UNIT-5

SUBJECT: BUSINESS RESEARCH METHOD

Data Analysis: Editing Coding Tabular Representation of Data
Data analysis involves several steps, including editing, coding, and tabular representation
of data. Here’s a breakdown of each step:
Editing: Editing involves reviewing and cleaning the collected data to ensure that it is
accurate, complete, and consistent. During editing, data errors such as missing values,
outliers, and inconsistencies are identified and corrected. The goal of editing is to ensure that
the data is of high quality and suitable for analysis.
Coding: Coding involves assigning numerical or categorical codes to data values to
facilitate data analysis. For example, in a survey where respondents are asked to rate their
level of satisfaction on a scale of 1 to 5, the responses can be coded as 1 = Very Dissatisfied,
2 = Dissatisfied, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Satisfied, and 5 = Very Satisfied. Coding helps to transform
qualitative data into quantitative data, which is easier to analyse.
Tabular representation: Tabular representation involves presenting the data in a
structured table format. This format enables easy comparison and analysis of data across
different variables. Tables typically have rows and columns, with rows representing the
different observations or cases, and columns representing the variables being measured. Data
can be summarized using measures such as means, medians, and percentages.
When preparing a table for data analysis, it’s important to follow certain conventions. For
example, the table should have a clear title that summarizes the data being presented. The
table should also have headings for rows and columns, and the data should be presented in a
logical and easy-to-understand format. Additionally, it’s important to label the units of
measurement used in the table.
In summary, editing, coding, and tabular representation are important steps in data analysis.
Editing helps to ensure data quality, coding helps to transform qualitative data into
quantitative data, and tabular representation facilitates comparison and analysis of data.
Following best practices in these steps is essential for accurate and meaningful data analysis.
Frequency Tables : Construct A Frequency Distribution
A frequency distribution: It is a table that summarizes data by showing the number of
times a particular value or range of values appears in a dataset. To construct a frequency
distribution, you should follow these steps:
Choose the variable of interest: The first step is to select the variable you want to
summarize. This could be a categorical variable, such as gender or educational level, or a
numerical variable, such as age or income.
Determine the range and intervals: If the variable is numerical, you need to determine the
range of values and the size of the intervals. For example, if you are analysing the age of a
group of people, you may choose intervals of 5 years, starting from 0 to 4, 5 to 9, 10 to 14,
and so on. If the variable is categorical, you can simply list the categories.
Count the number of observations: For each interval or category, count the number of times
the variable falls within that range. This is the frequency. For example, if you are analysing
the age of a group of people and you have an interval of 10 to 14, you would count the
number of people in the group who are between 10 and 14 years old.
Record the results in a table: Finally, record the results in a table. The table should have two
columns: one for the intervals or categories and one for the frequencies.
Here’s an example of a frequency distribution table for a numerical variable, age:
Graphical Representation of Data: Appropriate Usages of Bar Charts, Pie Charts,
Histogram
are common types of charts used to represent data graphically. Here are their appropriate
usages:
Bar Charts:
Bar charts are appropriate for comparing categorical data. This type of chart is useful when
you want to compare the magnitude of different categories. For example, a bar chart can be
used to compare sales figures for different products, or the number of students enrolled in
different courses. The height of each bar represents the value of the category being
represented.
Pie Charts:
Pie charts are appropriate when you want to show the proportions or percentages of different
categories in a whole. This type of chart is useful for showing how a total amount is divided
into different categories. For example, a pie chart can be used to show the percentage of
students in a school who are enrolled in different majors.
However, pie charts are often less effective than bar charts for comparing values, especially
when the differences in value are small or the number of categories is large.
Histogram:
Histograms are appropriate for showing the distribution of numerical data. This type of chart
is useful for showing how a set of data is distributed across a range of values. For example, a
histogram can be used to show the distribution of ages of customers in a store or the
distribution of scores on a test.
Histograms can be more effective than bar charts when dealing with numerical data, as they
can provide information on the range of values and the frequency of occurrence.
In summary, the appropriate usage of bar charts, pie charts, and histograms depends on the
type of data being represented. Bar charts are useful for comparing categorical data, pie
charts are useful for showing proportions or percentages, and histograms are useful for
showing the distribution of numerical data.
Hypothesis: Framing Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis
In statistics, a hypothesis is a statement or assumption about a population or a process that
can be tested through data analysis. There are two types of hypotheses: the null hypothesis
and the alternative hypothesis.
The null hypothesis is a statement that suggests there is no significant difference or
relationship between two or more variables or populations. It is often denoted as H0. The
null hypothesis assumes that any observed difference or relationship is due to chance or
random variation.
For example, if we want to test the hypothesis that a new drug is effective in treating a
disease, the null hypothesis would be that the drug has no significant effect on the disease.
The alternative hypothesis, denoted as Ha or H1, is a statement that suggests there is a
significant difference or relationship between two or more variables or populations. It is the
opposite of the null hypothesis.
Using the same example, the alternative hypothesis would be that the drug is effective in
treating the disease.
To summarize, the null hypothesis suggests that there is no significant difference or
relationship between the variables or populations being studied, while the alternative
hypothesis suggests that there is a significant difference or relationship.
When conducting a statistical test, we assume the null hypothesis to be true and use data to
either reject or fail to reject it. If the data provides strong evidence against the null
hypothesis, we reject it and accept the alternative hypothesis. If the data does not provide
enough evidence against the null hypothesis, we fail to reject it.
Concept of Hypothesis Testing: Logic and Importance
Hypothesis testing is a statistical procedure used to test whether a statement or
assumption about a population or a process is likely to be true or false based on sample
data. It is an important tool in scientific research and decision-making, as it allows us to draw
conclusions and make predictions based on evidence.
The logic behind hypothesis testing is to start with an assumption or statement about a
population or a process, called the null hypothesis, and test it against an alternative
hypothesis. The null hypothesis is assumed to be true until proven otherwise, and the
alternative hypothesis is the opposite of the null hypothesis.
We then collect sample data and use statistical methods to calculate a test statistic, which is a
measure of how far the sample data deviates from what we would expect if the null
hypothesis were true. We compare the test statistic to a critical value or a p-value, which tells
us how likely it is to observe the test statistic if the null hypothesis were true.
Report preparations
Preparing a report can involve several steps, depending on the type of report and the purpose
for which it is being written. However, there are some general steps that can be followed to
prepare a report:
Define the purpose and scope of the report: The first step in preparing a report is to define
its purpose and scope. This involves identifying the objectives of the report, the target
audience, and the specific information required to achieve the objectives.
Collect and analyze data: Once the purpose and scope of the report have been defined, the
next step is to collect and analyze the data. This can involve conducting research, analyzing
existing data, or gathering information from various sources.
Organize the data: After collecting and analyzing the data, the next step is to organize it into
a structured format that facilitates analysis and interpretation. This can involve creating
tables, charts, and graphs to visually represent the data.
Write the report: Once the data has been organized, the next step is to write the report. This
involves creating an outline, writing the introduction, main body, and conclusion, and
revising the report as necessary.
Review and revise the report: After writing the report, the next step is to review and revise
it to ensure that it is accurate, clear, and effective. This can involve editing the report for
grammar and punctuation, checking for consistency, and ensuring that the report meets the
intended purpose.
Present the report: The final step in preparing a report is to present it to the intended
audience. This can involve creating visual aids, delivering an oral presentation, or providing a
written report.
In summary, preparing a report involves defining the purpose and scope of the report,
collecting and analyzing data, organizing the data, writing the report, reviewing and revising
the report, and presenting the report to the intended audience. Each of these steps is important
in producing a clear, well-organized, and effective report.
Types of Report
There are various types of reports that can be prepared, depending on the purpose, scope, and
audience. Some common types of reports are:
Informational reports: These reports provide information about a particular topic, event, or
situation. They are usually objective and factual, and their purpose is to provide information
to the reader.
Analytical reports: These reports analyze a particular problem or situation and provide
recommendations or solutions. They may include a summary of the problem, an analysis of
the causes and effects, and a set of recommendations for action.
Progress reports: These reports provide updates on the progress of a project or program.
They may include information on achievements, challenges, and future plans.
Feasibility reports: These reports assess the feasibility of a particular project or idea. They
may include information on the costs, benefits, and risks associated with the project, as well
as an analysis of the feasibility of the project
Technical reports: These reports provide detailed technical information on a particular topic,
such as a scientific or engineering research project. They may include detailed data,
calculations, and technical drawings.
Financial reports: These reports provide information on the financial performance of an
organization, such as income statements, balance sheets, and cash flow statements.
Incident reports: These reports provide information on incidents or accidents that have
occurred, including the causes, effects, and actions taken to prevent similar incidents in the
future.
In summary, the type of report that is prepared depends on the purpose, scope, and audience.
Some common types of reports include informational reports, analytical reports, progress
reports, feasibility reports, technical reports, financial reports, and incident reports.
Report Structure: Preliminaries Section ,Main Report
Report Structure:
Reports typically have a standard structure that includes several sections. The two main
sections of a report are the preliminaries and the main report.
Preliminaries section:
This section includes the title page, table of contents, list of figures or tables (if any), and
executive summary.
Title page: The title page includes the title of the report, the author’s name, the date of
publication, and any other relevant information.
Table of contents: The table of contents lists the sections and sub-sections of the report,
along with the page numbers where they can be found.
List of figures or tables: If the report includes any figures or tables, they should be listed in
a separate section with their respective page numbers.
Executive summary: The executive summary provides a brief overview of the report,
including its purpose, key findings, and recommendations. It is typically written after the
main report has been completed.
Main Report:
The main report includes the following sections:
Introduction: The introduction provides background information on the topic, explains the
purpose of the report, and outlines the scope of the report.
Literature review: If applicable, this section provides a review of relevant literature on the
topic, including previous research and other sources of information.
Methods: This section explains the methods used to collect and analyze data for the report,
including any relevant information on the sample population, data collection tools, and data
analysis methods.
Results: The results section presents the findings of the report, usually with the help of
charts, graphs, or other visual aids.
Discussion: The discussion section provides an interpretation of the results, including any
insights gained from the findings and their implications for the topic at hand.
Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main findings of the report and reiterates its key
messages.
Recommendations: This section provides specific recommendations for action based on the
findings of the report.
References: The references section lists all the sources cited in the report, following a
specific citation style such as APA, MLA, or Chicago.
Appendices: If applicable, appendices can be included at the end of the report to provide
additional information or data that supports the main findings.
In summary, the structure of a report typically includes two main sections: the preliminaries
section, which includes the title page, table of contents, list of figures or tables (if applicable),
and executive summary, and the main report section, which includes the introduction,
literature review, methods, results, discussion, conclusion, recommendations, references, and
appendices.
Interpretation of Results Suggestions and Recommendations
After interpreting the results of a research study, experiment, or analysis, it is common to
provide suggestions and recommendations based on the findings. Here are some guidelines
for providing suggestions and recommendations:
Be specific: Provide clear and specific recommendations that are based on the findings of the
study. Avoid vague or general recommendations that are not directly related to the results.
Prioritize recommendations: If there are multiple recommendations, prioritize them in order
of importance. This can help the reader understand which recommendations are the most
critical.
Justify recommendations: Provide a rationale for each recommendation. Explain why the
recommendation is important, how it will help address the problem or issue, and how it is
supported by the data.
Consider feasibility: When making recommendations, consider the feasibility of
implementing them. Consider factors such as cost, resources, and potential barriers.
Address limitations: Acknowledge any limitations of the study and how they may impact the
recommendations. This can help the reader understand the scope and generalizability of the
recommendations.
Consider the audience: Tailor the language and tone of the recommendations to the intended
audience. Use language that is appropriate for the audience, and consider any cultural or
contextual factors that may impact the recommendations.
In summary, when providing suggestions and recommendations based on the results of a
research study, experiment, or analysis, it is important to be specific, prioritize
recommendations, justify recommendations, consider feasibility, address limitations, and
consider the audience.
F-TEST, Z-TEST
F-test and Z-test are two statistical tests used in hypothesis testing.
F-test:
An F-test is a statistical test used to compare the variances of two populations. It can be
used to determine if two samples have the same variance or if two populations have the
same variance. The F-test calculates the ratio of the variances of the two samples and
compares it to the F-distribution. If the calculated F-value is greater than the critical F-
value, then we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the variances are not equal.
Z-test:
A Z-test is a statistical test used to determine whether two sample means are different when
the population standard deviation is known. It is used when the sample size is large
enough to assume a normal distribution. The Z-test calculates the difference between the
two sample means in terms of standard deviations and compares it to the standard
normal distribution. If the calculated Z-value is greater than the critical Z-value, then we
reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the means are different.
In summary, F-test is used to compare the variances of two populations, while Z-test is used
to compare the means of two populations with known standard deviation.
Cross Tabulation
Cross-tabulation, also known as contingency table analysis, is a statistical method used to
analyze and display the relationship between two or more categorical variables. It is a
useful tool for exploring the relationships between different categories of data and can be
used to identify patterns, trends, and associations.
In cross-tabulation, the data is organized into a table with rows representing one
variable and columns representing another variable. The cells of the table contain the
frequency or count of observations that fall into each combination of categories. This allows
us to see how the categories of one variable are related to the categories of another variable.
For example, suppose we have a dataset containing information about the gender and
education level of a group of people. We can use cross-tabulation to examine the relationship
between these two variables.
We might create a table with “Gender” as the row variable and “Education Level” as the
column variable. The cells of the table would contain the frequency of people who fall into
each combination of gender and education level (e.g., the number of males with a high school
education, the number of females with a college degree, etc.).
By examining this table, we can identify patterns and relationships between gender and
education level. For example, we might notice that there are more females with college
degrees than males, or that males are more likely to have only a high school education than
females. We can also calculate statistics such as chi-square tests or odds ratios to further
investigate the relationship between these variables.
Chi-Squared Test
The chi-squared test is a statistical method used to determine whether there is a significant
association between two categorical variables. It compares the observed frequencies in a
contingency table (also known as a cross-tabulation table) with the expected frequencies
under a null hypothesis of no association between the variables.
The chi-squared test involves the following steps:
Formulate the null hypothesis: The null hypothesis states that there is no association
between the two categorical variables. The alternative hypothesis is that there is a significant
association.
Create a contingency table: The contingency table shows the frequency distribution of the
two categorical variables. The rows represent one variable, and the columns represent the
other variable
Analysis of Variance: One-Way and Two-Way Classification
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical method used to determine whether there is a
significant difference between the means of three or more groups. There are two types of
ANOVA: one-way and two-way classification.
One-way ANOVA:
One-way ANOVA is used when is being tested. The factor can have two or more levels, and
the dependent variable is continuous. One-way ANOVA compares the means of the different
groups and determines whether the differences are statistically significant.
The steps for conducting a one-way ANOVA are:
Formulate the null hypothesis: The null hypothesis states that there is no significant
difference between the means of the groups.
Collect the data: Collect data for the dependent variable for each level of the factor.
Calculate the within-group variation: Calculate the sum of squares for the within-group
variation, which represents the variability of the scores within each group.
Calculate the between-group variation: Calculate the sum of squares for the between-
group variation, which represents the variability of the means between the groups.
Calculate the F-statistic: Divide the between-group variation by the within-group variation
to get the F-statistic.
Determine the p-value: Determine the p-value from the F-distribution table or using
statistical software.
Interpret the results: If the p-value is less than the significance level (usually 0.05), then reject
the null hypothesis and conclude that there is a significant difference between the means of
the groups.
Two-way ANOVA:
Two-way ANOVA is used when there are two factors (or independent variables) that are
being tested simultaneously. The factors can have two or more levels, and the dependent
variable is continuous. Two-way ANOVA compares the means of the different groups and
determines whether the differences are statistically significant.
The steps for conducting a two-way ANOVA are similar to those of a one-way ANOVA,
except that the variation is calculated separately for each factor and for the interaction
between the factors.
In summary, ANOVA is a statistical method used to test the significance of the differences
between the means of three or more groups. One-way ANOVA is used when there is only one
factor being tested, while two-way ANOVA is used when there are two factors being tested
simultaneously.
Mechanism of Report Writing
Report writing is a process that involves several stages, each of which contributes to
producing a clear, well-organized, and effective report. The following are the basic steps
involved in the mechanism of report writing:
Defining the purpose and scope of the report: This involves identifying the report’s
objectives, target audience, and the specific information required to achieve these objectives.
This stage helps to clarify the scope of the report and ensure that it meets the intended
purpose.
Gathering and organizing the data: This involves collecting and analysing the necessary
data, and organizing it into a structured format that facilitates analysis and interpretation. The
data can be collected from various sources, including interviews, surveys, research papers,
and online resources.
Structuring the report: This involves organizing the data into a logical and meaningful
structure. The report should have a clear introduction, main body, and conclusion. The
introduction should provide an overview of the report’s purpose, scope, and methodology,
while the main body should present the analysis and findings. The conclusion should
summarize the report’s key findings and recommendations.
Writing the report: This involves writing the report in clear and concise language. The
report should be easy to read and understand, with appropriate use of headings, subheadings,
and bullet points. The language used should be appropriate for the target audience, and the
report should be free of grammatical errors and typos.
Reviewing and revising the report: This involves reviewing the report for accuracy, clarity,
and effectiveness. The report should be revised as necessary to improve its quality and ensure
that it meets the intended purpose.
Presenting the report: This involves presenting the report to the intended audience in a
manner that facilitates understanding and acceptance. The report can be presented in various
formats, including written reports, oral presentations, and visual aids.
In summary, the mechanism of report writing involves defining the purpose and scope of the
report, gathering and organizing the data, structuring the report, writing the report, reviewing
and revising the report, and presenting the report to the intended audience. Each of these
stages is important in producing a clear, well-organized, and effective report.