SubjectName:CMTS SubjectCode:4360701

1. Define Hardware, Software and Firmware.

Hardware:

 Computer Hardware is the physical part of the computer system, the machinery and equipment.
 Parts of the computer “you can see”
Types of Hardware: 1. Input devices 2. Output devices 3. Storage devices 4. Internal components

Firmware:  Firmware is low-level software often stored on electrically programmable mernory devices.

 Firmware is given its name because it is treated like hardware and run by other software programs.
 Firmware is a combination of software and hardware.
Computer chips that have data or programs recorded on them are firmware.
 These chips commonly include the following:
ROMs(read-only memory)
PROMs(programmable read-only memory)
EPROMs(erasable programmable read-only memory)

Software: software refers to the set of instructions, or programs, that tell a computer what to do, enabling it to perform
specific tasks, as opposed to the physical components (hardware)

Purpose:
Software is designed to instruct the computer's hardware to perform specific tasks, such as running
applications, managing operating systems, or executing calculations.

2 Explain the block diagram of PC

Input:-
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 All the data received by the computer goes through the input unit. The input unit comprises different devices like a mouse,
keyboard, scanner, etc. In other words, each of these devices acts as a mediator between the users and the computer.
 The data that is to be processed is put through the input unit. The computer accepts the raw data in binary form. It then
processes the data and produces the desired output.
 The 3 major functions of the input unit are-
 Take the data to be processed by the user.
 Convert the given data into machine-readable form.And then, transmit the converted data into the main memory of the
computer. The sole purpose is to connect the user and the computer. In addition, this creates easy communication between
them.
CPU – Central Processing Unit
 Central Processing Unit or the CPU, is the brain of the computer. It works the same way a human brain works. As the brain
controls all human activities, similarly the CPU controls all the tasks.
 Moreover, the CPU conducts all the arithmetical and logical operations in the computer.
 Now the CPU comprises of two units, namely – ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and CU (Control Unit). Both of these units
work in sync.
ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit
 The Arithmetic Logic Unit is made of two terms, arithmetic and logic. There are two primary functions that this unit
performs.
 Data is inserted through the input unit into the primary memory. Performs the basic arithmetical operation on it. Like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It performs all sorts of calculations required on the data. Then sends back
data to the storage.
 The unit is also responsible for performing logical operations like AND, OR, Equal to, Less than, etc. In addition to this it
conducts merging, sorting, and selection of the given data.
 CU – Control Unit
 The control unit as the name suggests is the controller of all the activities/tasks and operations. All this is performed inside
the computer.
 The memory unit sends a set of instructions to the control unit. Then the control unit in turn converts those instructions.
After that these instructions are converted to control signals.
 These control signals help in prioritizing and scheduling activities. Thus, the control unit coordinates the tasks inside the
computer in sync with the input and output units.
 Memory Unit
 All the data that has to be processed or has been processed is stored in the memory unit. The memory unit acts as a hub of
all the data. It transmits it to the required part of the computer whenever necessary.
 The memory unit works in sync with the CPU. This helps in faster accessing and processing of the data. Thus, making tasks
easier and quicker.
Output
 There is nothing to be amazed by what the output unit is used for. All the information sent to the computer once processed
is received by the user through the output unit. Devices like printers, monitors, projectors, etc. all come under the output unit.
 The output unit displays the data either in the form of a soft copy or a hard copy. The printer is for the hard copy. The
monitor is for the display. The output unit accepts the data in binary form from the computer. It then converts it into a
readable form for the user.

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3. Draw the layout of latest motherboard and explain the components mounted on it.

Components of motherboard are following :-

● Processor
● Co – processor
● Clock – generator
● Bus subsystem
● Interrupt controller
● ROM and RAM logic
● DMA controller
● Timer/counter logic
● Peripheral interface logic
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Processor - The processing unit of a computer is the component which processes all those zeros and ones. - The
higher the processing speed the faster the system runs . - The processor is a single IC containing sophisticated
circuits that allow it to perform arithmetic functions. - It contains 2 main sections : 1) EU(execution Unit) and
2)BIU(Bus Interface Unit) - The EU is the part that carries out the instructions - The BIU is used to transfer the
data between the microprocessor and other circuits.

Co – Processor - The co-processor is an optional plug-in component on the motherboard. - It can make a computer
run 5 to 10 times faster in some operation. - The processor works in conjunction with the coprocessor when it is
operating in maximum mode.

Clock- Generator - Computer uses Clock logic - These logic elements are designed to operate synchronously. -
This synchronous operation helps the machine keep track of every bit that it can process. - These timing controls
are generated by clock generator’s logic.

Bus Subsystem - The bus controller generated the signal to control address latch, the direction control signal for
the data bus transfer and also signals for memory read, memory write, I/O read and I/O write.

Interrupt Controller - Interrupts are generated to capture the processor’s attention and temporarily divert it to a
different process. - It handles 8 maskable interrupts. - The non-maskable interrupts generate the NMI signals. - It is
generated on detection of : 1. RAM parity error in motherboard. 2. RAM parity error in the daughter board which
has the RAM as expansion memory. 3. Co – processor error, if a co-processor is installed.

RAM and ROM logic - The ROM stored the POST (Power on Self-test) and BIOS. - The use of dynamic RAM in
PCs needs refreshing memory.

DMA Controller - To speed up the system performance the main processor is to be relieved from time consuming
jobs. - The DMA handles these tasks separately. - Once it receives instruction from the CPU, DMA takes the
command and does all the memory transfer operation.

Timer/Counter Logic - Time 0: It is used to interrupt the processor at the rate of 18.2 clock per sec. - Time 1: It is
used to generate DMA request signals for performing refresh cycles at every 15 microseconds. - Time 2: It is used
to generate various tones by the speaker.

PPI (Programmable Peripheral Interface) - The PPI device connects the peripheral device to the computer system. -
It is designed to implement parallel I/O ports without the additional circuit. - It is a very flexible parallel interface
that is software controlled.

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4. Define chipset and explain North Bridge and South Bridge.

The specialized chips on a computer’s motherboard or expansion card are called chipset. - It is a
set of intelligent controller chips. - It includes a variety of other functions to make the PC
designer's life easier. - There are 2 types of chipset: 1) North Bridge and 2) South Bridge

North Bridge Chipset - A north bridge is a microchip on some PC motherboards and is connected directly to the
CPU and thus responsible for tasks that require the highest performance. - It is usually paired with Southbridge,
also known as an I/O controller hub. - It typically handles communications among the CPU , in some cases RAM
and PCS express video cards, and the Southbridge. - Some Northbridge also contains integrated IDE controllers
also known as a Graphics and Memory Controller Hub in Intel systems

South Bridge chipset - The south bridge typically implements the slower capabilities of the motherboard in a
north/south bridge computer architecture. - In Intel chipset systems, the south bridge is named Input/Output
controller hub (ICH). - It can usually be distinguished from the Northbridge by not being directly connected to the
CPU.

- Through the use of controller integrated channel circuitry. - A Southbridge can handle all computer I/O functions
and IDE channels.

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5. Explain the block diagram of SMPS along with the components.

The SMPS is mostly used where switching of voltages is not at all a problem and where efficiency of the system really
matters. There are few points which are to be noted regarding SMPS. They are

 SMPS circuit is operated by switching and hence the voltages vary continuously.
 The switching device is operated in saturation or cut off mode.
 The output voltage is controlled by the switching time of the feedback circuitry.
 Switching time is adjusted by adjusting the duty cycle.
 The efficiency of SMPS is high because, instead of dissipating excess power as heat, it continuously switches its input to
control the output.

Disadvantages The noise is present due to high frequency switching.

 The circuit is complex.
 It produces electromagnetic interference.

Advantages  The efficiency is as high as 80 to 90%

 Less heat generation; less power wastage.
 Reduced harmonic feedback into the supply mains.
 The device is compact and small in size.
The manufacturing cost is reduced.
 Provision for providing the required number of voltages.

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Applications:There are many applications of SMPS. They are used in the motherboard of
computers, mobile phone chargers, HVDC measurements, battery chargers, central power
distribution, motor vehicles, consumer electronics, laptops, security systems, space stations,
etc.

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QUESTION:6 Define: 1) Seek Time 2) Rotational Latency 3) Track 4) Sector 5) Cylinder

ANSWER:
1) SeekTime:
 Itis thetimetakenbyeachR/Wheadtoreachdesiredtrack
 Ifwecandecreaseseek timethenperformancecan beimproved
 Iftheinitiallocationofheadisdesired trackthenseektimewouldbe0
 Ifinitialtrackwasoutermostedgeofmediaanddesiredtrackisatinnermostedgethenseektim
ewouldbemaximum
 Thetracktotrackmeasurementisthetimerequiredtomovefromonetracktoanadjacenttrackt
hisisshortestpossibleseektimewhichispossiblybetween0.2and
0.8ms
 Thefullstrokemeasurementistimerequiredtomovefromoutermosttracktinnermosttrack.
Thisisthelargestpossible seektime
2) RotationalLatency:
It isthetimetakentoreachdesired sector(Halfofrotationtime)OR
Time taken bysectorto comeunderR/Whead
Itisalsoknownas RotationalDelayor justLatency
3)Tracks:
 Each side of the hard disk drives platter’s surface is divided into concentric
circlescalledtracks asshowninabovefig.
 Eachtrackisidentifiedbyitsnumber.Theoutermosttracksaregiventracknumber0thenexto
ne1andsoon.Theinnermosttrack havethehighesttrack number.
 The numbers of tracks are depending on the hard disk manufacturer. Generally
thereare 300 to 500 in range. Typically disk withmore tracks may give more hard
diskdatastoragecapacity

4) Cylinders:
 The hard disk having more than one platter makes virtually a cylinder
likestructureonsametracksofdifferentplattersasshown infigure.
 For example the track 1 on the all the platter is make a cylinder 1. The data is
storedcylinderby cylinderon the disk.Firstall the tracks of same cylinderare
written.Once a cylinder becomes full the read/write head moves to the next cylinder
forwritingremainingdata.

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5) Sector:
 Thetracksaredividingfurtherwhichiscalledthesector.
 Mostoftheharddrivemanufacturerfollowsastandardforstoringno.ofdatabytesofeachsectora
ndasastandardonalmostallthedrivesare stored512bytesoneachsector.
 Depending on no. of sectors per track storage capacity will change and hence the
harddiskcapacity
 Thesectoralwaysstartswiththenumber1whilethetrackandcylinderarestartwith0.
 One can know the no. of sides track and sectors per track the total hard disk size
iseasilycalculatedforexamplewithharddiskhaving3platters(6sides)1024tracksandeachtr
ackhave37sectorsthe harddiskdrivesizeis
Totalsectors=6x1024x37=2,27,328
Hard DiskSize=2,27,328x512=11,63,91,936bytes= 111 MB

QUESTION: 7 Explain physical structure of hard disk

ANSWER:

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1) DISKPLATTERS:
 Allhard disksconsist ofthinplatterswithamagneticcoating.
 Theyrotatequitefastinsideametalcontainer.
 Dataarewrittenand read byread/writeheads,whicharedesigned to
rideonamicroscopiccushionofair,withouttouching
theplatter.Theyregisterbitsfromthemagneticcoating.
 Aharddiskwiththreeplattersisshowninfigure.
 Generallytheharddiskhasminimum1platterandmaximumupto10(evenmorepossible)dependo
ntheharddiskmanufacturer.

2) Spindle Motor:
 The disk platters are connected to one central spindle, which is directly connected to the
mainspindlemotor.
 MostoftheHard disk drivespindlemotorislocated atthebottomofthedrive.
 Spindle motor gives circular rotation to the platters for Read/Write operation on specific
locationOn some drives the spindle is connected to the spindle rotation motor through some belt
or gears.Thismotorworksona feedbacklooptoautomaticallyadjustthe disk'srotationspeed.
 To use more platters in Hard disk drive the spindle, motor is directly built into the platter
hubinside the sealed assembly. This will allow adding more platters in hard disk drive because
thespindlemotordoes nottakeanyadditionalverticalspace.

3) Read/WriteHead

 As shown in above with 3 platters,ithas 6 read/write heads,twoheadsfor every one

platter,whichmovesynchronouslythearmswhichguidethemovementoftheread/writeheadsmoveinand out.
 These heads do not require cleaning or any other maintenance, as the floppy drive heads because
theseheads donot touch the disk surface insteaditfloats a distance above the disksurface
duringtheread/write process. When specifying the head number for reading or writing any information
onto thediskdrive.The firstheadisspecifiedashead0next1soon.
 The synchronous movement of these arms is performed by an electro-mechanical system called the
headactuator.
 Whenthediskrotatesundertheread/writeheaditcaneitherreadexistingdataorwritenewones.
 Inwritemode,currentisappliedtothecoiltheheadwillbecomemagnetic.
 Thismagnetismwillorientthemicromagnetsinthetrack.
 If the head moves along the track without current applied to the coil, it will sense the micro magnets
inthetrack.
 This magnetismwillinduceacurrentinthecoil. Theseflashesofcurrentrepresentthedataonthedisk.

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3) HeadActuatorMechanism:
 To moving read/write head of the Hard disk drive on the disk platters is referred as
HeadActuatorMechanism.
 TherearetwotypeofHeadActuatorMechanism
o Stepper Motor Actuator (Open-loopdisk drive)-A stepper motor rotates infixangle
with each step. Earlier low capacity, low cost Hard disk drive used this type
ofActuatorassemblytomove read/writehead.
o Voice Coil Actuator (Closed-loop disk drive)- The actuator in a modern hard
diskuses a device called a voice coil to move the head arms in and out over the
surface ofthe platters, and a closed-loop feedback system called a servo system to
dynamicallypositiontheheadsdirectlyoverthedatatracks.Thevoicecoilworksusingelectr
omagnetic attractionandrepulsion.

QUESTION: 8 Explain LogicalStructureof HardDiskDrive

ANSWER:

FollowingarethemajorlogicalpartoftheDisk:
 SidesorHeads
 Tracks
 Cylinder
 Sector
 Zone
2) SidesorHeads:
 Drivewiththree plattersone canreadand writeonsixsides.
 Eachsideofthediskhasaseparateread/writeheadtoread/writeonthedisk surface
3) Tracks:
 Each side of the hard disk drives platter’s surface is divided into concentric
circlescalledtracks asshowninabovefig.
 Eachtrackisidentifiedbyitsnumber.Theoutermosttracksaregiventracknumber0thenexto
ne1andsoon.Theinnermosttrack havethehighesttrack number.
 The numbers of tracks are depending on the hard disk manufacturer. Generally
thereare 300 to 500 in range. Typically disk withmore tracks may give more hard
diskdatastoragecapacity.

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4) Cylinders:
 The hard disk having more than one platter makes virtually a cylinder
likestructureonsametracksofdifferentplattersasshown infigure.
 For example the track 1 on the all the platter is make a cylinder 1. The data is
storedcylinderby cylinderon the disk.Firstall the tracks of same cylinderare
written.Once a cylinder becomes full the read/write head moves to the next cylinder
forwritingremainingdata.

5) Sector:
 Thetracksaredividingfurtherwhichiscalledthesector.
 Mostoftheharddrivemanufacturerfollowsastandardforstoringno.ofdatabytesofeachsectora
ndasastandardonalmostallthedrivesare stored512bytesoneachsector.
 Depending on no. of sectors per track storage capacity will change and hence the
harddiskcapacity
 Thesectoralwaysstartswiththenumber1whilethetrackandcylinderarestartwith0.
 One can know the no. of sides track and sectors per track the total hard disk size
iseasilycalculatedforexamplewithharddiskhaving3platters(6sides)1024tracksandeachtr
ackhave37sectorsthe harddiskdrivesizeis
Totalsectors=6x1024x37=2,27,328
Hard DiskSize=2,27,328x512=11,63,91,936bytes= 111 MB

6) Zone:
 When we logically divide the disk in tracks and sector, due to circular shape the
outertrack or the outer cylinder has much more area compared to the inner track of the
diskdrive.
 Allocating same number of sectors in the outer as well as inner track of the drive is
awasteofthestoragecapacityofthediskdrive.
 The outer tracks have larger area compare to inner tracks, it can be easily divide
moresectorcompare toinneronesoone canincrease storage capacityofdrive
 The outer most zone havemaximum no. of sectors per track. For exampleif the
drivehastotal15trackthenitcanbedividedinto5zone having3tracks

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 The1stoutermosttrackhas40sectors2ndoutermostzonehas32sectors3rd
outermostzonehas24sectors2ndoutermostzonehas16 sectorsandthelastonehas8 sectors

QUESTION: 9 List out different Hard Disk Drive interfaces. Explain all interface and also explain
solid state Drive

ANSWER:

 Harddiskinterfaceistheconnectingpartbetweentheharddiskandthehostcomputersystem
 ItsfunctionistotransmitdatabetweentheharddiskandthecomputerThere
arevarioustypeofHDDinterfaceswhichare
1) SCSI(SmallComputerSystemInterface)
2) IDE(IntegratedDriveElectronics)
3) SATA(SerialAdvanceTechnologyAttachment)
4) RAID(RedundantArrayofIndependentDrives)
5) USB(UniversalSerialBus)

1) SCSI(SmallComputerSystemInterface)
 PronouncedScuzzy
 SmallComputer SystemsInterface
 Forwiderangeofperipheraldevices,includingharddisks, tapedrives, opticaldrives,
CDROMsanddiskarrays.
 8devicescanconnecttoadaisychain
 Thischainmustbeterminatedatbothends
 EachdeviceonchainisassigneduniquedeviceIDnumber thatisdeterminedbyjumpersor DIPswitches 

Fig.SCSIdaisychainconnection

1) IDE(IntegratedDriveElectronics)
 Oneofthebiggestproblemswiththe5T-506/4i2interfacewasitscontrollerwasawayfromthedrive.
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 OriginallydevelopedasalternativetomoreexpensiveSCSIdrives.
 ModernversionscalledEIDEdrives.
 Supportupto 4multigigabytedrives.
 Ifyouwantmoredevices,useSCSIorUSB
 Low-levelformattedat the factory
 As the distance between the controller and the drive increased, there may be chance of data
lost.They integrated the controller in drive itself .which called the IDE. These types of drives are
alsoknownParallelAdvancedTechnologyAttachment(PATA).
 This led to removing the need for long cables to connect the controller with drive. IDE make
thesystem more reliable,low cost and also allow putting 30 or more sectors per track on
thesedrives.

TheIDEdrivesareconnectedwiththemainsysteminthefollowingways:

 IDE drive can be directly connected to the I/O bus slot on the motherboard. This type of
drive/controllerwascalled“Hardcard”.
 Using40pinwirecabletheIDEdriveisconnecttothebusadapteronmotherboard.Thedatacomes

from the IDE drive was already formatted for the I/O bus of the computer, so the adapter board
justneedstopass itontothe IObus.
 If the motherboard has IDE connectors one can directly connected to the IDE drive with this
connectorusing a 40 pin wire cable. Now a day, most of the motherboard provides the one or more IDE
connectoronboard.
o Basedontype ofthe systembus.there are fourtype ofIDE:
o ATAIDE(AT AttachmentIDE)
o XTAIDE
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o MCAIDE
o EIDE
1) SATA(SerialAdvanceTechnologyAttachment)
 AserialversionoftheATA(IDE)interface,whichhasbeenthedefactostandardharddiskinterfa
cefordesktopPCsformorethantwodecades.
 SATAwasintroducedin2002atsignificantlyhigherspeed,transferringdataineachdire
ctionat1.5 Gbps.Ayearlater,SATAIIincreased speedto 3Gbps.
 SATAprovidesapoint-to-
pointchannelbetweenmotherboardanddriveratherthanthemaster-
slavearchitectureintheparalleltechnology.
 SATA uses a four-wire shielded cable up to one meter in length compared to the
wideflat 18" PATA (Parallel ATA)cables.SATA cables as shown in
followingfigureconnectors are considerably smaller than their PATA and take up a lot
less space in thecase.

2) RAID(RedundantArrayofIndependentDrives)
 RedundantArrayofIndependentDrives(orDisks)alsoknownasRedundantArrayofInexpensive
Drives (orDisks).
 RAIDoffersdifferentschemesforincreaseddatareliabilityand/orI/Operformance.
 Mostschemesarenumberedandreferredtoaslevels.RAIDbeganasacollectionofsuchfivelevels.
 RAIDBasicFunctions
 Fundamentally,RAIDcombinesmultipleharddisksintoasinglelogicalunit.Therearetwowaysthis
canbe done:inhardware andinsoftware.
 Hardwarecombinesthedrivesintoalogicalunitindedicatedhardwarewhichthenpresentsthedrivesas
asingle drivetothe operatingsystem.
 Softwaredoesthiswithintheoperatingsystemandpresentsthedrivesasasingledrivetotheusersofthesyst
em.
o RAIDlevels-
 RAID0:StripedSet(2disksminimum)withoutparity.
 RAID1:MirroredSet(2disksminimum)withoutparity.
 RAID3andRAID4:StripedSet(3diskminimum)withDedicatedparity

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 RAID5:StripedSet(3disk minimum)withDistributedParity.
 RAID6:StripedSet(4disk minimum)withDualDistributedParity.

RAID0 – Striping

 Twoormoredrives
 Writesalternatebetweendrivesfor speed
 Bothdrivesgetsamedriveletterfromsystem
 Fastbutnotsafe;onefailureandallfails

RAID1:Mirroring

 Twodrives,onecontroller
 samedriveletter
 writesaretobothdrives
 Safe,onedrivecanfail, butslow

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RAID1+0(Dataismirroredandstripped)

 NestedRAID
 ItisthecombinationofRAID0 andRAID1soitimprovesperformanceandsecurityboth
 Realtimeapplication:webserver andemailserver

RAID3 andRAID4:

 Inthisdataisbreakintoblocklevel
 Parityofdataisplacedindifferentdisksoifoneofthediskisfailedstillwecanrecoverdatafromparity
 Butthedisadvantageisifdisk ofparityisfailed thenallparitieswillnotabletoget use

RAID5:Striping withParity

 RAID3andRAID4 problemissolvedinRAID5
 Hereparitiesaredistributedinalldisksaoanydiskwillnotbeover utilizedalldiskswill beutilizedequally

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RAID6:
 Inthiswecalculate2 paritiesinstead of1 parity

6) USB(UniversalSerialBus)

 NowadayUSBhard drivesaremorepopular.
 Advantage of External hard drives is that the computers and laptops have a chance
oflosingdataallthetimeandalso theftisverycommonasfar aslaptopisconcerned.
 Externalharddrivesareidealforbackingupyourharddriveorstoringfromyourmainharddrive
.
 Now adaylTBharddisksare alsoverycommonasthe backup’sdrives.

SOLUD STATE DRIVE:

 A solid-state drive (SSD) is a new generation of storage device used in computers.

SSDs store data using flash-based memory, which is much faster than the traditional
hard disks they've come to replace. SSDs also have no moving parts, and upgrading to
one is a great way to speed up your computer and make it more resilient. Learn how
SSDs work and how to keep them optimized with performance-boosting software.
How do SSDs work?
 Solid state drives (SSDs) use a combination of NAND flash memory technology and
advanced controller algorithms. NAND flash memory is the primary storage
component, divided into blocks and pages. An SSD contains a controller chip that
manages data storage, retrieval, and optimization. The controller’s major duties are
wear leveling, which evenly distributes write and erase cycles to extend the SSD’s
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lifespan which consolidates empty blocks to maintain optimal performance. SSDs also
use features like the TRIM command to increase efficiency by telling the drive about
wasted data blocks. Furthermore, data compression and error correction techniques are
used to increase storage capacity while maintaining data integrity.

QUESTION: 10 Explain INKJET and LASER printer

ANSWER:
 Printers:

Aprinterisaperipheralwhich makesa representationofanelectronicdocument onphysicalmedia.

Individualprintersaredesignedtosupportlocalandnetworkusersatthesametime
1) InkjetPrinter
 An inkjetprinter is any printer that places extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to
createanimage.
 The core of an inkjet printer, the print head contains a series of nozzles that are used to
spraydropsofink.
 Dependingonthemanufacturerandmodeloftheprinter,inkcartridgescomeinvariouscombinations,
such as separate black and color cartridges, color and blackin a single
cartridgeorevenacartridgeforeachinkcolor.
 Thecartridgesofsomeinkjetprintersincludetheprintheaditself.
 Asteppermotormovestheprintheadassembly(printheadandinkcartridges)backandforthacrossthe
paper.
 Someprintershaveanothersteppermotortoparktheprintheadassemblywhentheprinterisnotinuse.
 Parkingmeansthattheprintheadassemblyisrestrictedfromaccidentallymoving.
 Abeltisusedtoattachtheprintheadassemblytothesteppermotor.
 Theprintheadassemblyusesastabilizerbartoensurethatmovementispreciseandcontrolled.

2) LaserPrinter
 Laserprintingisanelectrostaticdigitalprintingprocess

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 Itrapidlyproduceshighqualitytextandgraphicsbypassingalaserbeamoverachargeddrumtodefine
adifferentiallychargedimage.
 Thedrumthenselectively collectschargedtonerandtransferstheimagetopaper,whichisthen
heatedtopermanentlyfixtheimage.

 A laser beam, typically from an aluminum gallium arsenidesemiconductor laser, projects an image ofthe
page to be printed onto an electrically charged rotating drum coated with selenium or, more
commoninmodernprinters,organicphotoconductors.
 Photoconductivityallowschargeto leak awayfromtheareasexposed tolight.
 Powdered ink (toner) particles are then electro statically picked up by the drum's charged areas,
whichhavenotbeenexposedtothelaserbeam.
Thedrumthenprintstheimageontopaperbydirectcontactand heat,which fusestheinkto thepaper

QUESTION: 11 ExplainLCD and LED monitor with working principle

ANSWER:

 Monitors:
Themonitorischaracterizedbytheirsupporteddisplaycardstandards.Therearebasicallythreemaintypesofmonitors

1) DigitalMonitor
2) AnalogMonitor
3) Multiscanning Monitor

LEDMonitor:

 A LEDdisplay isa flatpanel display thatusesanarray of light-emittingdiodes as pixels fora

videodisplay.
 Theirbrightnessallowsthemto be usedoutdoorswhere theyare visible inthe
sunforstoresignsandbillboards.
 Inrecentyears,theyhavealsobecomecommonlyusedin destinationsigns on
publictransportvehicles,as wellasvariable-messagesigns onhighways.
 LED displays are capable of providing general illumination in addition to visual display, as
whenusedforstagelightingorotherdecorative(asopposedtoinformational)purposes.

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 LED displays can offer higher contrast ratios than a projector and are thus an alternative
totraditional projection screens,andthey can be usedforlarge,uninterrupted (withouta
visiblegridarisingfromthe bezels ofindividualdisplays)videowalls.
 Micro LED displays are LED displays with smaller LEDs, which poses significant
developmentchallenges.
 LightEmittingDiode(LED)displaytechnologyisinafascinatingstagenow.
 The evolution of the display technology started with the cathode ray tube to cutting-edge
OLEDtechnology.
 LEDdisplaysstillholdamarketshareofaround40%.

ConstructionofLEDlight

 Let'sgetback toourLEDdisplaydesignwhichremainsincomplete
 SomepixelsarebrighterthanothersbecausethebacklightLEDarraysareprovidingunevenlight.
 Withthehelp ofdiffusersheets,Icanevenlyspreadthelight.
 However, the diffuser sheet spreads light in all directions which reduces brightness in the
desireddirection.
 Tosolvethisissue,let'saddaprismsheetinfrontofthediffusersheet.Theprismsheetconcentrateslightina
forwarddirection.
 ThisistheactualconstructionoftheLED display asshownin fig

Howdoesthedisplay work?

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ThequalityoftheimagewillimproveifIreducethesizeofeachoftheLEDs.However,thiscausesan issue.Icannot
reduce the size of LEDs after a limit due to manufacturing difficulty. To obtain a 4K quality image,
thesizerequiredforthe LED isapproximatelyone-thirdofamillimeterwhichisdifficulttoachieve.

So, how can scientists overcome this problem? Instead of making extremely small RGB LEDs, they
usedminiature color filters for the display and used normal-sized white LEDs as a backlight. However,
thisarrangementwill justproduceawhitecolorwhenthebacklightisturnedonasshowninfig3aanditproducesablack
color when the backlight is turned off. To produce different colors, we must be able to control theintensity of
light for each color filter independently. This can be achieved by a clever arrangement of twopolarisersheets
andamaterialthatcanchangethe opticalangle

Lightintensitycontrollingmechanism

Now, let's understand the light intensity controlling mechanism. When the backlight incident on a
verticalpolarizer, it will allow only the vertical component of light to pass, blocking out all other components.
The roleof the optical sheet now comes into play. It is the size of a subpixel. When I give a rotate signal to this
sheet, itwill rotate the vertically polarized light to the angle I want. If this angle of rotation is 90 degrees, the
nextpolarizer layer, the horizontal polarizer, will allow the light to pass through completely as shown in fig 4a.
If Irotate the light less than 90 degrees, the horizontal polarizer will block out some of the light, and the
intensity ofthe subpixel will be reduced. If the angle of rotation is 0 degrees, obviously the wholelightwill be
blocked.Thisis thewayIcancontroleachsubpixel'slightintensity.

Using three such units, I can construct a pixel as shown in fig. Now I can obtain any color pixel simply
byvaryingtheangleoflightrotation.Togetacyancolor,Isimplyneedtoblocktheredfilterlight.Similarly,toget a yellow
color, I need to block the blue filter light. Using this clever arrangement, I can build an
entiredisplaysystem.Thisis thebasic designbehindanLEDTV.

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LCDMonitor:

WhatisLiquidCrystalDisplay:

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is an flat display screen used in electronic devices such as laptop, computer,
TV,cell phones and portable video games. As the name says liquid crystal is a material which flows like a
liquidandshowssomepropertiesofsolid.TheseLCDareverythindisplaysanditconsumeslesspowerthanLEDs.

MoleculararrangementofLiquidCrystal:

Moleculararrangementofliquidcrystal

As the name says the molecular structure of liquid crystal is in between solid crystal and liquid isotropic.
InLiquid crystal display (LCD) nematic type of liquid cyrstal molecular arrangement is used in which
moleculesareorientedinsomedegreeofalignment.For
examplewhenweincreasethetemperaturetheicecubemeltsandliquidcrystalislike thestateinbetweenicecube
andwater

ConstructionofLiquidCrystalDisplay:

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ConstructionofLCD

Construction of LCD consists of two polarized glass pieces. Two electrodes are used, one is positive and
theotheroneisnegative. ExternalpotentialisappliedtoLCDthroughthiselectrodesanditis madeupofindium-tin-
oxide. Liquid crystal layer of about 10µm- 20µm is placed between two glass sheets. The light is passed
orblockedbychangingthepolarization.

WorkingofLiquidCrystalDisplay

The basic working principle of LCD is blocking of light. It does not produce light on its own. So external
lightsourceisused.Whentheexternallightpassesfromonepolarizer
tothenextpolarizer,externalsupplyisgiventotheliquid crystal,thepolarizedlightalignsitselfsothat
theimageisproduced inthe screen.

WorkingofLCD

Theindiumoxideconductingsurfaceisatransparentlayer whichisplacedonboththesidesofthesealedthicklayer

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ofliquid crystal.Whennoexternalbiasisapplied themolecular arrangementisnotdisturbed.

Whentheexternalbiasisappliedthemoleculararrangementisdisturbedanditandthatarealooksdarkandtheotherarealook
s clear.

LCDDisplay

Inthesegmentarrangement,theconductingsegmentlooksdarkandtheothersegmentlooksclear. Todisplaynumber2,the
segments A,B,G,E,Dare energized.

In positive LCD display the segments are dark and the background is white and the polarizers are
placedperpendicular toeachother.InthenegativeLCDdisplaythesegmentsarewhiteinthedarkbackgroundand
thepolarizersarealignedtoeachother.

Advantages:

 Itisthinandcompact

 Lowpowerconsumption

 Lessheatisemittedduringoperation

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 Lowcost

Disadvantages:

 Speedofoperationislow

 Lifespanisless

 Restrictedviewingangles

Applications:

 Usedindigitalwristwatch

 Displayimagesindigitalcameras

 Usedinnumericalcounters

 Displayscreenin calculators

 Mainlyusedintelevision

 Used inmobilescreens

 Used invideoplayers

 Used inimagesensingcircuits

QUESTION: 12 Explain working principle of mouse and scanner

ANSWER:

 MOUSE:

 Amouseisaninputdevicethatdetectstwo-dimensionalmotionrelativetoasurface.
 Thismotionistypicallytranslatedintothemotionofapointeronadisplay,whichallowsforfinecontrolofagr
aphicaluserinterface.
 Amouseconsistsofanobjectheldinone'shand,withoneormorebuttons.
 Miceoftenalsofeatureotherelements,suchastouchsurfacesand"wheels",whichenableextracontrolanddi
mensionalinput.

 Amousetypically controlsthemotion ofapointerin

twodimensionsinagraphicaluserinterface(GUI).
 Themouseturnsmovementsofthehandbackwardandforward,leftandrightinto
equivalentelectronicsignalsthatinturnareusedtomovethepointer.
 Clicking or hovering (stopping movement while the cursor is within the bounds ofan
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area) can select files, programs or actions from a list of names, or (in
graphicalinterfaces)throughsmallimagescalled"icons" andotherelements.

Hasarubberormetalballonitsundersidethatcanrollinalldirections.Mechanicalsensorswithinthemousedetectth
e directionthe ballisrollingandmove thescreenpointeraccordingly

 Youmustmovethemousealongaspecialmatwithagridsothattheopticalmechanismhasaframe
ofreference.
 Opticalmicehavenomechanicalmovingparts.
 Theyrespondmorequicklyandpreciselythantheothertwotype,buttheyarealsomoreexpensive.
 The mouse's light-emitting diode (LED) or laser illuminates the surface.
 The light reflects off the surface.
 A sensor in the mouse captures the reflected light.
 The sensor analyzes the images and calculates the movement of the mouse.
 The information is sent to your computer.
 The computer moves the cursor accordingly.

 Scanner:

 A scanner uses light and a sensor to capture images from documents or objects and convert them
into digital files.
 How it works
 Place the document on the scanner.
 The scanner's light illuminates the document.
 The reflected light is captured by a photosensitive sensor.
 The sensor converts the light patterns into digital information.
 The digital information is stored on the computer .

.
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QUESTION: 13 Explain working principle of mouse and scanner

ANSWER:

 CD(COMPACTDISK):

 Compactdisc isportablestoragedevicesused forstoringdigitaldata likerecording,storing,andplayingvideo,

and audio. Compact Disc can be explained as a disc-like memory device made from plasticmaterial.
 CDsor CompactDisksareopticallyreadablemedia.
CDsarethereplacementofthephonographdisc.Themainmaterialofthe CDis plastic.
 Theshapeoftheplasticiscircular andonesideofthecircular
plasticiscoatedwiththereflectingmetalcoating,usuallyaluminium.
 Datacanbestoredmuchmoredenselyinopticmediathaninmagneticmedia,likeHarddisk.Opticmediahav
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eamuch longerlifespan.Millionsofbitsareburnedintothiscoating.
 CDscanstoremanytypesofdata,likeaudio,video,games,anydocuments,etc.Thedataarescannedbyalaserb
eamwithaCD drivertovisualize thedata.
 The only thing that is less in CD is storage capacity is very less compared to HDD or DVD and the read-
write speedisalsoveryless.The storage capacityofa CDis700MBonly.

HistoryofCompactDisk

 Atfirst,asCDinventedintheyear1960bytheAmericanphysicistJamesRussell.Thecompactdisk(CD)was
introducedbyPhilipsandSonyin1980andreleasedin1982.

 One day he listened to music and he recognizes that the audio quality is very poor and he tried
toimprove the record player. But he realized that the poor quality of the music happens due to the
recorderdue tothecontactoftheneedlewiththerecorder.
 Then he thought this can be avoided by using a light to read the music without physically touching
thedisk. Then he started working on digital data with optic media and found a way to record media onto
aphotosensitive platterwithtinybits oflightanddarkofsize1-micronindiameter.
 Then he filed a patent application in 1966, and the patent was granted in 1970. After this Sony
andPhilips licensed with his patents for recording using optic readable media. After all this finally, in
1982Sonyreleaseda CDplayername CDP-101.Thisishow CDsareintroduced.

HowCompactDiscWorks?

Compactdiscs,sometimesknownasCDs,typicallyhaveadiameterof12cm,or4.5inches.Therearefourdistinctlayersinit.

 TopLayer

 LacquerLayer

 ReflectiveLayer

 PolycarbonateDiscLayer

 The top layer is used to mark the disc’s identification marks, and it may also carry printed instructions
ora nameidentifyingthecontentsofthedevice.
 Below the top layer, in the lacquer layer, The device is protected from exposure to atmospheric
air,which can cause oxidation. The reflective layer, which is constructed of aluminium material and
islocated beneath the lacquer layer, is where the laser beam is pointed in order to catch a reflection,
whichcan then be used to read the disk’s data. The data are encoded for the compact disc to function
properlyinthepolycarbonatelayeratthe bottomofthedisc.
 A CD player or disc drive is required in order to access a compact disc. It is made up of a variety
ofhardware components, including a tiny laser beam and another tiny electronic lightdetector, within
aCD player. Here, a semiconductor diode laser is used to produce the laser beam, and a photoelectric
cellservesas theelectroniclightdetector.
 When the CD player or disc drive is turned on, the internal motor of the device enables the compact
discto rotate at a significant high speed, between 200 and 500 rotations per minute. This causes the
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internalsemiconductor diode laser tobe powered up and begin scanning the disc’s tracks from the
centreoutward. To read the data from the base layer, this is transferred through the disc. As a result,
thereflection that was generated can retrieve the data from the CD and provide it to the device accessing
theCD. The digital light detector can receive the reflection and read the electronic contents that are
alreadysavedintothestorageunit.

CharacteristicsofCompactDisk

 ThestandarddiameterofaCDis120mmandthicknessis1.2mm.
 Themain body of the CD is made of hard plastic known as polycarbonate with a reflectivemetalliclayer.
This layer is coated with metallic acrylic plastic. This metal is aluminum. In this layer, the data arestored
using thelaserlightwhichreflectsthecoated layerforreading and writingthedata.
 The data is read in the form of pits, each pit is of 0.83-micrometre and the data is arranged as spiral
trackfromthe disc’sinnerhole toitsouteredge,because the CDisofcircularshape.
 TheholeisinthecentreoftheCD, whichdiameter is15mm.
 The area closest to the hole is known as the clamping area, no data is stored in this area because there
isnometalliclayer.This areaisnearlyequalto26mmto33mminradius.
 Theradiusoftheusablearea,that iswherethedatacan bestoreisof38mm.

TypesofCompactDisks

TherearethreetypesofCDsavailable:

 CD-R :CD-R full form is Compact Disc – Recordable. This type of compact disc can be written
onlyonce andcannoterased.

 CD-ROM :CD-ROM stands for CompactDisk-Read Only Memory. This disks are read once,
afterreaditis use as a ROM,thatis cannotbe updatedlater.

 CD-RW :CD-RW full form is Compact Disc-ReWritable. This type of compact disc can be
writtenmultiple times andcanbeerasedalso,likePendrive.

AdvantagesofCompactDisk

 Portable: CDsaremorecompactandlightweight,theyareeasiertostoreandtravel.

 Reliable: In that time, an entire software can be stored on one CD, so its very reliable for the
softwareindustriesinthedays.

 Multiple Applications: It is also adaptable. The higher capacity of the compact disc was exploited
foruses other than storing digital audio. CDs became a popular media for distributing home films,
softwarepackages,andotherdigitalcontent.

 Random Access: CD provides random data access. Users can use this random access to choose
musictracks,specificfiles ordata,orexplore a menuviaa userinterface.

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 Rewritable Formats: Anotherbenefitof compact discsis the availability of rewritable versions
suchasCD-R andCD-RW.

DisadvantagesofCompactDisk

 Inferior Capacity: CDs have more storage capacity than their predecessors, but subsequent
storagemediums have more capacity. Storage capacity is lower than a hard drive or DVD, now a days
CD is notusedatall.

 OlderTechnology:
Acompactdisc’slimitationstemsfromitsolderreadandwritemechanismtechnology,whichisbasedon780nmw
avelength.

 Inferior Quality: It should be noted that audio-video files with higher audio and video quality can
bestoredonDVDsandBlu-rayDiscs.

 Durability Issues: Magnetic tapes are less durable than CDs. However, it is still fragile because it
iseasily scratched if not treated carefully. When exposed to severe heat and humidity, it might deform
andbecome unusable.

 Obsolete Medium: Another issue of CDs is that they have become obsolete as better storage
methodshavebecomeavailable.

 It’s also worth noting that compact discs aren’t suitable for backup storage because of their
limitedstorage capacity, susceptibility to breakage, and obsolescence. It is preferable to use hard drives
or solid-statedrives

 USB(UniversalSerialBus):

 UniversalSerialBus(USB)isanindustrystandardthatestablishesspecificationsforconnectors, cables,
and protocols for communication, connection, and power supply betweenpersonalcomputers
andtheirperipheraldevices.
 USB, or universal serial bus, is a mechanism used to connect peripheral devices to
computers.Before the advent of USB technology, a PC typically included one or two serial
connections, aparallelport,keyboard andmouse connectors,andin someinstances,a joystick port.
 The USB standard was established in the mid-1990s by a number of American
companies,notably IBM,Intel,andMicrosoftCorporation,asamorestraightforwardway
toconnectcomputer peripherals. The port provided a standard method for connecting various
devices andofferedconsiderable speedadvantagesoverotheralternatives.

Therehavebeen3generationsofUSBspecifications:

 USB 1.x

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 USB2.0

 USB3.x

The first USB was formulated in the mid-1990s. USB 1.1 was announced in 1995 and released in 1996. It
wastoo popular and grab the market till about the year 2000. In the duration of USB 1.1 Intel announced a USB
hostcontrollerandPhilipsannouncedUSBaudioforisochronouscommunicationwithconsumerelectronicsdevices.

In April of 2000, USB 2.0 was announced. USB 2.0 has multiple updates and additions. The USB
ImplementerForum(USBIF)currentlymaintainsthe USBstandardanditwasreleasedin1996.

USBConnectorTypes

USB connectors have different shapes and sizes. Most of the USB connectors are the standard USB, Mini-
USB,andMicro-USB,whichhavetwo ormorevariationsofconnectors.Informationoneachtypeareshownbelow.

MiniUSB

Mini USB is available in three different types A type, B type, and AB type. It is used with computer
peripheralsand digital cameras.Themost common kind of interfaceis this one, that is referred to as mini B.Micro
USBand USB-C cables basically take the place of mini USB on the latest devices. It uses coaxial cable to
transmitdata and power between two devices. it applies to mobile hard drives, digital cameras, and MP3 players.
Oneend of a micro USB cable has a much smaller quadrilateral hub, and the other end has a regular USB hub
with aflat head. It can be easily plugged intomobile devices. Although the tiny USB is mainly designedfor, it
canalsobeused totransferdatabetweencomputershaving atleast oneUSBportforcharging device.

Micro USB

A reduced version of the USB (Universal Serial Bus), the micro-USB. It was created for connecting small
andmobile devices including digital cameras, smartphones, GPS components, MP3 players, and photo printers
andwasfirstannouncedin2007asareplacementforminiUSB.

The three different types of Micro-USB are Micro A, Micro B, and Micro USB 3. The connector size for
thetype Micro-A and Micro-B is 6.85 x 1.8 mm, while the Micro-A connector has a largermaximum
overmildsize. Because it has more pins on the side for twice as many wires than micro B, USB 3 micro is
morecomparable to micro B yet has faster speed. Micro USB and normal USB versions are both plug-and-play
andhot-swappableis stillwidelyusedwithelectronicdevices.

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USBType-C

A USB Type-C port is a relatively new type of connector that may be found on the majority of
contemporarynewer Android smartphones and other USB-connected devices. Data and power are delivered to
computingmachines using it. In contrast to traditional USB connections, USB-C cables can be connected into
devices ineitherdirection,includingupside down.

USB TransferSpeeds

Since it is an external bus standard, USB 1.0 can accommodate up to 127 peripheral devices and data
transferratesof12Mbps.

The USB 2.0 standard, commonly referred to as high-speed USB, was created in 2001 by Philips,
Lucent,Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, Intel, NEC, and Compaq. It can support a transfer rate of 60 megabytes per
secondormoreupto480Mbps.

USB3.0,generallyknownasSuperSpeed USB3.0,wasmadeaccessibleforthefirsttimebyBuffaloTechnology in
November 2009. The enhanced functionality and speed of USB 3.0 contributed to
advancementsinpowermanagement,improvedbandwidthcapacity,andUSB2.0technology.

Up to 5.0 gigabits per second (Gbps), or 640 megabytes per second, can be supported. After the release of
USB3.1, its name was changed to USB 3.1 Gen1 for manufacturing considerations. With the release of their
DellXPSandInspironcomputerseriesinApril2011,DellbegantorolloutUSB3.0connections.

The most recent version of the USB protocol commonly known as SuperSpeed, that was made available
untilJuly 31, 2013, is USB 3.1. Itcan support transfer rates of up to10 Gbps. Recently, USB 3.0 and 3.1
revisionsare usedbydifferentdevices toimprovespeedandperformance.

Advantages ofUSB

The Universal Serial Bus was designed to simplify and improve the interface between personal computers
andperipheraldeviceswhencomparedwithpreviouslyexistingstandardorad-hoc proprietaryinterfaces.

1. The USB interfaceis self-configuring.Thismeans that the user need not adjustsettings on the deviceand
interface for speed or data format, or configure interrupts, input/output addresses, or direct
memoryaccesschannels.

2. USB connectors are standardized at the host, so any peripheral can use any available receptacle.
USBtakes full advantage of the additional processing power that can be economically put into
peripheraldevices so that they can manage themselves. USB devices mostly do not have user-adjustable
interfacesettings.

3. The USB interface is hot pluggable or plug and plays, meaning devices can be exchanged
withoutrebootingthe hostcomputer. Small devices canbe powered directly from the USB interface
thusremovingextrapowersupplycables.

4. TheUSBinterfacedefinesprotocolsforimprovingreliabilityoverpreviousinterfacesandrecoveryfromcommo
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nerrors.

5. InstallationofadevicerelyingontheUSBstandardminimaloperatoractionisrequired.

DisadvantagesofUSB

1. USBcablesarelimitedinlength.

2. USB has a strict tree topology and master-slave protocol for addressing peripheral devices.
Peripheraldevices cannot interact with one another except via the host, and two hosts cannot
communicate overtheirUSB ports directly.

3. Someveryhigh-speedperipheraldevicesrequiresustainedspeedsnotavailableintheUSBstandard.

4. For a product developer, the use of USB requires the implementation of a complex protocol and
impliesanintelligentcontrollerintheperipheraldevice.

5. UseoftheUSBlogosontheproductrequiresannualfeesandmembershipintheorganization.

14. Explain POST Error messages.

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A power-on self-test (POST) is a set of routines performed by firmware or software immediately
after a computer is powered on, to determine if the hardware is working as expected. The process
would proceed further only if the required hardware is working correctly, else the
BIOS(Basic Input Output Software) would issue an error message. POST sequence is executed
irrespective of the Operating System and is handled by the system BIOS.
 Once the tests are passed the POST would generally notify the OS with beeps while the number
of beeps
can vary from system to system. When POST is successfully finalized, bootstrapping is enabled.
Bootstrapping starts the initialization of the OS.
Almost everything that might prevent the computer from continuing to boot will signal some kind
of error.
Errors can come in the form of flashing LEDs, audible beeps, or error messages on the display, all
of which are technically called POST codes, beep codes, and on-screen power-on self-test error
messages. The following chart is about beeps and their corresponding meanings:
Beeps Meaning 1. Short beeps Normal POST – the system is OK
2. Short beeps POST error – error code is shown on screen
3. No beep Power supply, system board problem, disconnected CPU, or disconnected speaker
4. Continuous beep Power supply, system board, or maybe RAM problem, keyboard problem
5. Repeating short beeps Power supply or system board problem or keyboard
6. 1 long, 1 short beep System board problem
7. 1 long, 2 short beeps Display adapter problem (MDA, CGA)
8. 1 long, 3 short beeps Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA)
9. 3 long beeps 3270 keyboard card

15. List out laymen Check.

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Look for damage- check for any physical damage to the computer, cables, keyboard, mouse, etc.
Clean dust- Use compressed air to below out dust from inside the PC case, fans, vents. Dustcauses
overheating.
Check connections- make sure all cables and cords are plugged in tightly. Replace any frayed
ordamaged cables.
Update software- keep your operating system, antivirus, programs , and device drivers up todate.
Updates fix bugs and improve security. Check storage space- don’t let your hard drive fill up.
Delete unused files and run disk cleanupto free up space.
Back up files- copy important files onto an external drive or cloud storage to avoid losing data.
Scan for viruses- run antivirus software regularly to check for and remove malware.
Check performance- use task manager or activity monitor to check for software conflicts or start
up programs slowing your PC.
Test internet speed- run speed tests to catch internet connection issues.
Reboot router if speed is consistently slow.
Update drivers- keep hardware drivers like graphics, printer, network cards updated for better
stability.
Check peripherals- make sure keyboards, printers, scanners and other peripherals are working
right.
Monitor temperature- use software to check CPU and GPU temperatures stay in safe range.
Check battery- for laptop, monitor battery capacity and lifespan. Replace battery every few years.
Fix errors- check system logs for hardware/ software errors. Fix any issues.
Diagnose problems- run built-in diagnostic tools to check for issues.

16. Explain Troubleshooting of Motherboard.

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The motherboard and processor are two of the most important hardware components inside the
computer.
The various pieces of hardware inside the PC communicate with one another through the circuits
on the motherboard, while the CPU stores and executed programming instruction.
The motherboard and CPU can both be expensive to replace, however, but diagnosing hardware
failure on your own can reduce the potential repair costs. Hardware components exhibit
symptoms when faliling.
1. System Board Failure
Cause: DMA or timers.
Solution:  Remove expansion boards. Replace the system board. Clear CMOS
2. Time & Date Not Set
Cause: Invalid time or date in configuration memory.
RTC ( real-time clock) battery may need to be replaced.
Solution: Reset the date and time under control panel. If the problem persists, replace the RTC
battery.
Cause: CMOS jumper may not be properly installed.
Solution: Check for proper placement of the CMOS jumper if applicable.
3. Memory Size Error
Cause: Memory configuration incorrect.
Solution:
Run Computer Setup or Windows utilities.
Make sure the memory modules are installed properly.
Verify proper memory module type.
4. Memory Error
Cause: RAM failure
Solution:
 Run Computer Setup or Windows utilities.
 Ensure the memory modules are installed properly.
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 Verify proper memory module type.
 Remove and replace the identified faulty memory module.
 If the error persists after replacing memory modules, replace the system board.
5. Display Adapter Failure
Cause: Graphics display controller
Solution:
Reset the graphics card
Clear CMOS
Verify monitor is attached and turned on.
Replace the graphics card
6. CPU Fan not detected
Cause: Graphics display controller.
Solution:
Reset the graphics card Clear CMOS.
Verify monitor is attached and turned on.
Replace the graphics card.
7. System has no power at all. Power light does not illuminate, fan inside the power
supply does not turn on , and indicator light on keyboard does not turn on.
Cause: Power cable is unplugged.
Solution : Make sure power cable is secured plugged in.
Cause: Defective power cable
Solution : Replace cable
Cause: Power supply failure.
Solution: Power cable and wall socket are OK, but system is still dead.
Replace cable.
Cause: Faulty wall outlet; circuit breaker or fuse blown

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Solution: Use different socket, repair outlet, reset circuit breaker or replace fuse.
8. System only boots from Floppy Disk. Hard Disk can be read and applications can be
used, but booting from Hard Disk is impossible.
Cause: Hard Disk boot program has been destroyed.
Solution: Back up data and applications files.
9. Screen message says “ Invalid Configuration” or “ CMOS Failure.”
Cause: Incorrect information entered into the configuration program.
Solution: Check the configuration program. Replace any incorrect information. make sure
correct information is in setup.
10. Screen is blank
11. Cause: No power to monitor. Power connectors may be loose or not plugged in.
Solution: Check the power connectors to monitor and to system. Make sure monitor is
connected to display card, change I/O address on network card if applicable.

17. Explain types and level of Cache memory.

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Cache memory is a type of computer memory that serves as a buffer between the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) and the main memory (RAM). A cache memory stores frequently accessed
data and instructions, thereby allowing the processor to access data at high speeds. As a result, the
overall performance and speed of the computer system are significantly improved.
It is impossible to overstate the importance of cache memory in a computer system. Cache
memory plays a crucial role in determining how efficiently these components can work together,
even though computer performance is often attributed to processor speed or RAM size. By storing
commonly used data and instructions, cache memory reduces the CPU's access time to main
memory. Thus, data retrieval is faster and system performance is greatly enhanced.
Cache Memory Types:
Based on the data mapping technique, there are three types of cache memory:
Direct-Mapped Cache: Each block of main memory is assigned to a specific cache line.
Fully Associative Cache: Blocks of main memory can be mapped to any cache line, allowing for
greater flexibility but increased complexity.
Set-Associative Cache: A compromise between Direct-Mapped and Fully Associative caches,
where cache lines are grouped into sets, and a block of main memory can be mapped to any line
within a specific set.
Cache memory is organized into levels (L1, L2, and L3), with L1 being the smallest and fastest,
closest to the CPU, while L2 is larger and slightly slower, and L3 is the largest and slowest, shared
among cores, balancing speed and capacity.

L1 Cache:

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The smallest and fastest cache, located closest to the CPU.
It's typically divided into data (L1d) and instruction (L1i) caches.
Sizes range from 16KB to 128KB per core.
L2 Cache:
Larger and slightly slower than L1.
Can be located either inside or outside the CPU.
Sizes range from 256KB to 1MB per core or can be shared among multiple cores.
L3 Cache:
The largest and slowest cache.
Shared among all CPU cores.
Sizes range from 2MB to 32MB or more in high-end processors.

18. Explain BIOS Components.

All motherboards contain a chip called the BIOS, or Basic Input/Output System, which contains
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instructions and setup for how your system should boot and work.
BIOS ROM (Read-Only Memory):
1. Function:
The BIOS ROM is a type of non-volatile memory that contains firmware essential for the
computer's Initial startup process. Its primary function is to provide the basic instructions and
routines necessary to initialize the hardware components and load the operating system.
2. Contents:
The BIOS ROM typically holds the following components:
POST (Power-On Self-Test): Instructions and routines for conducting a diagnostic check on
essential hardware components during system startup to ensure proper functionality.
Bootloader: Code responsible for locating and loading the operating system into the computer's
memory
BIOS Setup Utility: Basic Input/Output System setup utility, which allows users to configure
system settings.
3. Characteristics:
Non-Volatile Nature: BIOS ROM is non-volatile, meaning the data stored in it is retained even
when the power is turned off. This characteristic ensures that the essential firmware required for
the computer's startup remains intact.
Read-Only: It is read-only, implying that the data stored in BIOS ROM is generally not modified
during normal computer operation.
4. Location:
The BIOS ROM is usually embedded on a chip on the computer's motherboard. This chip is often
referred to as the BIOS chip or firmware chip.
5. Updating BIOS:
In some cases, the BIOS can be updated to fix bugs, enhance compatibility, or add new features.
This process is known as BIOS flashing. Modern systems may allow users to update the BIOS
firmware, either through the BIOS setup utility or specialized tools provided by the motherboard
manufacturer,

6. Importance:

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The BIOS ROM is critical for the computer's boot process. It provides the fundamental
instructions needed for the Power-On Self-Test (POST), initializes the hardware components, and
loads the operating system. Without a functional BIOS ROM, the computer would not be able to
start.
7. Access:
Users typically do not directly access or modify the contents of the BIOS ROM during normal
operation. However, they interact with the BIOS indirectly through the BIOS Setup Utility, which
allows customization of certain system settings stored in the CMOS memory.
8. Legacy and UEFI BIOS:
Legacy BIOS and UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) are two different types of BIOS
implementations. UEFI has become more prevalent in modern systems, offering advantages such
as support for larger hard drives, faster boot times, and a more sophisticated graphical interface for
the BIOS setup.

19.Explain BIOS function and features( CMOS Setup)

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BIOS Functions:
The BIOS, or Basic Input/Output System, is a fundamental component of a computer's hardware.
Its primary functions include:
1. Power-On Self-Test (POST): When you turn on your computer, the BIOS initiates a self-check
known as POST. This diagnostic process ensures that essential hardware components, such as the
CPU, memory, and storage devices, are functioning correctly.
2. Bootstrap Loader: Once POST completes successfully, the BIOS loads the bootloader. The
bootloader is a small program responsible for launching the operating system. It is usually stored
on the computer's hard drive or another designated boot device.
3. CMOS Setup: The BIOS provides access to the CMOS setup, where users can configure various
system settings. These settings include the date and time, boot order, password protection, and
other hardware-related configurations. CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)
memory retains these settings even when the computer is powered off, thanks to a small battery on
the motherboard.
4. Boot Order Configuration: Users can define the order in which the computer searches for a
bootable operating system. This is crucial when multiple storage devices (e.g., hard drives, USB
drives) are connected to the computer.
5. System Date and Time: The BIOS keeps track of the system's date and time. Users can set or
adjust these parameters through the CMOS setup.
6. Password Protection: Some BIOS implementations support password protection, allowing users
to secure access to the CMOS setup. This adds an additional layer of security to prevent
unauthorized changes to system configurations.
7. Hardware Configuration: Users can modify certain hardware-related settings, such as CPU
clock speeds, RAM timings, and other parameters. However, the extent of customization may vary
depending on the motherboard and BIOS version.

20. Explain concept of coprocessor and its Types.

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