02000MAT206052102

Total Pages: 10
APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
Scheme for Valuation/Answer Key
Scheme of evaluation (marks in brackets) and answers of problems/key

FOURTH SEMESTER B.TECH DEGREE(R,S) EXAMINATION JUNE 2022(2019 Scheme)

Course Code: MAT206

Course Name: GRAPH THEORY
Max. Marks: 100 Duration: 3 Hours

PART A
(Answer all questions; each question carries 3 marks) Marks

1 The maximum degree of any vertex in a simple graph with n vertices is n−1. 1
𝑛(𝑛−1)
The total maximum degree of all n vertices is n(n − 1) That is, ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑(𝑣𝑖 )= 2e ≤ n(n − 1) ⇒ e ≤ 2

or 2

The maximum number of edges incident to a vertex is n − 1. OR

Thus, maximum number of edges incident to all n vertices is n (n − 1). But each edge contributes a 1
degree 2 to each vertex. ie. each edge is counted twice, so n (n − 1) divided by 2. So the maximum
𝑛(𝑛−1)
number of edges in a simple graph with n vertices is 2
2
2 A walk is defined as a finite alternating sequence of vertices and edges, beginning, and ending with
vertices, such that each edge is incident with the vertices preceding and following it.
An open walk in which no vertex appears more than once is called a path
A closed walk in which no vertex (except the initial and the final vertex) appears more than once is
called a circuit. 2
Draw a graph and mention these three. 1

3 3

(Any other correct answer)

4 A digraph G is said to be strongly connected if there is at least one directed path from every vertex 1.5
to every other vertex.

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(any example)
A digraph G is said to be weakly connected if its corresponding undirected graph is connected but
G is not strongly connected.
1.5

(any example)
5 Since T is a connected graph, there must exist at least one path between every pair of vertices in T. 1
Now suppose that between two vertices a and b of T there are two distinct paths. The union of these
two paths will contain a circuit and T cannot be a tree.
2
6 3x1=3

7 Let the vertex vi be the vertex with the smallest degree in G. Let d(vi) be the degree of vi. Vertex vi
can be separated from G by removing the d(vi) edges incident on vi. 3
8 A graph is planar if there exists some geometric representation of graph which can be drawn on a 1
plane such that no two of its edges intersect.
A graph that cannot be drawn on a plane without cross over between its edges is called non-planar 1
Example for each 1
9

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10 There are 4 vertices and edges between every pair of vertices. So first vertex is coloured with λ
colors, second with λ-1 colors, third with λ-2 colors and fourth with λ-3 colors. Hence the chromatic 3
polynomial of a complete graph with 4 vertices is 𝜆(𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 − 2)(𝜆 − 3)
PART B
(Answer one full question from each module, each question carries 14 marks)

Module -1
11 a) Consider the vertices with odd degree and even degree separately. Let the number of vertices be n
namely v1, v2, . . . vn and e edges ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑(𝑣𝑖 ) = ∑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑(𝑣𝑗 ) + ∑𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑑(𝑣𝑘 ) → (1) where ,
∑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑(𝑣𝑗 )the sum of even degree vertices and ∑𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑑(𝑣𝑘 ) the sum of odd degree vertices.
Since∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑(𝑣𝑖 )= 2e, an even number and , ∑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑(𝑣𝑗 )the sum of even degree vertices is an even 3
number,
from (1), ∑𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑑(𝑣𝑘 ) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑(𝑣𝑖 ) − ∑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑(𝑣𝑗 ) an even number Each 𝑑(𝑣𝑘 )is an odd number and 2
for the sum to be even, the total number of odd vertices should be an even number.

2
b) Let V be the vertex set of G such that V be partitioned into V1 the vertex set of g1 and V2 the vertex 2
set of g2.
To prove V1 ∩ V2 ≠ φ.
Suppose that V1 ∩ V2 = φ. 2
That is there is no edge from g1 to g2. Thus g1 and g2 are two components of G . This shows that G
is disconnected, which is a contradiction.
Hence V1 ∩ V2 ≠ φ. 3
That is there must be at least one vertex common between g1 and g2.
12 a) It is isomorphic. 2
Justify by one-to-one correspondence 5
b) Let G be a graph with all even vertices except vertices v1 and v2, which are odd. For a connected
graph, there is a path between every pair of vertices. 2
By theorem, the number of vertices of odd degree in a graph (true for component also) is always
even. 2
Therefore, for every component of a disconnected graph, no graph can have an odd number of odd
vertices. Therefore, in graph G, v1 and v2 must belong to the same component, and hence must have
a path between them. 3

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Module -2
13 a) A complete graph G of n vertices has 𝑛(𝑛−1)
edges, and a Hamiltonian circuit in G consists of n 2
2

edges.
𝑛(𝑛−1)
Therefore, the number of edge-disjoint Hamiltonian circuits in G cannot exceed .
2 1
(𝑛−1)
That there are edge disjoint Hamiltonian circuits, when n is odd, Keeping the vertices fixed on
2
360 2.360 𝑛−3 360
a circle, rotate the polygonal pattern clockwise by 𝑛−1 , , ... degrees.
𝑛−1 2 𝑛−1
2
Each rotation produces a Hamiltonian circuit that has no edge in common with any of the previous
𝑛−3
ones. Thus we have new Hamiltonian circuits, all edge disjoint and also edge disjoint among
2

themselves.

2
b) 1. (i)

(ii)

2) The graph representing an equivalence relation is called an equivalence graph. For example,
consider the binary relation " is congruent to modulo 3" defined on the set {10, 11, 12, . . ., 20}

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14 a) Suppose that G is an Euler graph. That is it contains an Euler line. Since Euler line is a closed walk,
while tracing the walk, it is observed that every time the walk entered v and with the other exited.
This is true not only for intermediate vertices, but also for terminal vertex, because we exited and
entered the same vertex at the beginning and end of the walk respectively. This shows that the degree 3
of all vertices are even.
Conversely assume that all vertices of G are of even degree. Now we construct a walk starting at an
arbitrary vertex v and going through the edges of G such that no edge is traced more than once. We
continue tracing as far as possible. Since every vertex is of even degree, we can exit from every
vertex we enter; the tracing cannot stop at any vertex but v. And since v is also of even degree, we
shall eventually reach v when the tracing comes to an end. If this closed walk h we just traced
includes all the edges of G, G is an Euler graph. If not, we remove from G all the edges in h and
obtain a subgraph h1 of G formed by the remaining edges. Since both G and h have all their vertices
of even degree, the degrees of the vertex of h1 are also even. Moreover, h1 must touch h at least at
one vertex a, because G is connected. Starting from a, we can again construct a new walk in graph
h1 . Since all the vertices of h1 are of even degree, this walk in h1 must terminate at vertex a; but this
walk in h1 can be combined with h to form a new walk, which starts and ends at vertex v and has 4
more edges than h. This process can be repeated until we obtain a closed walk that traverses all the
edges of G. Thus G is an Euler graph
b) A Hamiltonian Circuit in a connected graph is defined as a closed walk that traverses every vertex 2
exactly once, except the terminal vertices.
Example

If an edge is removed from a Hamiltonian circuit, then a path is obtained. This path is called
Hamiltonian path 2
Example(any graph)

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Hamiltonian path no Hamiltonian circuit- justification 1

Module -3
15 a) The maximum distance max d(v, vi) from a given vertex v to any other vertex vi occurs only when
vi is a pendant vertex. Let T be tree with more than two vertices. T must have at least two pendant 2
vertices. Delete all the pendant vertices from T. The resulting graph say T1 is still a tree. Removal of
pendant vertices from T reduces the eccentricity of all vertices uniformly by one. Therefore all 3
vertices that T had as centers will still remain centers in T1 .
From T1 again remove all pendant vertices and get another tree T2. Continue this process until there
is left either a vertex(center of T ) or an edge (whose end vertices are the centers of T ). Hence the
theorem 2
b) Writing the algorithm 2

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(Give full marks for drawing the spanning tree directly)

16 a) The graph has n vertices and e edges. Any spanning tree of the graph will contain n vertices and n − 1 edges 3
⇒ n − 1 branches. The remaining edges of the graph are the chords. i.e e − (n − 1) = e − n + 1

For spanning tree I, branch= chord=

For spanning tree II, branch= chord= 2

e3 is in branch of spanning tree I and is in chord of spanning tree II

b) Writing the algorithm 2

Label a as 0 and other vertices as ∞
Unvisited neighbours of a are d and e
d(d) = d(a) + wt(a, d) = 0 + 8 = 8 < ∞
d(e) = d(a) + wt(a, e) = 0 + 2 = 2 < ∞
Unvisited neighbour of e is g
d(g) = d(e) + wt(e, g) = 2 + 2 = 4 < ∞
Unvisited neighbour of g is d

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d(d) = d(g) + wt (g, d) = 4+ 2 = 6 < 8 2

shortest path from a is a → e → g → d.
d(a, e) = 2, d(a, g) = 4,d(a,d)=6
3

Module -4

17 a) Consider cut-sets S1 = {d, e, f} and S2 = {f, g, h} S1 ⊕ S2 = (S1 ∪S2) −(S1 ∩S2) = {d, e, g ,h}, a 2
cut-set 2
Also Consider cut-sets S1 = {a, b} and S2 = {b, c, e, f} S1 ⊕ S2 = (S1 ∪ S2) − (S1 ∩ S2) = {a, c, e,
f}, another cut-set 3
Also Consider cut-sets S1 = {d, e, g, h} and S2 = {f, g, k} S1 ⊕ S2 = (S1 ∪ S2) − (S1 ∩ S2) = {d, e,
f} ∪ {h, k}, an edge-disjoint union of cut-sets
b) The number of edges in the smallest cut set or minimum number of edges whose removal reduces
the rank by one is called edge connectivity of the graph.
Example 2
The minimum number of vertices whose removal leaves the graph disconnected is called
connectivity of the graph.
Example 2
A connected graph is separable if its vertex connectivity is one. Otherwise, non-separable
Example
3
18 a) By theorem, If G is triangle free and planar 2
then e <= 3n -6
In complete graph of five vertices
2
e = 10, n = 5
Substituting in equation, we get 10 <= 9 2
Which is a contradiction
1
Hence K5 is non planar

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OR
Using Jordan Curve theorem
b)

Module -5
19 a)

Paths between v2 and v5 are{c, f},{b, e},{b, d, f}. Name the paths as 1,2,3 respectively

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iii) Circuits are {h, g},{c, b, d}, {d, e, f},{c, f, e, b}. Name them as 1,2, 3,4 respectively

b) Draw a graph 2
Write its incidence matrix 3
Find its rank 2
20 a) Select a vertex v in tree T. Consider T as rooted tree at v. Paint v with color 1. Paint all adjacent
vertices of v with color 2. Then paint adjacent to these with color 1 and continue this. Thus, all
vertices with odd distances have color 2 and that of even with 1. 4
Since there is only one path between every pair of vertices with alternate colors T is properly colored
with 2 colors. So, 2-chromatic 3
b) Suppose a covering g of a graph is minimal. Assume covering g contains no path of length three.
Deleting an edge make its end vertices uncovered. That is g is not minimal. 3
Conversely a covering g contains no path of length three or more. All its components are star graphs.
Here no edge can be removed without a vertex uncovered. So, g is minimal 4
*********

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