SuBBAB 2.1.

BLSEVIER

ioTransformation of agricultural
vaste and by-products
he Food, Feed, Fibre, Fuel (4F) economy

dited by
almiro Poltronieriand OscarFernando D'Urso
 er 7

vesscl. Attention must be

l be cquipped with gassing cquipment at thc bottom of the
rate and the
paid to the sterile air inlet to be ensured by an air filter. By varying the low
Anothcr option for
speed of the mixer, the oxygen partial pressure can be controllcd.
water heated or cooled
controlling the process parameter is by adapting the temperature of
double jacket.
Application, advantages, and disadvantages:
viscosity and for immobilized
This reactor type is useful for substrate solutions of high
some metabo
enzymes with relatively low activity. The disadvantage if this bioreactor is that
suitable for thc
lites tend to decompose upon physical stirring.The batch system is generally
production of rather small amounts.
Continuous stirred tank
tank as well as a
Acontinuous stirred tank reactor is composed of the same parts as the batch
substrate inlet anda product outlet for continuous harvesting. The continuous stirred tank
reactor is more efficient than a batch stirred tank reactor, but the equipment is slightly more
complicated (Fig. 7.2). The continuous stirred tank is run at steady state with continuous flow

substrate inlet

Ce

stirrer

cells or
enzymes

product
outlet
c(t)

Figure 7.2
Principle ofa continuous stirred tank reactor.
fransport
Processes and
Unit Operations
Third Edition

Christie J.Geankoplis
http://downtp.blogspot.com.br
 Therc are a number of purposes for agitating fluids and some of these are briefly
summarized.

1. Blending of two miscible liquids, such as cthyl alcohol and water.

2. Dissolving solids in liquids, such as salt in waler.
3. Dispersing agas in aliquid as fine bubbles, such as oxygen Irom air in asuspension of
microorganisms for fermentation or for the activated sludge process in waste treat
ment.
4. Suspending of finc solid particles in a liquid, such as in the catalytic hydrogenation of
aliquid where solid catalyst particles and hydrogen bubbles arc dispersed in the
liquid.
5. Agitation of the fluid to incrcase hcat transfer between the fAuid and a coil or jacket in
the vessel wall.

3.4B Equipment for Agitation

Generally, liquids are agitated in a cylindrical vessel which can be closed or open to the
air. The height of liquid is approximately equal to the tank diamcter. An impeller
mounted on ashaft is driven by an clectric motor. Atypical agitator assembly is shown in
Fig. 3.4-I.
1. Three-blade propeller agitator. There are several types of agitators commonly used.
Acommon type, shown in Fig. 3.4-, is a three-bladed marine-type propeller similar to
the propeller blade used in driving boats. The propeller can be a side-entering type in a
tank or be clamped on the side of an open vessel in an of-center position. These
propellersturn at high speeds of 400to 1750 rpm (revolutions per minute) and are used
for liquids of low viscosity. The flow pattern in a bafled tank with a propcller positioned
on the center of the tank is shown in Fig. 3.4-1. This type of flow pattern is called axial
flow since the fuid flows axially down the center axis or propellcr shaft and up on the
sides of the tank as shown.

2. Paddle agitators. Various types of paddle agitators are often used at low specds
between about20 and 200 rpm. Two-bladed and four-bladed flat paddles are often used,
as shown Fig. 3.4-2a. The total length of the paddle impeller is usually 60to 80% of
the tank diameter and the width of the blade to o of its length. At low speeds mild
UPBAD 2.L4
baffles

(a) (6)

FiGURE 3.4-1. Baffled tank and three-blade propeller agitator with axial-flow paltern :
(a)side view, (b) bottom view.

Sec. 3.4 Agitation and Mixing of Fluids and Power Requirennents 14|
 (a) (6) (c) (d), uON 21 4
FiGURE 3.4-2. Various types of agitators : (a) four-blade paddle, (b) gate or anchor
paddle, (c) six-blade open turbine, (d) pitched-blade (45°)(urbine.

agitation is obtaincd in an unbaled vessel. At higher speeds baMles are used, since,
without balles,the liquid is simply swirled around with little actual mixing. The paddle
agitator is ineffectivc for suspending solids since good radial flow is present but ittle
vertical or axial flow. An anchor or gate paddle, shown in Fig. 3.4-2b, is often used. It
sweeps or scrapes the tank walls and sometimes the tank bottom. It is used with viscous
liquids where deposits on walls can occur and to improve heat transler to the walls.
However, it is a poor mixer. These are often used to process starch pastes, paints,
adhesives, and cosmctics.

3. Turbine agitators. Turbines that resemble multibladed paddle agitators with shorter
blades are used at high spceds •or liquids with a very wide range of viscosities. The
diamcter of a turbine is normally between 30 and 50% of the tank diameter. Normally,
the turbines have four orsix blades. Figure 3.4-3 shows a flat six-blade turbine agitator
with disk. In Fig. 3.4-2c a flat, six-blade open turbine is shown. The turbines with flat
blades give radial flow, as shown in Fig. 3.4-3. They are also uscful lor good gas
dispersion where the gas is introduced just below the impeller at its axis and is drawn up
to the blades and chopped into fne bubbles. In the pitched-blade turbine shown in
Fig. 3.4-2d with the blades at 45°, some axial flow is imparted so that a combination of
axial and radial flöw is present. This type is useful in suspending solids since the currents
low downward and then swcep up the solids.

4. Helical-ribbon agiators. This type of agitator is used in highly viscous solutions

and operates at a low RPM in the laminar region. The ribbon is formed in a helical path
and is attached to a central shaft. The liquid moves in a tortuous low path down the
center and up along the sides in a twisting motion. Similar typcs are the double helical
ribbon and the hclical ribbon with a scrcw.

5. Agitator selection and viscosity ranges. The viscosity of the fluid is one of several
factors afecting the selection of the type of agitator. Indications of the viscosity ranges of
these agitators are as follows. Propellers are used for viscosities of the fluid below about

142 Chap. 3 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applications

 NIT OPERATIONS

OFCHEMICAL
ENGINEERING

SEVENTH EDITION

Warren L. McCabe
Late R. J. Reynolds Professor of Chemical Engineering
NorthCarolina State Universiy

Julian C. Smith
Professor Enerius of Chemical Engineering
Cornell University

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 PTER 9

Agitation and Mixing of Liquids

Many processing operations depend for their success on the effective agitation and
mixing of ffuids. Though often confused, agitation and mixing are not synonymous.
Agitation refers to the induced motion of a material in a specified way, usually in a
circulatory pattern inside some sort of container. Mixing is the random distribution,
into and through one another, of two or more initially separate phases. A single ho
mogeneous material, such as a tankful of cold water, can be agitated, but it cannot
be mixed until some other material (such as a quantity of hot water or some pow
dered solid) is added to it.
The term mixing is applied to a variety of operations, differing widely in the de
gree of homogeneity of the "mixed" material. Consider, in one case, two gases that are
brought together and thoroughly blended and, in a second case, sand, gravel, cement,
and water tumbled in a rotating drum for a long time. In both cases the final product is
said to be mixed. Yet the products are obviously not equally homogeneous. Samples
of the mixed gases even very s1mall samples allhave the same composition. Small
samples of the mixed concrete, on the oher hand, differ widely in composition.
This chapter deals with the agitation and mixing of liquids, the dispersion of
liquids and gases into other liquids, and the suspension of solids in liquids. Mixing
of stiff pastes, elastomers, and dry, solid powders is discussed in Chap. 28.
Purposes of agitation
Liquids are agitated fora number of purposes, depending on the objectives of
the processing step. These purposes include
1. Suspending solid particles.
2. Blending miscible liquids, for example, methyl alcohol and water.
3. Dispersing a gas through the liquid in the form of small bubbles.
4. Dispersing a second liquid, immiscible with the first, to form an emulsion or a
suspension of fine drops.
5. Promoting heat transfer between the liquid and a coil or jacket.
244
 Mechanics
SECTION It: Fuid

-Bofle
BofRe

-Droht vbe

Bome

FIGURE98
(4fier Bissell et al')
Draft tubes, baffied tank: (a) turbine; (b) propeller.

shown in Fig. 9.8. These devices may

are to be controlled, draft tubes are used, as desired, as in the manufacture of
be useful when high shear at the impeller itself istend.to float on the surface of the
certain emulsions; or where solid particies that
liquid in the tank are to be dispersed in the liquid. Draft tubes for propellers are
are mounted immediately
mounted around the impeller, and those for turbines add to the fluid friction in
tubes
above the impeller. This is shown in Fig. 9.8. Draft
reduce the rate of flow, so they are not
the system; and for a given power input, they
Used unless they are required.

Circulation rates
of the agitation
For a processing vessel to be effective, regardless of the naturegreat enough to
problem, the volume of fuid cirçulated by the impeller must be
sweep out the entire vessel in a reasonable time/ Also, the velocity
of the stream
leaving the impeller must be sufiñcient to cary the curents to the emotest parts of
the tánk. In mixing and dispersion operations, the circulation rate is notoftenthe only
factor, or even the most important one; turbulence in the moving stream gov
ems the efectiveness of the operation. Turbulence results from properly directed
currents and large velocity gradients in the liquid. Circulation and turtulence gen
eration both consume energy; the relations between power input and the design
parameters of agitated vessels are discussed later. Some agitation problems, as will
be shown,call for large flowsor high average velocities, while others equire high
local turbulence or power dissipatdon. Although both flow rate and power dissipa
tion increase with stirer speed, selection of the type and size of the impeller in
fluences the relative values of fiow rate and power dissipation. In general, large
impellers moving at medium speed are used to promote flow, and smaller im
pellers operating at high speed are used where intense turbulence is required.

Flow number. Aturbine or propeller agitator is, in cssence, apump impeller op

erating wihout acasing and with undirected indet and output Rows. The goveming
 CHAPTER 9: Agitation and Mixing of Liquids 245

(ten one agitator serves several purposes at the same ime, as in he catalytic
fogenation of a liquid. In a hydrogenation vessel, the hydrogen gas is dispersed
Arough the liquid in which solid particles of catalyst are suspended, promoting
mass transfer between the liquid and suspended particles. The heat of reaction is
simultaneously removed by acooling coil or jacket. Heat transfer in agitated vessels
is discussed in Chap. 15; mass transfer to drops, bubbles, and solid particles in
Chap. 17.

AGITATED VESSELS

Liquids are most often agitated in some kindof tank or vessel, usually cylindrical in
form and with a vertical axis. The top of the vessel may be open to the air; more usu
ally it is closed. The proportions of the tank vary widely, depending on the nature of
the agitation problem. Astandardized design such as that shown in Fig. 9.1, how
ever, is applicable in many situations. The tank bottom is rounded, not flat, to elim
inate sharp cormers or regions into which fluid currents would not penetrate. The liq
uid depth is approximately equal to the diameter of the tank. An impeller is mounted
onan overhung shaft, that is,a shaft supported from above. The shaft is driven by a
motor, sometimes directly connected to the shaft but more often connected to it
through a speed-reducing gearbox.Accessories such as inlet and outlet lines,coils,
jackets, and wells for thermometers or other temperature-measuring devices are
usually included.

FIGURE 9.1

Molor Typical agitation process vessel.

-Speedreducer

Liquid surface
Dip leg Thermowell
UPBAS 2.2.1
Jocket
Shoft
Boffle
Impeller

Drain valve
 P
PERRY'S
CHEMICAL
ENGINEERS'
HANDBOOK

MeGraw-Hill Prepared by a staff of specialists

Ngw York under the editorial direction of
San Francisco
Washington, D.C.
Aucklond
Late Editor
Bogotá
Caracas Robert H. Perry
isbon
London
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Moxico City Editor
Mian Don W. Green
Montroal Deane E. Ackers Professor of Chem ical
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Singopore
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James O. Maloney
Professor Emeritus of Chemical Engineering,
University of Kansas
 Gregory T. Benz

Agitator
Design Technology
for Biofuels and

STohalmnDi Renewable Chemicals

LEY AldhE WILEY

 ler lypes and Hlow Potterns

Impeller Flow Patterns

Generally speaking, turbine impeller flow patterns can be divided into threc types:
axial, radial, and mixed flow. Afourth low pattern, tangential, does not exist to
any significant degrec in a fully baffled tank in turbulent flow. Nor docs it exist in
an unbafled tank in laminar low. Since good design practice dictates the useof
bafles in turbulent flow andthey are not ncededin laminar flow, we do not cxpect
have asignificant degree of tangential flow in any properly designed system.
Therefore we will not discuss tangential flow patterns further.

Axial Flow

An axialflow pattern is one in which the predominant low direction is parallel to

the shaft, at least in theregion of the impeller. Obviously, it must turn around and
change directions at the tank bottom and liquid surface. The flow dircction can be
either up or down. Astylized and simplified depiction of an axial Mow pattern is
found in Figure 4.1.
An axial flow pattern can be produced by impcllers with varying degrees of
solidiry. By solidity, we nmean the fraction of acircle that just envelops the impeller
in plan vicw that is covered or occluded by the impeller. This concept is illustrated
in Figure 4.2, showing what are typically described as low solidity and high solid
ity impellers in plan view. with a dotted circle drawn around them which just
envelops the impeller swept diameter.
Although in principle impellers can be builtwith asolidity ranging from nearly
zero allthe way up to l00%(withblades overlapping cach other enough to cover

Figure 4.1 Axial flow pattern.

 Impeller ttow Pattes37

Low solidity High solidity

-15% -85%

Figure 4.2 Solidity.

the circle), and anywhere in between, in practice, nmost impellers on the market
are either low solidity, with a solidity value of l0-20%, or high solidity. with a
solidity value of 70-100%. This is probably because there are few applications that
would benefit from amedium solidity impeller. Flow velocity controlled applica
tions (which includes virtually all nonaerated biofuel applications) will usually
use low solidity. as that produces less head and thercfore lowver power draw for a
given amount of flow. High solidity impellers are used where some pressure or a
gradual transition of flow and pressure is needed, such as in liquids near the
boiling point, some solids suspension applications, and rcasonably often for gas
liquid dispersion. They have also been used to reduce abrasive wear in highly
abrasive slurries, as they operate at a lower tip spced than low solidity impcllers
for a given power input.Chord angle is defined as the angle above horizontal of a
line drawn from the front blade edge to the back. For nany axial impellers, this
angle varies from hub to blade tip. For cxample, it might be 35° at the hub and 20
at the blade tip.
Generally, axial flow impellers willhave a chord angle of 37° or less. Chord
angles above 37° change the flow pattern into mixed flow and are likely to
have boundary layer separation in water-like fluids, resulting in higher power
draw.

Radial Flow

Aradial flow pattern is one in which the predominant flow pattern is radially
outward from the impeller, i.e. normal to the shaft axis. It is stylistically repre
sented by Figure 4.3.
Such a flow pattern can be beneficial when trying to agitate low liquid levels.
In that usage, it is often called a "tickler" or "kicker" impeller. It is also useful
for dispersing gasses into liquids, as impellers producing a radial flow pattern

07 12 202: 8$5.50
 vpes ond flow Potterns

Fiqure 4.3 Radial flow pattern.

also produce a strong system of turbulenteddies or vortices which stretch and

collapse gas bubbles, creating stringsof smaller bubbles,and thereby increas
ing interfacial area.
Generally, radial low impellers will havea blade angle of 90° from the horizontal.

Mixed Flow

For lack of a better description, this flow pattern is between axial and radial flow.
Prior to the widespread use of hydrofoils, it was often called axial flow. However.
since hydrofoils more nearly approximate a true axial flow pattern, it is appropri
ate to consider mixed low aseparate category. The mixed low pattern is stylisti
cally depicted in Figure 4.4.
Mixcd flow impellers can be useful at incorporating solids or gas from the liquid
surface, as they tend to create deep vortices when operated near the surface, but
only in down-pumping mode. They are not as good as true axial impellers at creat
ing bulk motion throughout the tank, at any viscosity.
Mixed flovw impellers generally have a chord angle of greater than 37° up to
about 75°. Below37°, the flow pattern is closer.to axial, and above 75°, it is closer
to radial. The most common angle is 4S°.
Impellers with an inner section pitched to pump one way and an outer section
pitched to punp the opposite direction actually produce a flow pattern resembling
mixed flow when the patlern is time averaged. However, the moment-to-moment
low pattern is extremely variable, even chaotic. especially when looked at in three
dimensions. So, we are including a separate category here. It may be the second
time such a category has been used in the literature: the first being in Ref. [J.
 Chemical Process
Equipmet
SuoOAD 21.4,2.1.2

Butterworth-Heinemann Series in Chemical Engineering

 Sidc cntering propcllors are placcd
floor with the shafl horizontal and at a l0"18-24 in. abovc a flat tank
horizontal angle with the
centerlinc of the tank; such mixers arc uscd only for viscositics
below 500 cP or s0.
Dralt tube
In dispersing gascs, the gas should bc fcd dircctly bclow the
impcller or at the periphery of the inpcller. Such arrangcments also
are desirable for mixing liquids.
A13

10.2. KINDS OF IMPELLERS

A rotating impeller in a fluid imparts flow and shear to it, the shear
resulting from the flow of one portion of the fluid past another.
Jeg H/2
Limiting cases of flow are in the axial or radial directions that
impellers are classified conveniently according to which of these
lows is dominant. By rcason of rellcctions from vesscl surfaces and
obstruction by baflles and other internals, howevcr, low pattems in
most cases arc mixcd. When a close approach to axial fMlow is
Offset particularly desirable, as for suspension of the solids of a slurry, the
d/2 impcller may bc houscd in a draft tube; and when radial flow is
necded, a shrouded turbinc consisting of a rotor and a stator may
H/6 be employed.
Because the perfomance of a particular shape of impeller
usually cannot be predicted quanilatively, impcller design is largely
an exercise of judgment so a considerable varicty has been pui lorth
D, by various manufacturers. A few common types are illustrated on
Figure 10.2 and are described as follows:
Figure 10.1. A basic stirred tank design, not to scale, showing a
lower radial impeller and an upper axial impeller housed in a draft
tube. Four equally a. The three-bladed mixing propeller is modelled on the marine
level. D. = tank diameter.bafiles are standard. H= height of liquid
d = impeller diameter. For radial propeller but has a pitch selected for maximum turbulence. They
impellers, 0.3< D, <0.6. are used at relatively high spccds (up to 1800 rpm) with low
viscosity fluids, up to about 4000 cP. Many versions are avail
able: with cutout or perforatcd blades for shredding and brcaking
IMPELLER SPEED up lumps, with sawtooth edges as on Figure 10.2(g) for cutting
and tearing action, and with other than three blades. The
With commercially available motors and speed reducers, standard slabilizing ring shown in the illustration sometimes is included to
speeds are 37, 45, 56, 68, 84, 100, 125, 155, 190, and 320rpm. minimize shaft flutter and vibration particularly at low liquid
Power requirements usually are not great enough to justify the use levels.
of continously adjustable steam turbine drives. Two-speed drlves b. The turbine with flat vertical blades extending to the shaft is
may be required when slarting torques are high, as with a settled suited to the vast majority of mixing duties up to 100,000 cP or
slurry. so at high pumping capacity. The simple geometry of this design
and of the turbines of Figures 10.2(c) and (d) has inspired
IMPELLER LOCATION
extensive testing so that prediction of their performance is on a
Expert opinions differ somewhat on this factor. As a first more rational basis than that of any other kind of impeller.
c. The horizontal plate to which the impeller blades of this turbine
approximation, the impeller can be placed at 1/6 the liquid level off
the bottom. In some cases there is provision for changing the are attached has a stabilizing effect. Backward curved blades
position of the impcller on the shaft. For off-bottom suspension of may be used for dhe same reason as for type e.
solids, an impeller location of 1/3 the impcller diameter off the d. Turbine with blades are inclined 45 (usually). Constructions
with two to cight blades are uscd, six bcing most common.
bottom may be satisfactory. Criteria developed by Dickey (1984) Combined axial and radial low are achieved. Especially eflective
are based on the viscosity of the liquid and the ratio of the liquid for heat exchange with vessel walls or internal coils.
depth to the tank diameter, hD,. Whether one or two impellers are
needed and their distances above the bottom of the tank are e. Curved blade turbines effectively disperse fibrous materials
identified in this table: without fouling. The swept back blades have a lower starting
torque than straight ones, which is important when starting up
setled slurries.
Maximum
Viscosity level Number of
Impeller Clearance Shrouded turbines consisting of a rotor and a stator ensure
(cP Pa sec)] h/D, Impellers Lower Upper bigh degree of radial flow and shearing action, and are well
adapted o emulsification and dispersion.
<25,000 (<25) hl3 g. Flat plate impellers with sawtooth edges are suited to emul
<25.000(<25) 2.1 D./3 (Z/3)h sification and dispersion. Since the shearing action is localized.
>25,000 (>25) 0.8 h/3 bafles are not required. Propellers and turbines also are sometimes
>25,000 (>25) 1.6 2 D,/3 (2/3)h provided with sawtooth edges to improve shear.
h. Cage beaters impart a cutting and bcating action. Usually they arc
Another rule is that a sccond impcller is needed when the liquid mounted on the same shaft with a standard propcler. More violent
must travel more than 4 ft before deflection. action may be obtained with spined blades.
 (C)
(a)

(h)

(k
Figure 10.2. Rcoresentlive kinds of impellers (descriplions in the lext).
 Ahemical Reactor
Analysis and Design UBOAP 24-3

Froment Bischoff De Wilde

3rd Edition
 QA CIHAPTER 8: TIE BATCHAND SEMIBATCH REACTORS

INTRODUCTION

Batch reactors are generally used for liquid phase reactions. When asolid
catalyst has to be kept in suspension or when there are two liquid phases, as in
the nitration of aromatics, for instance, an agitator is required. Agitation is also
necessary to equalize the temperature in the reactor and to keep it at the desired
level by eficient heat exchange through a jacket or an internal coil.
Consequently, the batch rcactor is generally considercd to be spatialy uniform in
composition and temperature. The composition changes with time, however.
Temperature sequencing may be favorable for the selectivity or for achieving
complete conversion in a safe way.
In pure batch operation the reactants are completely fed into the reactor
at the beginning. For better control of temperature this typc of opcration may not

toam bcaket

Coolne otls. W00

1700H

LI-blae turtiE
Sparecr

se
Sten t iolct

100 00 un

Figure 8-I
Batch reactor for the production of antibiotics by fermentation. Reprinted from S. Aiba,
A.E. Humphrey and N.F. Milis, "Biochemical Engincering", 2nd Ed., University of
Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 1973 and from J.E. Bailey and D.F. Ollis, "Biochemical
Enginccring Fundamentals", McGraw Hill, New York, 1986.
 ChemE ADVANCING
CHEMICAL
ENGNEERING
WORLDWIDE

Principles of
Fermentation
Technology
Third Edition

Peter F.Stanbury, Allan Whitaker and Stephen J. Hall

Cs Dipindai dengan CamScanner

 ER9 Aeration and agitation

Ilow bccomes progrcssivcly less clficicnt as a mcans of incrcasing K,a as inputs rise.
Thus, high oxygcn-transler rates are achicved at considerable expcnse.
From this discussion it evident that the K,aof an aerated, agitated vessel is
affected significantly by the consun1ption of power during stirring and, hence, the
degree of agitation. Although it is not possible to derive a relationship bctween K,a
and power consumption which is applicable to allsituations it is possible to derive a
relationship between the (wo which is operable within certain limits and should be
a uscful guide in practical design problems. If it is accepted that such relationships
betwccn power consumpion and K,a arc of some practical signiticance, it is of con
siderable inmportance to relate power consumplion lo the operaling variables that
may allect iL. Quanitative relationships between power consumplion and operating
variables may be useful in:
1. Estimating the amount of power that an agitation system will consume under
certain circumstances, which could assist in fermenter design.
2. Providing similar degrees of power consumption (and, hence, agitation and,
therefore, K,as) in vessels of different size.
Relationship between power consumption and operating variables
Rushton, Costich, and Everett (1950) investigated the relationship between power
consumption and operating variables in baffled, agitated vessels using the technique
of dimensional analysis. They denonstrated that power absorption during agita
tion of nongassed Newtonian liquids could be represented by adimensionless group
termed thc powcr number, dcfincd by the cxpression:
N, = PI(pN'D') (9.22)

where N, is the power number, Pis the external power from the agitator, pis the liq
uid density, Nis the impeller rotational speed, Dis the impeler diamete.
Thus,the power number is the ratio of external force exerted (P) to the inertial
force imparted (pN°D) to the liquid. The motion of liquids in an agitated vesselmay
be described by another dimensionless number known as the Reynolds number that
is a ratio of inertial to viscous forces:

N =(pD°N)L (9.23)

where N,,is the Reynolds number and u is the liquid viscosity.

Yet another dimensionless number, termed the Froude number, relates inertial
force to gravitational force and is given the term:
N, =(N°D)/g (9.24)

where Nis the Froude number and g is the gravitational force.

Rushton et al. (1950) demonstrated that the power number was related to the
Reynolds and Froude numbers by the general expression:
N, =c(N (N) (9.25)
 Factors affecting K,a values in fermentation vessels 569

ec is a constant dependent on vesscl geometry but independent of vesscl size,

and y are exponents.
Examples of the values of c, X, and y are considered later.
However, in a fully baffied agitated vessel the cffect of gravity is minimal so that
the relationship between the power number and the other dimensionless numbers
becomes:

N, =c(NG) (9.26)

Therefore substituting from Egs. (9.22) and (9,23):

PlpN'D')= c(pD'Nlu)' (9.27)

experimen
Values for P al various values of N, D, u, and p may be delermined
for each experimental situation may then
tally and the Reynolds and power numbers of
logarithm of the power number against the logarithm
be calculated. A plot of the curve
power
the Reynolds number yields a graph termed the power curve. A typical Fig. 9. 17 and such
agitated by a flat-blade turbine is illustrated in
for abatfled vessel
regardless of size.
a curve would apply to geometrically similar vessels
Fig. 9.17 it may be seen that a power curve is divisible into three clearly
From
defined zones depicting different types of fluid flow:
logarithm of the power number
1. The laminar or viscous flow zonc where the
decreases linearly with an increase in the logarithm of the Reynolds number.
the exponent in Eq. (9.27) and is obviously
The slope of the graph is equal to x,
function of the viscosity of
equal to -1.The power absorbed in this region is a
than 10.
the liquid and the Reynolds number is less
2. The transient or transition zone, where there is no consistent relationship between
of the plot) is
the power and Reynolds numbers. The value of x (ie, the slope 10*.
Reynolds number is between 10 and
variable and the value of the

2.0

1.0
l
No g

-1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

log Nae
FIGURE 9.17 ATypical Power Curve for a Baffled Vessel Agitated by a Flat-Blade Turbine
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 |I Theory of Microforming

Because I=(1/12)bh, bascd on Eqs. (3.3 ), (3.33),

t can be concluded that the deflection distance S (3.35). and (3.37),
is scaled as , and based
on Eqs. (3.32). (3.34). (3.36), and (3.38) the angle of
if the beam is scaled with the scale factor of rotation is scaled as ,
l.
Stiffness., k, the resistance of an elastic body to
deflection or deforma
tion by an applied force, and can be expressed as:
F
k= (3.39)
Since F « andS « , thus we have that k x l.

3.5 SCALING IN HYDRODYNAMICS

Hydrodynanmics is a sub-discipline of fluid dynamics that studies the
motion of liquids. It has a wide range of applications in engineering,
including determination of the mass flow rate of petroleum through
pipelines, optimization of propulsion efficiency, prediction of wave
dynamics, and measurement of liquid metal flows. In miniaturization,
hydrodynamics becomes increasingly important with the application of
hydromechanical system in microforming process and the development of
micro fluidics system. Knowledge on hydrodynamiccharacterization of the
fluids helps to optimize the fluids flow and mitigate unwanted effects in
the hydromechanical system and micro fluidics system.
Consider a fluid flowing through a small circular tube with a characteris
tic length of Land an internal radius of r, as illustrated in Fig. 3.I1. For lam
inar flow, the pressure drop AP between the two ends of the tube can be
obtaincd by using the Hagen-Poiseuille cquation as:
AP=
8uLQ
(3.40)

where u is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, Q is the volumetric flow rate,
and T is the mathematic constant.
So, if the dynamic viscosity å and the volumetric flow rate Q are kept
unchanged, the pressure drop over the length of L, APIL, will be scaled as
r". If pand AP/L are kept unchanged, Q willbe scaled as . This explains
why it is hard to push fluid through microchannels by means of pressure
drop, making conventional pressure-driven pumping difficult for use in
microchannels. For example, if we decrease the radius of the tube by a factor
FIGURE 3.11 Pluid flow in
Flow in Flow out a small circular tube.
AP
2r