and you can send
the same CV to all recruiters. If you are interested
in several careers write several inventory CVs each
for a particular career goal.
6) One page summary CV and when to submit it:
Sometimes, owing to limited time or hectic
schedule, the organizations invite a one-page
summary CV, because they aim at the most
relevant information regarding the position they
have advertised so for. It is brief, composite,
comprehensive and precise information what a
large company needs for the recruitment, when so
many CVs are expected. This format helps the
company to short-list the befitting, appropriate and
suitable candidates for further interview or
screening to fill the offered position. In this case, a
brief and to-the-point one page summary resume
would be ideal.
When an individual intends to send a CV on
speculative consideration when the applied seats or
positions are not offered so for, then one-page
summary CV is the best; thus, it makes one able to
start a suitable opening with a company. A brief
cover letter explaining you plus points and
preferences followed by a summary CV would gain
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 318

you enough curiosity to be called for an interview,

if vacancies exist.
What should be included in the one-page summary
CV?
1.Begin with the educational qualification by
mentioning the highest degree first. Write it in a
tabular form to take the least space without
compromising on information.
2.Experience should be mentioned in reverse
chronological order highlighting the relevant
aspects which are the best match for the job you
are applying thereof.
3.Key skills and additional expertise either of soft
or technical sorts should be mentioned which
would serve as profound and attractive addition
to the value of your CV. Don't try to assort
everything, CV would loose its attraction and
appeal, be decisive and distinguish what to
include and what to exclude.
4.Mention very important information about your
personal data what you think is very essential and
crucial, too, to be included.
5.As it is one-page summary CV, it should not only
be brief but also suitable and befitting to the
position you are applying for.

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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 319

6.List all the skills first, then go for a through

scrutiny in order to decide what skills are closely
relate to offered position then include them in
your CV.
DO'S AND DON'TS OF CV WRITING

Dos of CV:
 Your CV should be your own not the copy of
somebody else's.
 CV should consist of your "Life History", "Your
Job History", "Your Achievements" and "Your
Skills".
 It should be computerized one.
 Exactly spelled.
 Skillfully formatted.
 Plan it into different parts with suitable heading.
 Heading must be bold than the contents of CV.
 Write name, address, phone number in capital
letter where required.
 Do use plenty of white space, and a good border.
 Properly printed.
 Use A4 paper for printing CV.
 List your career aims and objectives.
 Give details of you educational background.
 Describe you achievements.
 List your work experience.
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Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 320

 Included information about related experiences.

 Clearly state what you were accountable for.
 Quantify and back up your claims.
 Make it shorter, more readable and more
understandable.
 Do consider how your skills, education, and
experience compare with the skills that the job
requires.
 Do collect thorough information about the job
description.
 Make it brief and suitable to the post you are
applying for.
 Arrange information in order.
 Make it simple and communicative, because they
say: "If they didn't hear it, you didn't say it".
 Proofread carefully for spelling, punctuation, and
typographical errors.
 Submit it within the time frame you are being
asked so for.
Don'ts of the CV:
 Don’t copy other CV.
 Don't use a hand written CV.
 Not poorly printed on low quality paper.
 Don't use lots of different font types and sizes
because it is not like a magazine.
 Don't use the same CV for each job or position.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 321

 Don’t use the sample or template because it does

not reflect you in its exact sense.
 Don't use idioms, jargon, cliché, threadbare
phrases.
 Don't overcrowd the content of CV use another
sheet if one does not suffice.
 Don’t list personal statistics such as your weight,
height, and age.
 Don't use "big" words or long complicated
sentences.
 Don’t' use unfamiliar abbreviations or
unnecessary jargon.
 Don't include information about salaries or
wages.
 Don't include references on the same sheet as the
résumé.
 Don't include personal references such as a
neighbour or friend.
 Don’t add the details of jobs held more than 10
years ago.
 Don’t include minute details of more recent jobs.
 Don't mention the reasons for leaving a previous
job.
 Don’t mention current and past salaries.
 Don’t include the failed examinations.
 Don’t add nationality and age if not required.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 322

 Don't write details of referees. Don’t yearn for

full details of hobbies and interests

A SAMPLE CV (British Style)

Name Fahad Jawed

Address Ward# 4, Near Shahnawaz Chowk,
Badin.
Telephone 029783345 Moblile: 03332681013
e-mail fahadjawed@yahoo.com
Objective To find a role in a film or TV
production company that will enable me to
acquire and develop the skills required for a
career in film or television.

Profile An outgoing and articulate graduate with

work experience in both television and
teaching

Education / Qualification:
2009- MA in Media Studies, the Quaid-e-Azam
University Islamabad. Expected 2010.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 323

2005-2009 BA in Media Studies with English (2:1)

st
class. Major: English; Minor: French and
Urdu, University of Sindh, Jamshoro.
1997-2004 Beacon School, Badin.

Work Experience

 October 2007 – June 2008: Language

assistant in secondary school in Hyderabad.
Taught English to large classes and small
groups. Ran a film club and a holiday dance
and drama club. Assisted with school drama
productions.
 September 2004 – August 2005: Production
assistant at Sachal and Associates Filmmakers.
Karachi, Malir 12. Performed office and on-set
duties.
 June – September 2004: Tutor for Sindh
Drama Workshop. Led groups of teenagers of
different backgrounds in dance and drama
activities.
 July – August 2003: Host at Adventure
Camping holiday campsite in Karachi. Led the
children’s club for 4-10 year olds and
performed various practical duties on the
campsite.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 324

Skills
 Languages: English near native-speaker
fluency; Urdu and Sindhi as L1.
 Good keyboard skills. Familiarity with
Word, Excel and film editing packages.
 Clean driving licence.

Interest Drama, both acting and directing;

singing (was member of university choral
society). Regular volunteer at a local centre
for the homeless.

Reference – attached

A SAMPLE RÉSUMÉ (American Style)

Haider Raza
haiderraza@yahoo.com
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 325

Present Address: Permanent Address:

Flat A-15, House # 12, Block C
Agriculture Complex Ideal Society,
Satellite Town
Hyderabad Mirpurkhas, Sindh,
Pakistan
Tel: + 92- 22243523 Tel + 92-297834256

OBJECTIVE To obtain an entry-level

management position within an
international
hospitality organization.

EDUCATION
Masters in Business Administration
(M.B.A), 2006-2008, the Quaid-e-Azam
University Islamabad.
B.A. in International Hospitality, 2002-2006
University of Sindh, Jamshoro.

EXPERIENCE
Travel Agent, Sep. 2006-Present
Adventure Extreme Tours, Qasimabad,
Hyderabad
Organized adventure package torus for
large students groups, trained and
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 326

supervised new staff members, and

maintained partner relationships.
Camp Counselor, Jun 2002-Aug 2006
Voyageurs Summer Camp, Youth
Adventure Club, Hyderabad
Group leader for children aged 10-15.
Developed curriculum for campers and led
overnight hiking trips.

HONORS
Agent of the Month, Adventure Extreme
Tours, March 2008
Voted “Most Popular Counselor”,
Voyageurs, 2005&2006

SKILLS & Fluent in Sindhi, Urdu and English

INTEREST Enjoy web design in HTML and
Flash

COVERING LETTER

Whenever, you submit one-page or two-page CV or

whatsoever type or job application it must be
submitted with a covering letter for these reasons:

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 327

1.The covering letter is addressed to the right

person either by name or designation as it suits.
To make sure that the CV arrives on the desk of
the correct person. Take the trouble to telephone,
and find the name of the person who will be
dealing with applications or CVs, and address
your letter, and envelope, to that person by name.
In a small company, it may be the managing
director. In a medium size company, it may be
the head of section/department. Only in a large
company will there be a Personnel or Human
Resource Department.
2.To persuade the person to read your CV. So it
must be relevant to the company, interesting, and
well produced.
3.The covering letter should have a subject line
where the post applied for is clearly mentioned;
Start your letter with an underline heading giving
the job title you are interested in. If you saw the
job advertised, say where you saw it. If it is a
speculative CV, then indicate your preference
such as marketing department, accounting
department or back end office, or R&D
department, etc. Do not say, 'I would be
interested in working for Widgets Ltd', but say 'I
believe my skills equip me to work in the product
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 328

development department/accounts
office/whatever'. When sending a speculative CV,
you may try telephoning later to push your
enquiry further.
4.The covering letter is to draw attention to one or
two key points in the CV which you feel make you
suited to that particular job with that particular
employer.
5.The covering letter should be typed in the same
type set as the CV.
6.The covering letter gives a brief introduction to
yourself and explains the reasons why you are
applying for the job.
7.The covering letter is friendly and invites
attention to the CV.
8.The covering letter expresses clearly a sincere
wish to join the company in a suitable capacity.
9.Use the style and pattern of a business letter
suited to your culture and country. Ask for advice
about this. Try to find sample business letters so
that you can follow style and layout.
10. Your career office may have a sheet about
this, or show you a sample. The letter should only

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 329

be on one side of A4 paper. It must be polite and

easy to read.
11. Also mention when you are available for an
interview. Ending your letter with a request for
specific extra information may give a positive
response.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 330

a) A SAMPLE COVRING LETTER

Flat 3
19 Strangelands
Road
London
Ms. F Hunter NE23 6ZB
Human Resources Manager Tel:
020733734589
Timson Office Supplies 20
January 2010
Unit 5 Males Industrial Estate
Cambridge CB7 9HD

Dear Ms. Hunter

Senor Accounts Clerk

I am writing to apply for the post of senior accounts
clerk advertised in the Cambridge Evening News of
17 January.

As you will see from my enclosed CV I am

currently an accounts clerk in a medium-sized
printing firm. In addition to my normal
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 331

bookkeeping duties, I am responsible for invoicing

and chasing up late payments. I also deal with
credit checks on potential customers.
I am committed to pursuing a career in
management accounting and am currently studying
for further professional qualifications by distance
learning. I am particularly interested in your post
as it would enable me to gain experience of working
in a larger company with the opportunities for
professional training and development that this
brings. In addition to my skills and experience as
an accounts clerk, I would bring to the post a
proven ability to deal successfully and tactfully with
customers and clients.

I am available for interview for the next three

weeks.

I look forward to hearing form you.

Yours sincerely

Dilip Patel
Delip Patel

Ecn. CV

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 332

b) A SAMPLE COVRING LETTER

To
The Principal
Sargodhian Sprit Trust Public School
Rashidabad, Tando Allahyar, Sindh.

Subject: Request for the post of Teacher.

Esteemed sir,

I earnestly and the most sanguinely apply for the

post of Teacher advertised in the Daily Dawn of

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 333

April 27, 2009. Please find enclosed a copy of my

CV.

It is my deepest yearning and earnest ambition to

work as a faculty member in your institute. Since, I
have been teaching in different schools and colleges
at the higher secondary level and have learnt,
acquired and practiced various tools and ways of
pedagogy. I intend the render my services for the
uplift of your institute in particular and education
in general.

If your Majesty honors me with an opportunity to

serve the institute, I will leave no stone unturned to
meet the exigency of time and your expectations
too. I would remain thankful to you for this act of
kindness.

I will be glad enough to show you my bulky

portfolio. I look forward to receiving your positive
response.

Yours truly,

Khalid Raza Chandio

Lecturer in English
Farhan Public School Kadhan.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 334

May 9, 2009.

Note: The sample letter "a" is written in

accordance with the international standards;
whereas, the sample letter "b" is written keeping
the indigenous or local practice in view. The
students of Pakistan in general and Sindh in
particular are advised to follow the "b" sample
letter, yet they are at liberty in ever volatile world.

APPLICATION FORMS

Sometimes, recruiters or employer advertise or ask

for a particular specimen for job application. It,
therefore, is strongly suggested to fill in the form
with complete details and highlight the required
information. You need much care to fill in the
form; sometimes, it becomes even much typical as
compare to CV writing. The application form
should be dispatched along with a covering letter
and also enclose a copy of your CV though it is not
asked so for. Keep some basic tips in your mind
while filling the application form:
 Plan everything you will say on a separate piece
of paper. Or make a photocopy of the form, and

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 335

practice completing it first.

 Only complete the real form when you are exactly
sure what is the best thing to be said.
 It must be very neat and clear, and in black pen
so that it can be easily photocopied.
 You should 'angle' your answers to the company,
in the same way as explained for your CV.
 Do not say in answer to any question – 'see my
CV'. They do not want to try to read both at the
same time.
 Take a photocopy to keep, so that you can
remember exactly what you said. If you are called
to interview, take this copy with you into the
interview.
 Other points
 Keep copies of all letters, applications forms, and
CVs sent, and records of telephone calls and
names of those you spoke to.

THE INTERVIEW

Present matters but presentation matters much. To

interview or to be interviewed, of course is an art
that needs much skill, expertise, confidence,
eloquence, patience, perseverance and
talkativeness. Ask your seniors for advice. Assume
what kind of questions you will be asked. Ask one
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 336

of your friends, or seniors, teachers or career

consultant to pretend to interview you keeping the
position you have applied for in view.
Be positive, and confident, though it is hard to be,
but not over-confident. Be well-informed about the
company, its record and achievements, about the
job and why you want it. Have questions ready to
ask about the company and the job. If you are not
accepted, some employers may be kind enough to
look at your interview notes, and explain to you
how you could improve your CV and interview
technique. Ask – you can only be refused, and it
shows you are prepared to develop and learn; they
may make a note about you for future reference.
Listen carefully, and answer politely and
confidently. If you are unable to listen to any
question, you may ask for the repetition of the
question like: "I beg your pardon, or would you
please repeat it?" But, it does not mean that you
start asking same for each question, for that you
should listen to the interviewer with full
concentration. Don’t look at roof or at floor. Try to
have an eye to eye contact with the interviewer.
Don’t fiddle with your fingers or clothes. Job
interviews can be traumatic. When an outcome is
crucial, but uncertain, the result is tension.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 337

However, you impress interviewers by appearing

confident and unflustered.
Make a professional impression Turn your cell
phone off before entering the building. Give the
interviewer a firm hand-shake. Don't mumble.
Speak clearly and confidently. Sit up straight. Look
the interviewer in the eye. Don't fidget. If the
interview is after lunch, ensure there are no food
stains on your tie, shirt, or pants. Don't eat garlic.
Don't drink alcohol. No late night jollying before a
morning interview. Have an early night. To create a
professional impression carry a folder, complete
with an agenda. Open it, allowing the interviewer to
see headings like "Interview Objectives" and "Key
Issues". Tick off points as they are covered. Decline
drinks if offered by the interviewer because there is
a great chance that your hand may shake lifting a
cup, indicating nerves.
There are various books to help you out in the case
of interview one of them is named here which may
help you: "The Perfect CV" by Tom Jackson and
Ellen Jackson, published in USA by Doubleday,
and in UK by Judy Pratkus Ltd,
ISBN :0749916931.

Muhammad Tufail Chandio

Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 338

HOW TO DRESS?

Dress is the cardinal constituents of one's

personality. The selection of proper dress for
appropriate occasion shows the caliber of that
person. Therefore, it is essential to take
considerable pain in selecting suitable dress for the
interview.

 Wear comfortable dress

 No food stains on dress
 No orange suits for men
 Men should wear dark blues and charcoals.
 No bottle greens and chocolate brown.
 No white socks.
 No grey shoes.
 No takkies or slops.
 Black loafers or polished shoes are safest.
 Wear black socks that are quite long so hairy
legs won't be visible should you cross your legs.
 No jewellery.
 No earrings.
 No pony-tails or massive afros (unless it's an ad
agency job).
 Smart, short hair is safest.
Muhammad Tufail Chandio
Notes on English Language: Semantics, Morphology, Syntax & Phonetics 339

 Finger nails should be short, with no dirt under

the nail.
 Don't smoke.
 Don't chew gum.
 No pony tails for women either.
 Women are advised not to carry a handbag.
 Simply carry the folder.
 If wearing trousers, wear a matching jacket.
 If you wear a skirt, wear stockings and a shoe
with a heel.
 A business suit creates a good impression.
 No huge costume jewellery.
 Wear glasses rather than contact lenses,
especially if the lenses make you squint.
 Leave sunglasses in the car.
 Don't smoke.
 Decline drinks if offered because there is a
chance that your hand may shake lifting a cup,
indicating nerves.

(THE END)

Muhammad Tufail Chandio