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CHAPTER 5 — LEADERSHIP AND ITS

CHANGING DEVELOPMENT IN ORG

Leadership
Leadership — calls for the ability of one to unite people for them to
collectively attain organization objectives.

(by Keith Davis) — as the ability to persuade others to seek defined

objectives enthusiastically.

LEADERSHIP — Deals with influence.

MANAGEMENT— Involves planning, organizing, directing

and controlling.

💡 Leadership plays important role in management.

Through leadership good and better employees,

products and services are produce thereby
benefiting members of society in general.

TASK AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SUPPORT

Leaders provide both task and psychological support for their followers.

ROLE MODELING
Supervisors supervise as they themselves are subject to supervision.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

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 1. AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP
is characterized by centralizing power and decision making in the leader.
ADVANTAGES

Provides strong motivation and reward for the leader

Results in quick decision

Less competent employees can be employed to carry out orders.

DISADVANTAGES

Frustration, dissatisfaction, fear and conflict develop easily.

Employees feel that they produce on account of pressures rather

than being spurred by motivations.

Creativity of employees is stifled.

2. PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP
Characterized by decentralization.

Decision arise from consultation and participation with followers.

3. FREE-REIGN LEADERSHIP
Generally, avoids power and responsibility leaving the group to establish
their own goals and work out solutions to their problems.
LEADERSHIP STYLES WITH EMPLOYEES
EMPLOYEE ORIENTED
Concerned with human need of his employees and try to build teamwork
and help employees solve their problems.

Secure better performance and job satisfaction among employees.

STRUCTURED OR TASK ORIENTED

Get results by keeping their personnel busy, thereby realizing greater
productivity.

TRAIT APPROACH

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 The basic premise behind trait theory was that effective leaders are born,
not made.

Leadership trait research examined the physical, mental, and social

characteristics.

Physical — height

Mental — intelligence

Social characteristics — personality attributes.

Four Theories Related To Leadership Behavior.

1. Ohio State University Studies

OHIO STATE STUDIES — behavior exhibited by leaders are
more important than their physical, mental, and emotional
traits.

2. The University of Michigan Studies

The Michigan State Studies — focused how to determine the
principles and methods of leadership that led to productivity
and job satisfaction.

3. The Yuki Studies

4. The Managerial Grid

Developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton.

Combines “concern for production” with “concern for people” and

presents five alternative behavioral leadership.

LBDQ — a questionnaire was administered in both industrial

and military.

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 Two Dimensions of Leadership Behavior
1. Initiating Structure
sometimes called task-oriented behavior, involves planning, organizing,
and coordinating the work of subordinates.

2. Consideration
showing concerns, being supportive, recognizing subordinates’
accomplishments, and providing for subordinates’ welfare.

Two General Leadership Behavior or Orientations:

Employee Orientation — showed genuine concern for
interpersonal relations.

Production Orientation — focused on the task or technical

aspects of the job

FIVE ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIORAL STYLE OF

LEADERSHIP
1. Impoverish Management
Emphasized neither concern for production nor a concern for people.

2. Country-club manager
Emphasized concern for people and a little emphasis on production.

3. Task Manager
Emphasized a concern for production but a little attention to the
subordinates

4. Middle-of-road manager
Balance concern for production and for people

5. Team management

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 Was able to simultaneously exhibit a high concern for production and
people

THE CONTINGENCY MODEL OF LEADERSHIP

the organizational or work group context affects the extent to which given
leader traits and behaviors will be effective.

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY

First to specify how situational factors interact with leader traits and
behavior to influence leadership effectiveness.

“favorability” of the situation determines the effectiveness of task and

person-oriented leader behavior.

FAVORABILITY IS DETERMINE BY:

Trust and respect for leaders

Extent to which subordinates’ responsibilities can be structured and

performance measured.

Control of leader over subordinates’ reward

TASK STRUCTURE — reflects the degree to which one specific

way is required to do a piece of work.

Leader Position Power

the organizational power that goes along with that the leader occupies like
the power to hire or fire as well as to give increase in pay and promotions.

Leaders as Followers
Leaders in organizations are also followers in as much as they similarly
report to someone else on top of them.

Leader should be a follower

Leadership use of Skills: Technical Skills

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 an individual’s knowledge and ability pertaining to certain process and
technique.

Skills is distinguishing feature called for by job performance.

Leadership use of Skills: Human Skills

The ability to work effectively with others and to bring about teamwork.

Human skill is a major behavioral role played by leaders.

Leadership use of Skills: Conceptual Skill

The ability to think in terms of models, frameworks and broad relationships
such as may be called for in long-range planning.

It requires in higher managerial jobs.

Goal Setting
concerned with the identification of targets, as well as long and short-
term objectives, toward which, performance is directed.

Without goals group members will go on in various directions in

confusion.

Three Steps in Goal-Setting: Goal Definition

Proper goal definition demands that the leader explains the underlying
intentions and their justification.

Three Steps in Goal-Setting: Specific Goals

must be specific, as much as possible, so that employees will have a
basis for assessing what they have achieved

and thereby feel a sense of accomplishment when the goals is reached

or realized.

Three Steps In Goal-setting: Feedback About

Accomplishment
The well-defined goals serve as yardstick in measuring the extent of
nearness to established goals.

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 The VROOM Model
(1973) The Vroom-Yetton-Jago decision-making model was introduced by
Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton

revised by vroom and Jago in 1988.

focuses primarily on the degree of subordinate participation that is

appropriate in different situations.

the leader would examine the need for subordinate involvement, how much
involvement, and who to involve.

emphasizes the decision-making style of the leader.

1. Autocratic I - the leader individually solves the problem using the

information already available.

2. Autocratic II – the leader obtains data from subordinates and then

decides.

3. Consultative I – the leader explain the problem to individual

subordinates and obtains ideas from each before deciding.

4. Consultative II – the leader meets with group of subordinates to share

the problem and obtain inputs, and then decides.

5. Group II – the leader shares problem with group and facilitates a

discussion of alternatives aiming to reach a group agreement on a
solution.

The Blanchard (Situational) Model

(1969) The situational leadership theory was introduced

revised in 1977 by Hersey and Blanchard.

task-related maturity of the subordinates — the key contingency factor

affecting leader’s choice of leadership style.

two broad classes of leader behavior:

task-oriented — concerned with ensuring that subordinates perform at

a high level and focus on task accomplishment.

relationship-oriented — concerned with developing good

relationships with their subordinates and being liked by them.

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 relationship-oriented managers — focus on having high-quality
interpersonal relationships with subordinates.

The Path-Goal Model of Leadership

expectancy model — states that MOTIVATION = product of valence
(desire to achieve goal) X expectancy (strength of the belief that specific
act will lead to the desired goal.)

when employees see that hard work leads to success and success
leads to rewards, they become more motivated and perform better.

PATH-GOAL Theory — proposes that subordinates’ characteristics and

the work environment determine which leader behaviors will be more
effective.

Key Characteristics Of Subordinates

1. Locus control —

refers to whether employees believe they control their success or if

external forces (luck, fate, others) do.

2. Work experience —

more experienced employees may need less guidance and more

autonomy

newer employees might require a leader who gives clear directions.

3. Ability —

employees with high skills and competence need less supervision,

while those with lower skills benefit from more guidance.

4. the need for affiliation —

some employees prefer a supportive and friendly work

environment, while others are more task-focused.

Important Environmental Characteristics

1. Nature of task

is the work structured or ambiguous?

Simple, repetitive tasks may not need much guidance

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 complex or uncertain tasks require more leadership intervention.

2. The informal authority system

the influence people have in the workplace that doesn’t come from
their official job title.

Some employees naturally gain respect and authority even if they

don’t have an official leadership position.

3. Nature of the work group

how employees interact with each other.

If teamwork is strong, leaders might focus on supporting and

motivating rather than strict direction.

Different Leader Behaviors

1. Directive leadership

include setting goals, assigning tasks, showing subordinates how to

complete tasks, and taking concrete steps to improve performance.

2. Supportive leadership

focused on establishing good relations with subordinates and

satisfying their needs.

3. Participative leadership

leader consults with subordinates, permitting them to participate in

decision making.

4. Achievement-oriented leadership

motivate subordinates to perform at the highest level possible by,

setting challenging goals, expecting that they be met, and
believing in subordinates’ capabilities.

Leaders can establish the path-goal relationship through the

following ways:

giving better reward for goal attainment

providing feedback about goal accomplishments

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 improving or greasing the path toward the goal by providing
a supportive approach to assist employees attain their goals

providing the needed resources and training by helping

remove barriers along the way to the goals.

management by objectives — related to goal setting and path-

goal idea

Styles of Leadership
Leaders employ certain patterns of action in their relationship with their
followers.

Two or more styles of leadership may be applied by leaders depending

upon the situation and circumstances existing in the organization.

Leaders may use negative or positive methods of approach.

considered as “bosses” rather than leaders

higher job satisfaction; cooperation

Utilization of rewards and economic matters.

Uses of threats or penalties

types of leadership are reflected in the different models of leadership.

EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION
Supervisors
occupy positions at the lowest management level in org

charged with the responsibility of supervising non-management employees

therefore should be leaders in their own right.

THE SUPERVISOR AMONG OTHER THINGS:

1. creates a climate conducive to sound human relationship at the
departmental level in the org

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 2. develops desirable attitudes that motivate employees to perform well on
their job

3. Interprets and implements company policies, work specifications, and job

orders

4. Trains a new as well as older employees to work efficiently, effectively and

safety

5. Counsels and maintains discipline among employees

6. Recommends personnel actions such as promotions, transfers, pay

increases and job separation

7. Plans and maintain time and work schedules

8. Uses his knowledge of machine and equipment capacities; adjust and

improves work procedures

9. Make sure of securing good quality products and services for which he is
responsible

10. Coordinates departmental activities to meet goals economically.

THE SUPERVISOR’S LEADERSHIP ROLE

THE FIVE (5) VIEWS OF THE SUPERVISOR’S JOB:
1. PERSON IN MANAGEMENT

supervisors are the key persons in management (traditional management

point of view)

key men directing the accomplishment of work and such make decisions,
control work and interpret policies.

2. MIDDLE ROAD SUPERVISOR

caught between two social forces; management and labor. (in-tire-middle

viewpoint)

Both parties nurse certain expectation from each other

3. THE MARGINAL SUPERVISOR

finds itself left out of or is at the margin of the principal activities and of
matters that influence the department’s operation.

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 Top management — is supported by the stockholders, members of the
management staff as well as by specialists.

employees have the support of the labor union and other informal
organizations

the supervisors find nobody in particular to lean upon.

4. AS ANOTHER WORKER

also viewed as mere employees in as much as they often have no

authority and devoid of the right to make decisions.

they are expected merely to carry out decisions, perform operation jobs,
run errands, communicate and maintain records.

5. THE BEHAVIORAL SPECIALIST

look after human side of operations while the staff handles the job’s
technical aspect’s.

specialty lies in human behavior, because he is called upon to perform

other supervisory jobs.

WHAT SUPERVISORS NEED TO KNOW

In a Purdue study conducted, 89% of the respondents

claimed that they lacked at the outset of their career
knowledge of human relations.
The other areas deficiency were as follows:

RE DEGREE OF DEFICIENCY
Communication techniques 59%
Personnel procedures and records keeping 40%
Production planning 39%
Methods improvement training 27%
Quality control and inspection know-how 15%
Material handling knowledge 6%

RESPONSIBILTIES OF SUPERVISORS

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 In a Purdue survey of 4,250 supervisors, the following
information regarding the areas of responsibility that the
supervisors assume were noted:

SUPERVISORY FUNCTION PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS

VOTES
Employee direction and supervision 91%
Safety 53%
Training 42%
Production machinery surveillance 30%
Quality control and inspection 24%
Labor relations 21%
Cost and financial control 21%

A similar study on the personal activities engaged in by

supervisors showed the following:

ACTIVITY PERCENT
Talking 43%
Looking and observing 18%
Handling or manipulating 12%
Writing 7%
Walking 6%
Showing or demonstrating 3%
Listening 2%
Reading 2%
Sitting 1%
Standing 1%
Miscellaneous 5%

DUTIES UNDERTAKEN BY SUPERVISORS AND

THINGS THEY DO IN CARRY OUT MANAGERIAL
RESPONSIBILITIES
Those at the higher level of management devote the main thrust of their
efforts towards the following:

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 1. The establishment of policies

2. The planning of ways to implement them

3. The resolution of policies

PROBLEMS ON WHICH SUPERVISORS SPEND THEIR

TIME
(by Bredrord B. Boyd and Burt K. Soanlan of the University of Wisconsin)

supervisors exert the most pressure on the ff problems:

1. Meeting tight production schedule

supervisor’s job is to get things done

2. Keeping production up to establish efficiency standards

to keep cost in line or within reasonable levels

3. Winning and maintaining the cooperative attitude of employees

how to get things done at the right time, place, and way

WHY SUPERVISORS FAIL?

SIX SUPERVISORY PITFALLS:
1. Poor personal relations w/ workers or with order management people ;

2. Individual shortcomings, such as lack of initiative emotional instability;

3. Lack of understanding of the management's point of view ;

4. Unwillingness to spend the necessary time and effort to improve;

5. Lack of skill in planning and organizing work ;

6. Inability to adjust new and changing conditions.

POSITIVE PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES OF AN

EFFECTIVE LEADER:
By: Myra L. Jucutan. The leader is/must:

1. seen as a partner — one who is committed to the best interest of the

individual and the group

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 2. free from any biases and has no favoritism displayed

3. has the patience and the time to listen

4. welcomes personnel to the organization

5. acts as a mentor and coach

6. must be honest and trustworthy

7. must be flexible and compassionate in understanding differences,

perspectives, values and motivation

8. must show that he is determined

9. must be always calm and patient, tolerant and understanding

10. must always show positive attitude to change.

personnel shall be motivated to do the same.

DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICIPATION

💡 Participation has excellent potential for drawing cooperation and for

building teamwork

Acceptance of change and the development of favorable

teamwork that stimulates better performance result when a high
degree of participation is attained.

NATURE OF PARTICIPATION
Participation — psychological effect in employees who belongs to the
support of the management.

3 important ideas or features that characterize participation

1. Mental and emotional Involvement

Mental and emotional involvement > muscular activity

Psychological > physical

Person’s whole being > one’s skill

Ego involved > task-involved

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 2. Motivation to contribute

Participation motivates people to contribute by sharing their

initiative and creativity toward the attainment of the objectives of
the organization.

3. Acceptance of responsibility

encourages the participants to accept responsibility in their group

activities

A SHARING PROCESS
Participation entails a mutual sharing process among managers and
employees.

INCREASE IN POWER AND INFLUENCE

Participation increase the power of both managers and employees.

PREREQUISITES FOR PARTICIPATION (K. Davis)

1. Adequate time to participate

2. Potential benefits of participation should be comparatively more than the

cost it will entail

3. Relevance to employees’ interest

4. Employee’s competence to deal with the subject

5. Mutual ability to communicate

6. No feeling of threat to either party

7. Participation within the area of job freedom

BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATION (KEITH DAVIS)

1. Higher output

2. Better quality of work

3. More suggestions

4. Improved motivation

5. Feeling of acceptance

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 6. Greater self-esteem

7. Higher job satisfaction

8. Greater cooperation

9. Reduced stress

10. Greater commitment to goals

11. Better acceptance of change

12. Reduced turnover

13. Less absence

14. Better communication

PROGRAMS FOR PARTICIPATION

Participative management — the practice in an organization, when it
employs a number of programs to develop a general feeling of
participation among its employees.

TYPES OF PARTICIPATIVE PROGRAMS ACCORDING

TO K. DAVIES
CONSULTATIVE MANAGEMENT
managers consult with their employees to encourage them to deliberate
upon issues and to contribute their own ideas before decisions are made.

DEMOCRATIC MANAGEMENT
management refers a number of major decisions to employees’ groups for
discussion.

also referred to as the “group dynamics” approach to participation

WORK COMMITTEES
“production committees” groups organized to consider job problems.

usually composed of both workers and managers.

SUGGESTION PROGRAMS

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 formal plans designed to encourage individual employees to suggest work
improvements.

MIDDLE MANAGEMENT COMMITTEES

groups formed to improve participation of managers below top
management levels.

also referred to as multiple management

POTENTIAL BENEFITS DERIVED FROM MULTIPLE

MANAGEMENT
1. Develops skills for junior executives

2. Trains them for top managements

3. Encourages their growth

4. Develops a spirit of management cooperation

5. Brings new creative ideas to top management

6. Encourages careful study of policy issues

7. Encourage junior executives to take responsibility

8. Broadens junior executive experience

9. Improves participation

INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY
basic philosophy of industrial democracy is to institutionalize the
participation of workers in management, in order to encourage
cooperation between labor and management

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