Unsymmetrical Fault Calculations 57

LG fault
A B
T1 T2
60 MVA 50 MVA 30 MVA 30 MVA
L1 O
G1 G2

10,000 hp

FIGURE 2.9
A single line diagram of power system for Example 2.2.

synchronism with the supply system. Bus B has a 10,000 hp motor load. A line-to-ground fault
occurs at bus B. It is required to calculate the fault current distribution throughout the system and
also the fault voltages. The resistance of the system components is ignored in the calculations.

Impedance Data
The impedance data for the system components are shown in Table 2.2. Generators G1
and G2 are shown solidly grounded, which will not be the case in a practical installation.

TABLE 2.2
Impedance Data for Example 2.2
Per Unit Impedance
Equipment Description Impedance Data 100 MVA Base
G1 13.8 kV, 60 MVA, 0.85 power factor Subtransient reactance ¼ 15% X1 ¼ 0.25
generator Transient reactance ¼ 20% X2 ¼ 0.28
Zero sequence reactance ¼ 8% X0 ¼ 0.133
Negative sequence reactance ¼ 16.8%
T1 13.8–138 kV step-up transformer, Z ¼ 9% on 50 MVA base X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0.18
50=84 MVA, delta–wye-connected,
wye neutral solidly grounded
L1 Transmission line, 5 mi. long, 266.8 Conductors at 15 ft (4.57 m) X1 ¼ X2 ¼ 0.04
KCMIL, ACSR equivalent spacing X0 ¼ 0.15
T2 138–13.2 kV, 30 MVA step-down Z ¼ 8% X1 ¼ X2 ¼ X0 ¼ 0.24
transformer, wye–delta-
connected, high-voltage wye
neutral solidly grounded
G2 13.8 kV, 30 MVA, 0.85 power factor Subtransient reactance ¼ 11% X1 ¼ 0.37
generator Transient reactance ¼ 15% X2 ¼ 0.55
Zero sequence reactance ¼ 6%
Negative sequence reactance ¼ 16.5% X0 ¼ 0.20
M 10,000 hp induction motor load Locked rotor reactance ¼ 16.7% on X1 ¼ 1.67
motor base kVA (consider 1 hp 
1 kVA)
X2 ¼ 1.80
X0 ¼ 1
Resistances are neglected in the calculations. KCMIL: Kilo-circular mils, same as MCM. ACSR: Aluminum
conductor steel reinforced.
58 Power System Analysis: Short Circuit Load Flow and Harmonics

A high-impedance grounding system is used by utilities for grounding generators in step-up

transformer configurations. Generators in industrial facilities, directly connected to the load
buses, are low-resistance grounded, and the ground fault currents are limited to 200–400 A.
The simplifying assumptions in the example are not applicable to a practical installation, but
clearly illustrate the procedure of calculations.
The first step is to examine the given impedance data. Generator-saturated subtransient
reactance is used in the short-circuit calculations and this is termed positive sequence
reactance; 138 kV transmission line reactance is calculated from the given data for conductor
size and equivalent conductor spacing. The zero sequence impedance of the transmission
line cannot be completely calculated from the given data and is estimated on the basis of
certain assumptions, that is, a soil resistivity of 100 V-m.
Compiling the impedance data for the system under study from the given parameters,
from manufacturers’ data, or by calculation and estimation can be time consuming. Most
computer-based analysis programs have extensive data libraries and companion programs
for calculation of system impedance data and line constants, which has partially removed
the onus of generating the data from step-by-step analytical calculations. Appendix B
provides models of line constants for coupled transmission lines, bundle conductors, and
line capacitances. Refs. [3,4] provide analytical and tabulated data.
Next, the impedance data are converted to a common MVA base. A familiarity with
the per unit system is assumed. The voltage transformation ratio of transformer T2 is
138–13.2 kV, while a bus voltage of 13.8 kV is specified, which should be considered in
transforming impedance data on a common MVA base. Table 2.2 shows raw impedance
data and their conversion into sequence impedances.
For a single line-to-ground fault at bus B, the sequence impedance network connections
are shown in Figure 2.10, with the impedance data for components clearly marked. This
figure is based on the fault equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.1b, with fault impedance
Zf ¼ 0. The calculation is carried out in per unit, and the units are not stated in every step of
the calculation.
The positive sequence impedance to the fault point is
j0:37  j1:67
j(0:25 þ 0:18 þ 0:04 þ 0:24) 
j(0:37 þ 1:67)
Z1 ¼
j0:37  j1:67
j(0:25 þ 0:18 þ 0:04 þ 0:24) þ
j(0:37 þ 1:67)

This gives Z1 ¼ j0.212.

j0:55  j1:8
j(0:28 þ 0:18 þ 0:04 þ 0:24) 
j(0:55 þ 1:8)
Z2 ¼
j0:55  j1:8
j(0:28 þ 0:18 þ 0:04 þ 0:24) þ
j(0:55 þ 1:8)

This gives Z2 ¼ j0.266.

Z0 ¼ j0.2. Therefore,
E 1
I1 ¼ ¼ ¼ j1:45 pu
Z1 þ Z2 þ Z0 j0:212 þ j0:266 þ j0:2
I2 ¼ I0 ¼ j1:475
Ia ¼ I0 þ I1 þ I2 ¼ 3(j1:475) ¼ j4:425 pu
Unsymmetrical Fault Calculations 59

j0.37(G2) j1.67(M)

–j0.188
j0.25(G1)

–j0.846
A
j0.18(T1) j0.04(L1) j0.24(T2) B

–j0.441

–j1.475
j0.55(G2) j1.80(M)
j0.28(G1)

–j0.219
–j0.717
A
j0.18(T1) j0.04(L1) j0.24(T2) B
–j0.539
–j1.475

j0.30(G2)
j0.133(G1) (M)
–j1.475

A
j0.18(T1) j0.15(L1) j0.24(T2)
–j1.475

FIGURE 2.10
Sequence network connections for single line-to-ground fault (Example 2.2).

In terms of actual values this is equivalent to 1.851 kA. The fault currents in phases b and c
are zero:
Ib ¼ Ic ¼ 0
The sequence voltages at a fault point can now be calculated:
V0 ¼ I0 Z0 ¼ j1:475  j0:2 ¼ 0:295
V2 ¼ I2 Z2 ¼ j1:475  j0:266 ¼ 0:392
V1 ¼ E  I1 Z1 ¼ I1 (Z0 þ Z2 ) ¼ 1  (j1:475  j0:212) ¼ 0:687
60 Power System Analysis: Short Circuit Load Flow and Harmonics

A check of the calculation can be made at this stage; the voltage of the faulted phase at fault
point B ¼ 0:

Va ¼ V0 þ V1 þ V2 ¼ 0:295  0:392 þ 0:687 ¼ 0

The voltages of phases b and c at the fault point are

Vb ¼ V0 þ aV1 þ a2 V2
¼ V0  0:5(V1 þ V2 )  j0:866(V1  V2 )
¼ 0:295  0:5(0:687  0:392)  j0:866(0:687 þ 0:392)
¼ 0:4425  j0:9344
jVb j ¼ 1:034 pu

Similarly,

Vc ¼ V0  0:5(V1 þ V2 ) þ j0:866(V1  V2 )
¼ 0:4425 þ j0:9344
jVc j ¼ 1:034 pu

The distribution of the sequence currents in the network is calculated from the known
sequence impedances. The positive sequence current contributed from the right side of the
fault, that is, by G2 and motor M is

j(0:25 þ 0:18 þ 0:04 þ 0:24)

j1:475
j0:37  j1:67
j(0:25 þ 0:18 þ 0:04 þ 0:24) þ
j(0:37 þ 1:67)

This gives j1.0338. This current is composed of two components, one from the generator
G2 and the other from the motor M. The generator component is

j1:67
(j1:0338) ¼ j0:8463
j(0:37 þ 1:67)

The motor component is similarly calculated and is equal to j0.1875.

The positive sequence current from the left side of bus B is

j0:37  j1:67
j(0:37 þ 1:67)
j1:475
j0:37  j1:67
j(0:25 þ 0:18 þ 0:04 þ 0:24) þ
j(0:37 þ 1:67)

This gives j0.441. The currents from the right side and the left side should sum to j1.475.
This checks the calculation accuracy.
Unsymmetrical Fault Calculations 61

The negative sequence currents are calculated likewise and are as follows:

In generator G2 ¼ j0.7172
In motor M ¼ j0.2191
From left side, bus B ¼ j0.5387
From right side ¼ j0.9363

The results are shown in Figure 2.10. Again, verify that the vectorial summation at the
junctions confirms the accuracy of calculations.
Currents in Generator G2
Ia (G2 ) ¼ I1 (G2 ) þ I2 (G2 ) þ I0 (G2 )
¼ j0:8463  j0:7172  j1:475
¼ j3:0385
jIa (G2 )j ¼ 3:0385 pu
Ib (G2 ) ¼ I0  0:5(I1 þ I2 )  j0:866(I1  I2 )
¼ j1:475  0:5(j0:8463  j0:7172)  j0:866(j0:8463 þ j0:7172)
¼ 0:1118  j0:6933
jIb (G2 )j ¼ 0:7023 pu
Ic (G2 ) ¼ I0  0:5(I1 þ I2 ) þ j0:866(I1  I2 )
¼ 0:1118  j0:6933
jIc (G2 )j ¼ 0:7023 pu
This large unbalance is noteworthy. It gives rise to increased thermal effects due to
negative sequence currents and results in overheating of the generator rotor. A generator
will trip quickly on negative sequence currents.
Currents in Motor M
The zero sequence current in the motor is zero, as the motor wye-connected windings are
not grounded as per industrial practice in the United States. Thus,
Ia (M) ¼ I1 (M) þ I2 (M)
¼ j0:1875  j0:2191
¼ j0:4066
jIa (M)j ¼ 0:4066 pu

Ib (M) ¼ 0:5(j0:4066)  j0:866(0:0316) ¼ 0:0274 þ j0:2033

Ic (M) ¼ 0:0274 þ j0:2033
jIb (M)j ¼ jIc (M)j ¼ 0:2051 pu
The summation of the line currents in the motor M and generator G2 are
Ia (G2 ) þ Ia (M) ¼ j3:0385  j0:4066 ¼ j3:4451
Ib (G2 ) þ Ib (M) ¼ 0:118  j0:6993 þ 0:0274 þ j0:2033 ¼ 0:084  j0:490
Ic (G2 ) þ Ic (M) ¼ 0:1118  j0:6933  0:0274 þ j0:2033 ¼ 0:084  j0:490
62 Power System Analysis: Short Circuit Load Flow and Harmonics

Currents from the left side of the bus B are

Ia ¼ j0:441  j0:5387
¼ j0:98
Ib ¼ 0:5(0:441  j0:5387)  j0:866(0:441 þ j0:5387)
¼ 0:084 þ j0:490
Ic ¼ 0:084 þ j0:490

These results are consistent as the sum of currents in phases b and c at the fault point from
the right and left side is zero and the summation of phase a currents gives the total ground
fault current at b ¼ j4.425. The distribution of currents is shown in a three-line diagram
(Figure 2.11).
Continuing with the example, the currents and voltages in the transformer T2 windings
are calculated. We should correctly apply the phase shifts for positive and negative
sequence components when passing from delta secondary to wye primary of the trans-
former. The positive and negative sequence current on the wye side of transformer T2 are

I1( p) ¼ I1 < 30 ¼ j0:441 < 30 ¼ 0:2205  j0:382

I2( p) ¼ I2 < 30 ¼ j0:5387 < 30 ¼ 0:2695  j0:4668

(G2)
a b c 0.112 – j0.693
(G1) C
–0.085 + j0.490 A
C B
A –0.11 – j0.693
–j3.04
B –0.027 + j0.203
–j4.425

–j0.98
0.027 + j0.203

–j0.405
(T1) (L1) (T2)
–0.049 – j0.849 –j0.98
9 X1
0. 84 30° X1 H1 H1 9 30°
(M)
–j 0.8
4
.049
9 –j
–0 –0.049 .04 –0.049
–j0.849 –0 –j0.849
X3
X3
0.0 0.0
97 H2 H3 H2 97 X2
9 H3 9
X2 0.085 + j0.490
0.085 + j0.490 –0.049 – j0.849 –0.085 + j0.490
–0.0979
Ic = 0
Ib = 0
Ia = –j4.425

FIGURE 2.11
Three-line diagram of fault current distribution (Example 2.2).
Unsymmetrical Fault Calculations 63

Also, the zero sequence current is zero. The primary currents are

Ia( p) ¼ I1( p) þ I2( p)

¼ 0:441 < 30 þ 0:5387 < 30 ¼ 0:049  j0:8487
Ib( p) ¼ a2 I1( p) þ aI2( p) ¼ 0:0979
Ic( p) ¼ aI1( p) þ a2 I2( p) ¼ 0:049  j0:8487

Currents in the lines on the delta side of the transformer T1 are similarly calculated. The
positive sequence component, which underwent a 308 positive shift from delta to wye in
transformer T2, undergoes a 308 phase shift; as for an ANSI connected transformer it is
the low-voltage vectors, which lag the high-voltage side vectors. Similarly, the negative
sequence component undergoes a positive phase shift. The currents on the delta side of
transformers T1 and T2 are identical in amplitude and phase. Note that 138 kV line is
considered lossless. Figure 2.11 shows the distribution of currents throughout the distri-
bution system.
The voltage on the primary side of transformer T2 can be calculated. The voltages
undergo the same phase shifts as the currents. Positive sequence voltage is the base fault
positive sequence voltage, phase shifted by 308 (positive) minus the voltage drop in
transformer reactance due to the positive sequence current:

V1 ( p) ¼ 1:0 < 30  jI1( p) X2

¼ 1:0 < 30  ( j0:441 < 30 )( j0:24)
¼ 0:9577 þ j0:553
V2 ( p) ¼ 0  I2( p) X2
¼ (0:539 < 30 )( j0:24)
¼ 0:112  j0:0647
Thus,

Va( p) ¼ 0:9577 þ j0:553 þ 0:112  j0:0647 ¼ 1:0697 þ j0:4883 ¼ 1:17 < 24:5
Vb( p) ¼ 0:5(V1( p) þ V2( p) )  j0:866(V1( p)  V2( p) )
¼ j0:9763
Vc( p) ¼ 0:5(V1( p) þ V2( p) )  j0:866(V2( p)  V1( p) )
¼ 1:0697 þ j0:4883 ¼ 1:17 < 155:5

Note the voltage unbalance caused by the fault.

2.7 System Grounding

System grounding refers to the electrical connection between the phase conductors and
ground and dictates the manner in which the neutral points of wye-connected transformers
and generators or artificially derived neutral systems through delta-wye or zigzag