CARBOHYDRATE

Carbohydrates are the polyhydroxy aldehyde and ketone, which contain

hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio as in water (2:1) or those substances which are
converted into Polyhydroxy aldehyde and ketone after hydrolysis. Carbohydrate is a
term which is derived from the German word “Kohlen Hydrate”, similar to the French
word “Hydrate de Carbon”, which shows the elemental composition, containing
carbon along with hydrogen and oxygen. It comprised three quarter of the biological
world and about 80% of the caloric intake of human. It is present in grains, fruits,
vegetables and other plant part. The most abundant carbohydrate is cellulose which is
the principal structural component of plants. It is formed in nature by the process of
photosynthesis in chlorophyll in the presence of carbon dioxide, water and sunlight.

nCO2 + nH2O + energy CnH2nOn + nO2

Table 5.1 Carbohydrate contents of various foods

Foods Carbohydrates (g/ 100g)
Almond 20.2
Banana 25.2
Apple 13.6
Sugar white 99.5
Chappati 56.6
Corn flour 70
Honey 86.5
Guar 90.1
Ghee buffalo 00.00
Rice 07.93
Tomato 03.9
Milk buffalo 04.9
Potato 20.2
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are basically classified into two (2) main groups.
a) Simple Carbohydrates
b) Complex Carbohydrates.
SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES
It is also called monosaccharide. The word saccharide is derived from the
Greek word meaning “sugar”. They cannot be further broken into simple units by
hydrolysis. They have relatively low molecular weight. They have been named
according to number of carbon (C) atoms present in them; e.g, trioses, tetroses,
pentoses, hexoses, heptoses, octoses, etc. Among these the hexoses are very important.
The monosaccharide hexoses are glucose, galactose, fructose, etc.
Pentoses
Pentoses are present in minute amount in food. Ribose, arabinosem lyxose and
xylose are the key pentoses of interest in food products. The Fischer structures of these
pentoses are presented in figure 5.1. Each of these structures is an alpha (α) form of the
pentose sugar because of the orientation of the hydroxyl group on the first carbon (C 1).
The orientation of the hydroxyl group is reversed in the beta (β) form. Note that the ring
structure always involves the first carbon and one of the other carbon atoms (either
carbon 4 or carbon 5).

Figure 5.1 Fischer structures of common various pentoses.

Hexoses

Glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose, gulose and sorbose are example of

hexoses. Hexoses with only one carbon atom external to a 5-membered ring are
classified as aldoses; glucose, galactose, mannose and gulose are examples of aldoses.
When a hexose has two carbon atoms external to a 4-membered ring, the sugar is a
ketose; fructose and sorbose are ketoses.
Glucose
The most abundant monosaccharide in nature is glucose, also called “dextrose”
because of its ability to bend polarized light to the right. It is commonly called as
“grape sugar” or “blood sugar”. It is an aldohexose because it has six (6) numbers of
carbon (C) atoms and also an aldehyde functional group. It is reducing sugar having the
common formula C6H12O6. It occurs in many fruits, honey and traces in most plant
foods. It is the primary carbohydrate utilized by the body tissues. It is not very sweet
and about ¾ as sweet as cane sugar. Its normal concentration in the human blood is 60 –
90 mg/100ml, but in diabetic condition it may be as high as 1000 mg/100ml. It is an
instant source of energy and is stored in muscles and liver in the form of glycogen. It is
absorbed with extraordinary rapidity into the blood stream. When an immediate supply
of sugar is needed, glucose is the best form to be given, because it requires no change in
order to be utilized. Under normal conditions, the central nervous system can utilize
only glucose as a major source of fuel. Excess amount of glucose is converted into fat
which is stored in fat deposits. The Fischer structure and Haworth structure of glucose
is shown in figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Fischer structure and Haworth structure of glucose molecule.

Fructose
It is also called “levulose” because of its ability to bend polarized light to the
left and commonly called as “fruit sugar”. It is a ketohexose because it has six (6)
numbers of carbon (C) atoms and also a ketone functional group. It is present in fruits,
honey and traces of most plant foods. It is the sweetest of all the sugars, being
approximately twice as sweet as glucose. Fructose can be absorbed directly into the
bloodstream. Its effect on body is very similar to that of glucose. It has also been found
to occur in seminal plasma in Free State. The Haworth or cyclic and Fischer structures
of fructose are given in figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3 Haworth and Fischer structure of fructose.

Galactose
Galactose is not found free in nature but is produced from lactose (milk sugar).
It is produced by hydrolysis during digestion. It is an aldo hexose because it has six (6)
numbers if carbon (C) atoms and also an aldehyde functional group. Like glucose and
fructose, galactose is a hexose with the formula C 6H12O6. But it differs from glucose in
the arrangement of the H and OH on carbon atom 4. The Fischer and Haworth
structures of galactose are presented below:

Figure 5.4 Chemical structure of galactose.

COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
It is further divided into two (2) types:
(1) --- Oligosaccharides or Simple Compound Carbohydrates.
(2) --- Polysaccharides or Complex Compound Carbohydrates.

Oligosaccharides

Disaccharides
Disaccharides are structurally related to monosaccharides. Disaccharides are
formed when two monosaccharides are joined together by a gycosidic linkage, with the
elimination of water. The general formula for disaccharides is C 12H22O11. The common
disaccharides in foods are sucrose, lactose and maltose. All of these are isomers with
the same molecular formula but different structure. Glucose is the monosaccharide
common to all the three structures in these disaccharides.

Sucrose

Sucrose is composed of glucose and fructose. It is one of the most important

disaccharide, widely found in plant kingdom. The common sources of sucrose are sugar
cane, sugar beet, honey and molasses. It is commonly called as table sugar, cane sugar
and beet sugar. The most important source is sugar cane and almost 96% of sucrose is
obtained from sugar cane and sugar beet. The table sugar is obtained from the
purification and granulation of sugar obtained from sugar cane and sugar beet. It is a
major sweetening, flavoring and preserving agent of diet and of food products. It is very
soluble in water. Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar as it does not reduce Fehling
solutions. Reducing sugar has the ability to reduce metal ions such as Silver (Ag) or
Copper (Cu). The structure of sucrose is presented in figure 5.5. Sucrose is hydrolyzed
into glucose and fructose by invertase enzyme the process is called as inversion and the
sugars are called as invert sugars such that glucose + fructose. When sucrose is
hydrolyzed, a 50:50 mixture of glucose and fructose are formed (Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.5 Structure of sucrose

Figure 5.6 Inversion of table sugar (sucrose).

Lactose
A disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose. It is the sugar present in
milk and milk products. It is commonly called as milk sugar. It is slightly soluble in
water, less sweet (only about 1/6 th as sweet as sucrose) and more slowly digested than
other disaccharides. Cow milk contains (4 to 6%) and human milk contains (5 to 8%)
lactose. The human body contains a digestive enzyme, lactase, to hydrolyze lactose into
its two monosaccharide parts i.e. glucose and galactose, so that they can be absorbed by
the body. The galactose is then converted into glucose in the liver, so each molecule of
lactose yields two molecules of glucose to supply fuel to the body. Lactose is good food
for babies, because they can’t digest starch until they are several months old. Lactose
provides a simple and easily digested carbohydrate in appropriate amount to provide
energy. Some individuals lose the ability to digest lactose due to the deficiency of
lactase and therefore become lactose intolerant. Under such situation, the lactose passes
into the large intestine, where it becomes food for intestinal bacteria and fermented by
these bacteria causing a laxative action. An excess amount may cause diarrhea,
flatulence, abdominal cramp and nausea. However, lactose intolerance is not the same
as the commonly observed milk allergy, which is caused by an immune reaction to
protein in milk. Structure of lactose and its hydrolysis by lactase enzyme is presented
below in figure 5.7:

Figure 5.7 Chemical structure and hydrolysis of lactose.

Maltose
It is another disaccharide that is derived from starch during digestion by the
action of amylase enzyme. It is composed of two molecules of glucose. It is sometime
called as malt sugar. Maltose is a reducing sugar. It does not found free in nature and is
found at only one stage in the life of a plant i.e. it is present briefly during the early
germination process. It is obtained from the sprouting grains (barley) where starch is
converted into maltose by the action of enzymes. In the body maltose is the
intermediate product in the digestion of starch to glucose. It is formed by starch during
digestion by the action of enzymes called amylases. The reaction begins with salivary
amylase; other amylases are present in the intestine and pancreatic juice. Another
enzyme, maltase in the intestine hydrolyzes maltose to two molecules of glucose, in
which form it is absorbed by the body. It is fairly soluble in water.

Figure 5.8 Chemical structure of maltose.

5.2.3 Polysaccharides

These are also called complex compound carbohydrates, containing more than
ten (10) sugar units or monosaccharide units. Some are homo-polysaccharides (having
same units of monosaccharide) and others are hetero-polysaccharides (having different
units of monosaccharide). On hydrolysis they yields large number of monosaccharide
molecules. They are non-sweet in taste that is why they are called non-sugar. Storage
polysaccharides are those which act as storage of monosaccharide units.

5.2.3.1 Homo-polysaccharides

These are that type of polysaccharides which contains only one type of
monosaccharide units or technically homoglycanes, where, “homo” means same,
“glyco” is general name for any monosaccharide and “anes” ending denotes a
polysaccharide. Some may be linear chain while other may be branched or bush like
structure such as dextrin, dextran, starch, cellulose and glycogen.

Dextrin
Technically, oligosaccharides are polysaccharides, but generally the term
polysaccharide indicates much larger molecules. The simplest polysaccharide is
dextrins. These molecules range widely in size but are distinctly shorter in chain length
than starch, the related substance. Dextrin molecules are composed entirely of glucose
and these units are linked together by α -1, 4 glucosidal linkages like the structure of
maltose (Figure 5.10).

Figure 5.10 Chemical structure of dextrin.

 Unlike the mono- and disaccharides, which are characterized as sweet in taste
and quite soluble, dextrins exhibit rather different properties. Dextrins have slight
solubility, barely sweet taste and limited thickening ability. They form when flour is
being browned using dry heat.

Dextran

Dextran is yet another type of polysaccharide and found in bacteria and yeasts.
Again, these are composed of glucose, but with α -1, 6 glucoside linkage (Figure 5.11).
Branching occurs in dextran, with the point of branching (α-1, 3) being unique to a
particular species or strain. Dextrins and dextrans are different from each other in their
linkages, having α-1, 4 and α- 1, 6 glucoside linkages, respectively.

Figure 5.11 Chemical structure of dextran.

Starch
Starch is the primary source of stored energy in cereal grains. Although the
amount of starch contained in grains varies, it is generally between 60 to 75% of the
weight of the grain and provides 70–80% of the calories consumed by humans
worldwide. In addition to their nutritive value, starches and modified starches can be
used to affect the physical properties of many foods. For example, commercial starches
obtained from cereals namely corn, wheat, rice, and tubers such as potato, sweet potato,
and cassava (tapioca starch) can be used in gelling, thickening, adhesion, moisture-
retention and stabilizing, texturizing, and anti-stalling applications. Starch and products
derived from starch are also important in the paper and textile industries. The unique
chemical and physical characteristics of starch set it apart from all other carbohydrates.
Glucose polymerization in starch results in two types of polymers, amylose and
amylopectin. Amylose is an essentially linear polymer, whereas the amylopectin
molecule is much larger and is branched. The structural differences between these two
polymers contribute to significant differences in starch properties and functionality.

Figure 5.12 Simplified structure of amylose.

Figure 5.13 Structure of amylopectin molecule.

 The difference in iodine-binding capability of the two starch fractions provides
the basis for distinguishing the relative proportions of amylose which turns blue with
iodine and amylopectin which turns reddish brown with iodine in starch mixtures.
Typically, amylopectin is far more abundant in starches than is amylose. In root and
tuber starches, amylopectin exceeds amylose content by approximately four times;
amylopectin ordinarily constitutes about 80% of the starch. Cereal starches are
composed of around 75% amylopectin. However, genetic variations containing starches
composed of virtually only amylopectin are called waxy starch, e.g., waxy maize have
been developed and are of commercial significance. The relative proportions of
amylopectin and amylose in starches are of considerable importance because of the
different behaviors of these two starch fractions in cooked starch products. The amylose
and amylopectin content and structure affect the architecture of the starch granule,
gelatinization and pasting profiles, and textural attributes. By using classical breeding
techniques as well as sophisticated molecular biology, it is now possible to obtain
starches from various hybrid plant sources that contain essentially all amylose, all
amylopectin, or various ratios in between.

Cellulose

The significance of α versus the β linkage between glucose units is evident if

amylose and cellulose are compared. Both have a basically linear configuration, as a
result of the 1, 4 linkages. However, cellulose, which has a β-1, 4 glucosidal linkages
throughout (Figure 5.14), is insoluble and is a key structural component of plants.
Humans can digest starch to provide energy to the body, whereas cellulose is not an
energy source for people because of their inability to split its β-1, 4 glucosidal linkages.
Cellulose is not digested by the human due to lack of cellulase enzyme. Ruminant
animals digest it, since it is digested by bacteria in rumen, which produces cellulase
enzyme. In human celluloses and hemicelluloses pass into large intestine where such
materials provide bulk and which promotes efficient intestinal function. It occurs in
fruits, vegetable’s pulps, skin, stalks, and leaves, out covering (husk) of nuts, seeds and
legumes.
Glycogen

It is a storage polysaccharide of animal and is the primary and most readily

available source of glucose and energy. It is somewhat comparable to amylopectin in
structure (Figure 5.15). The primary difference between amylopectin and glycogen is
that linear segments of the glycogen molecule are generally between 8 and 12 glucose
units long, rather than the 24 to 30 found in amylopectin. Normally 340g glycogen is
stored in liver and muscles. Muscle glycogen is used directly for energy, while liver
glycogen may be converted to glucose and carried by the blood to the tissues for their
use. Very little glycogen is found in the food. The small amount in meat and sea food
are largely converted to lactic acid at the time when the animals are slaughtered. Our
body store a limited amount of glycogen, the excess amount is converted to fat.

Figure 5.14 Simplified structure of cellulose.

Figure 5.15 Glycogen structure.

5.2.3.2 Hetero polysaccharide

These are that type of polysaccharides which contains different type of

monosaccharide. For example pectin, gums etc.

Pectin

Galactose is the ultimate foundation of the polysaccharides known as pectic

substances. The actual building block is a derivative of galactose and uronic acid called
galacturonic acid. This acid is polymerized as a long chain of galacturonic acid units
linked in α 1, 4 glycoside linkage. The acids in the molecule frequently are methylated
to form methyl esters when the fruit is barely ripe. This methylated form of the pectic
substances is termed pectinic acid or pectin. A portion of this structure is shown in
figure 5.16. It is soluble in water and form jell thus increase bulk (binds the water). It is
present in ripe fruits and fruit seeds. It helps in the formation of jelly.

Figure 5.16 Chemical structure of pectin.

Gums
Complex polysaccharides based on saccharides other than glucose are found in
seeds, plant exudates and seaweed. Depending on the source, these gums may contain a
variety of sugars in their structures, although most have galactose as a common
component. A gum may be define as, any water soluble polysaccharide that is
extractable from land or marine plants or from microorganisms and have the
ability to contribute to viscosity. Common gums are guar gum, gum arabic and agar,
etc. Structure of gum arabic is shown in figure 5.17. The seed gums also contain
mannose. Plant exudates contain a variety of other sugars including two pentoses
(arabinose and xylose) and two unusual hexoses (rhamnose and fructose) in which the
terminal carbon is a methyl group rather than an alcohol.

Figure 5.17 Chemical structure of gum arabic.

5.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGARS

5.3.1 Sweetness
When sugars are dissolved in water, they give sweet taste. Some sugars are
sweeter than others. The relative ability to sweeten a food product is of particular
interest because sugars provide 4 kilocalories energy per gram. Theoretically a sweeter
sugar can be used in smaller amounts than a sugar that is less sweet, thereby lead to
reduce uptake of calories providing the same sweetness. The table shows the relative
sweetness of some monosaccharaide, disaccharides and other sweeteners.

The temperature of the solution containing the sugar affects the relative
sweetness values for sugars. For example, fructose is about 1.4 times sweeter than
sucrose at 5oC, comparable in sweetness when the solution is at 40 oC, but only 0.8 times
as sweet at 60oC. However, maltose sweetness ratings are essentially independent of
temperature. However, most of the non-sugar sweeteners contribute far more
sweetening as compared to other sugar of the same weight. Even though, these
sweeteners are of considerable importance from the perspectives of taste and calories
because it provides much sweetness even with a little amount of added non-nutritive
sweeteners. A diabetic patient can enjoy food with sweet taste by using non-nutritive
sweeteners.

5.3.2 Hygroscopicity

Sugars are able to attract and hold water to varying degrees. This capability,
known as hygroscopicity, can be useful in maintaining the freshness of some baked
products, but it can be a source of potential problems in texture when the relative
humidity is high. An elevation in temperature also increases the absorption of moisture
from the atmosphere.

Table 5.3 Relative sweetness of various sweeteners

Sweeteners Relative Sweetness
Sucrose 1.0
Thaumatin 2000-3000
Monellin 1500-2000
Sucralose 600
Stevioside 300
Saccharin 200-300
Acesulfame K 130-200
Aspartame 100-200
Cyclamate 30-80
Fructose 1.3
Xylitol 1.01
Tagatose 0.92
Invert sugar 0.85-1
Xylose 0.59
Glucose 0.56
Galactose 0.4-0.6
Maltose 0.3-0.5
Lactose 0.2-0.3
5.3.3 Solubility

The amount of sugar that will go into solution in water varies with the type of
sugar and also with the temperature of the water. The comparative solubility of various
sugars is presented in table 5.3. As the temperature of water rises, the amount of sugar
able to dissolve in a given amount of water also increases (Table 5.4). The solubility of
the sugars determines their use to a certain extent. It is obvious to one who does a great
deal of cooking that a 1 pound of sugar requires 6 pounds of water to dissolve, could not
be used for concentrated sugar products like jellies, jams, frostings, or even cakes.
Sucrose has the greatest solubility of the disaccharide sugars. At 20°C, 204 grams are
soluble in 100 cc. of water. Thus at room temperature about 2 grams of sucrose are
soluble in 1 cc. of water. At 100°C, 487 grams of sucrose are soluble in 100 cc. of
water. For solubility at other temperatures see Table 5.3. Thus at 0°C, 64.18 grams of
sucrose are dissolved in 35.82 grams of water to give a total of 100 grams of solution.

Solubility is important because of its relationship to food texture. Candies

containing fructose are softer than those containing other sugars because of the greater
solubility of fructose. The very low solubility of lactose is a particular textural problem
in the manufacture of ice cream. The low temperature required in ice cream storage
promotes the formation of lactose crystals. The tongue detects this as a somewhat gritty
texture, a characteristic triggered by the low solubility of this particular sugar.

Table 5.3 Solubility of selected sugar at 50oC

Sugar Grams of sugar dissolved in 100 ml water
Fructose 86.9
Sucrose 72.2
Glucose 65.0
Maltose 58.3
Lactose 29.8
Table 5.4 Solubility of sucrose in water at different temperatures

Temperature (oC) Gram of sucrose dissolved in 100 ml of water

0 64.18
10 65.58
20 67.09
30 68.70
40 70.42
50 72.25
60 74.18
70 76.22
80 78.36
90 80.61
100 82.87

5.4 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGARS

5.4.1 Caramelization

Caramelization, a browning reaction, results from the action of intense heating

on sugars. Caramelization causes important changes in foods, not o nly in color but also in
flavor. As no enzymes are involved in the caramelization process, it is a non-enzymatic
browning reaction. A series of chemical reactions start at such high temperature, which
ultimately lead to a charred or burned product. However, some caramelization of sugar
creates pleasing color and flavor changes, with the color ranging from a pale golden
brown to a gradually deepening brown before burning actually occurs. Similarly, the
flavor begins to assume new and distinctive overtones as the mixture of sugar
derivatives undergoes change. Examples are the browning of bread when toasted, or the
darkening of maple sap when heated to make maple syrup.

Caramelization occurs during dry heating and roasting of foods with a high
concentration of carbohydrates (sugars). Simply speaking, caramelization is the process
of removal of water from a sugar (such as sucrose or glucose) followed by
isomerization and polymerization steps. In reality, the caramelization process is a
complex series of chemical reactions, which is still poorly understood.
 The process of caramelization starts with the melting of the sugar at high
temperatures, followed by foaming (boiling). At this stage sucrose decomposes into
glucose and fructose. This is followed by a condensation step, in which the individual
sugars lose water and react with each other to form di-fructose-anhydride. The next step
is the isomerization of aldoses to ketoses and further dehydration reactions. The last
series of reactions include both fragmentation reactions (flavor production) and
polymerization reactions (color production). Caramelization starts at relatively high
temperatures as compared to the other browning reactions, and depends on the type of
sugar. Table 5.5 below shows the initial caramelization temperatures of some common
carbohydrates. This table is based on pure carbohydrates. In foods often several
different carbohydrates and other components are present; all these may influence the
caramelization temperature as well as the different steps and reactions, and thus the
final flavors and colors that are produced.

Table 5.5 Initial caramelization temperatures of some common carbohydrates.

Sugar Temperature
Fructose 110oC
Galactose 160oC
Glucose 160oC
Sucrose 160oC
Maltose 180oC

The highest rate of the color development is caused by fructose as

caramelization of fructose starts at lower temperature. Baked goods made from honey
or fructose syrup thus is generally a bit darker than those made with sugar. During
caramelization several flavor components as well as polymeric caramels are produced.
Caramels are complex mixture of various high molecular weight components. They can
be classified into three groups.

 Caramelans (C24H36O18)
 Caramelens (C36H50O25)
 Caramelins (C125H188O80)
 These polymers are often used as colors in commercial food products, from cola
to soy sauce, confectionary and ice-cream. They are labeled as E150. Commercial
caramels are produced directly by heating sugar, or by heating sugar in the presence of
co-factors, such as ammonia or sulphite. This results in caramels with different colors or
charged caramels. These aspects are very important for the use of different caramels in
foods. Caramels used to color soft drinks should be negatively charged to prevent
reaction with phosphates which causes precipitation and loss of color. On the other
hand, caramels used for bakery goods should be positively charged.

The different stages of caramel production all have distinct names, based on the
characteristics of the product, see table 5.6 below. Thread indicates the fact that sugar
can be spun into soft or hard threads, ball indicates that sugar easily can be molded into
a proper shape, crack indicates that the sugar will hard after cooling (and cracks when it
is broken). Only when color appears the names refer to caramel.

Caramelization reactions also result in the formation of flavors. Diacetyl is an

important flavor compound, produced during the first stages of caramelization. Diacetyl
is mainly responsible for a buttery or butterscotch flavor. Diacetyl is not only produced
by caramelization, it can also be produced by bacteria in fermented products, such as
beer and yoghurt. Besides diacetyl, hundreds of other flavor compounds are produced
for instance furans like hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and hydroxyacetylfuran (HAF),
furanones such as hydroxydimethylfuranone (HDF), dihydroxydimethylfuranone (DDF)
and maltol from disaccharides and hydroxymaltol from monosaccharides.
Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is found in honey, juices, milk and also in cigarettes.
Hydroxyacetylfuran (HAF) has a sweet aroma and a low odor threshold. Maltol has a
taste similar to freshly baked bread and is used as a flavor enhancer (E636) in breads
and cakes.
Table 5.6 Stage of sucrose caramelization.
Step Temperature oC Description and use Image

1 Evaporation 100 Sugar is melted and

of water impurities rise to the
surface;
2 Small 102 No color; soft cooling; no
Thread flavor change. Used in
frostings.

3 Small Ball 110 – 115 No color; semi-soft cooling;

no flavor change. Used in
cream candy fillings, Italian
meringue, fondants, fudge,
and marshmallows;
4 Large Ball 119 – 122 No color; firm cooling; no
flavor change. Used in soft
caramels;
5 Light Crack 129 No color; firm cooling; no
flavor change. Used in
semi-hard candies.
6 Hard Crack 165 – 166 No color; hard cooling; no
flavor change. Used in
butterscotch and hard
candies;
7 Extra-hard 168 Slight color; no flavor
Crack change. Used in hard
candies;
8 Light 180 Pale amber to golden
Carmel brown; rich flavor.

9 Medium 180 – 188 Golden brown to chestnut

Carmel brown; rich flavor;

10 Dark 188 – 204 Very dark and bitter; smells

Carmel burned. Used for coloring,
but lack of appropriate
sweetness;
11 Black Jack 210 At this point, the sugar
begins to breaks down to
pure carbon. Burning flavor.

5.4.2 Crystallization

An important characteristic of sugars is their ability to form crystals. This is

important in the commercial production of sugars since crystallization is an important
step in the purification of sugar. The purer a solution of a sugar, the easier it will
crystallize. Non-reducing oligosaccharides crystallize relatively easily. Certain reducing
sugars crystallize with more difficulty due to the presence of monomers and ring
isomers in solution make these sugars impure. Mixtures of sugar crystallize less easily
than single sugars. In certain foods crystallization is undesirable as, for example the
lactose in sweetened condensed milk or ice cream.

5.4.3 Maillard Reaction

The Maillard Reaction (also known as browning) is a type of non-enzymatic

browning which involves the reaction of simple sugars (carbonyl groups) and amino
acids (free amino groups). They begin to occur at lower temperatures and at higher
dilutions than caramelization. Browning, or the Maillard reaction, creates flavor and
changes the color of food. Maillard reactions generally only begin to occur above 285°F
(140°C). Until the Maillard reaction occurs meat will have fewer flavors.

The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between an amino acid and a

reducing sugar, usually requiring the addition of heat. The reactive sugar interacts with
the amino group of the amino acid, and an interesting but poorly characterized odor and
flavor molecules result. This process accelerates in an alkaline environment because the
amino groups do not neutralize. This reaction is the basis of the flavoring industry, since
the type of amino acid determines the resulting flavor. In simple terms, certain foods
contain carbohydrates in the form of sugars, while others contain amino acids in the
form of proteins. These sugars and amino acids often exists side-by-side, as in the case
of raw meats. They may also be blended together, as in the case of bread dough. As
long as there are no outside catalysts, or cause for change, the meat remains red and the
bread dough remains white. The Maillard reaction is the catalyst for change, primarily
by the addition of heat. When bread dough or meat is introduced to a hot oven, a
complex chemical reaction occurs on the surface. The carbon molecules contained in
the sugars, or carbohydrates, combine with the amino acids of the proteins. This
combination cannot occur without the additional heat source. The end result of this
chemical recombination is the Maillard reaction. The surface of the heated bread dough
is now brown, as is the outer layer of the roasted meat.

The Maillard reaction is responsible for the savory flavor of roasted meats, as
well as the toasted flavor of baked breads. When bread is placed in a toaster, the
Maillard reaction causes the outer layer of carbohydrates and proteins to combine. The
result is a piece of browned toast. Recipes containing both, eggs which contain protein,
and flour, which contains carbohydrates, benefit from the Maillard reaction to achieve a
pleasing browned appearance. Amino acids called lysine gives most of the color to
browning reactions. This amino acid is naturally occurring and because it has an amino
group in its side chain, is able to react well with the sugars producing a rich color and
taste. Thus those foods rich in lysine will brown rapidly. Whey is a lysine rich protein
and when used as a food additive can help brown the food. Breads also brown well due
to the content of lysine in flour. Similarly, some sugars react better than others. Ribose,
a simple sugar found in beef, pork, salmon, and chicken as well as mushrooms reacts
mostly with the amino acids. Glucose, another simple sugar found in pasta, cereals and
rice will brown but not as well as ribose. While lactose does not reacts well at all with
amino acids. Therefore milk sugars burns rather than browns.