DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGINEERING

SM801MS: ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Degree &Branch: B.TECH/CSE

Sem/Year/Sec: II/IV/A&B

UNIT-I:

Organizational Behavior Definition: Organizational behavior is a field of study that

investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behavior within
organization for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s
effectiveness.

Organizational Behavior Importance

Organizational behavior offers several ideas to management as to how human factor should be
properly emphasized to achieve organizational objectives. Organizational behavior provides
opportunity to management to analyze human behavior and prescribe means for shaping it to a
particular direction. Organizational behavior helps to analyze ‘why’ and ‘how’ an individual
behaves in a particular way

Introduction The study of Organizational Behavior (OB) is very interesting and challenging too.
It is related to individuals, group of people working together in teams. The study becomes more
challenging when situational factors interact. The study of organizational behavior relates to the
expected behavior of an individual in the organization.
No two individuals are likely to behave in the same manner in a particular work situation. It is
the predictability of a manager about the expected behavior of an individual. There are no
absolutes in human behavior. It is the human factor that is contributory to the productivity hence
the study of human behavior is important. Great importance therefore must be attached to the
study.
Researchers, management practitioners, psychologists, and social scientists must understand the
very credentials of an individual, his background, social framework, educational update, impact
of social groups and other situational factors on behavior.
Managers under whom an individual is working should be able to explain, predict, evaluate and
modify human behavior that will largely depend upon knowledge, skill and experience of the
manager in handling large group of people in diverse situations. Preemptive actions need to be
taken for human behavior forecasting.
The value system, emotional intelligence, organizational culture, job design and the work
environment are important causal agents in determining human behavior. Cause and effect
relationship plays an important role in how an individual is likely to behave in a particular
situation and its impact on productivity.
An appropriate organizational culture can modify individual behavior. Recent trends exist in
laying greater stress on organizational development and imbibing a favorable organizational
culture in each individual. It also involves fostering a team spirit and motivation so that the
organizational objectives are achieved.
There is a need for commitment on the part of the management that should be continuous and
incremental in nature.

OB is the study of individual behavior in isolation, when in group and as a part of an

organization. The study of individual behavior only, would be incomplete because behavior is
affected by the people surrounding us as well as by the organization, in which we work. Studying
only individuals or only organizations would be of no use. It is essential to study both
simultaneously.

Personality, perception, learning, attitude, family background, training, motivation, job

satisfaction, performance appraisal, leadership effectiveness, norms, values and ethics are the
factors which affect the individual behavior. Group dynamics, communication, organizational
environment, individual and organizational culture affect group behavior. Organizational
structure, power & politics, status, relation with juniors & seniors, conflicts and culture affect the
individual behavior in the organization.

These various factors relate to different disciplines including psychology, sociology, social
psychology, political science, anthropology, etc.
Study about individual behavior, group behavior and organizations give the inferences about
how different people react to different situations. It guides regarding the motivation styles and
the leadership styles to be adopted for different persons. Due to the individual differences,
diverse leadership styles, incentive schemes, motivators, communication styles should be applied

Study of organizational behavior helps in studying:

i. Why people behave in a particular way?
ii. Why one person is more effective than the other?
iii. Why one group is more effective than the other?
iv. Why one person is more effective in one organization as compared to the other organizations?
The study of above things gives sound knowledge about human behavior and this knowledge can
be applied in shaping the behavior and taking various decisions related to policy making in
human resource management.
Scope of Organizational Behavior

Proper understanding of organizational behavior can result in many positive effects on the
organization and its employees. It also studies how people behave in and around the
workplace. However, when we talk about the scope of organizational behavior, it extends to
only three significant concepts.
The three concepts are given below.

 Individual Behavior
 Inter-Individual Behavior
 Group Behavior

Individual Behavior

As the name itself suggests, an individual is studied from the personality, motivation,
interests, and attitudes of an organization. Various interaction sessions and one-to-one are
conducted to understand and study the individual and make a perception about them.

Inter-Individual Behavior

Now, the inter-individual concept is when communication happens among the employees.
Inter-individuals represent persons with their social group, subordinates, or senior employees
in the workplace. It helps understand leadership styles and qualities and helps resolve
conflicts quickly if any arise in the group dynamics.
Here the study of the formation of an organization is done. The areas looked into can be the
structure of the organization, effectiveness in the organization, etc. The efforts made by a
group to achieve the objectives or goals of an organization are what group behavior is all
about. The behavior of everyone who is a part of the group is considered.

Elements of Organizational Behavior

Organizational behavior is the study of human behavior in an organizational setting. It

involves understanding, predicting, and managing human behavior individually or in a group
within an organization. There are four elements in an internal and external organization:
people, structure, technology, and social system.
Below are the explanations of elements of an internal and external organization.

 People

The first element of internal organization is People consisting of individuals and groups.
Groups may be official/ unofficial, formal/ informal, and large/ small. The organization's
objectives and goals exist to serve the people in the organization.

 Structure

Structure in an organization determines the sole relationship of people. In an organization,

the structure relates to power and duties where one has the authority and others have to obey
them.

 Technology

Technology is the third element in the internal organization. It covers the physical and
economic conditions of the people working. The technology depends on the organization's
nature, which influences the working conditions.

 Social System

A social system is the only external environment and a final element in an organization.
Therefore, it has the power to influence people's attitudes and working conditions.
Objectives of Organizational Behavior

Studying organizational behavior can help assess how the employees process these changes
and inculcate them into their work patterns. In addition, there are particular objectives that
organizational behavior fulfils or needs to be fulfilled in the workplace.
Given below are the primary objectives of organizational behavior.

 Improving Employee Behavior

 Enhances Leadership Skills
 Increases the Motivation of Employees
 Assists in Organizational Change
 Creating a Desirable Workplace Culture

Improving Employee Behavior

With the help of organizational behavior, it is easy to understand employees' behavior and
access their workplace situation. It also helps in analyzing how employees' positive and
negative behavior while working can impact the workflow. And through all these necessary
steps can be taken to handle any situation that may arise.
For example, we can analyze why a particular employee's deadlines are not being met by
observing their organizational behavior.

Enhances Leadership Skills

To become an effective leader, it is necessary to understand organizational behavior. When
one is in a higher position, it is essential to look into the factors that affect employees' or
subordinates' behavior in the workplace. Once the reasons are understood, effective steps can
be taken immediately. Leadership skills ensure to handle the employees work effectively and
efficiently.

Increases the Motivation of Employees

When they look through the employees' perspective, they will always find it motivating that
their problems are being understood and reasons for their behavior, in a certain way, are
taken into consideration. When effective feedback is taken, the employees feel valued and
satisfied. It motivates them to work in a better way, which will, in turn, increase productivity.
Assists in Organizational Change
When working in an organization, the employees have to undergo several changes like
technological changes, customer tastes, etc. And any difficulty that arises can be solved
without having any significant effect on the working by looking into it prior.
Creating a Desirable Workplace Culture
By taking steps to understand organizational behavior, desirable workplace culture is created.
The employees feel satisfied and vital. It helps understand what leadership style must be
used, hiring strategies, compensation, etc.

Organizational Behavior – Nature:

The nature it has acquired is identified as follows:

1. A Separate Field of Study and Not a Discipline Only:

By definition, a discipline is an accepted science that is based on a theoretical foundation. But,
O.B. has a multi- interdisciplinary orientation and is, thus, not based on a specific theoretical
background. Therefore, it is better reasonable to call O.B. a separate field of study rather than a
discipline only.

2. An Interdisciplinary Approach:
Organizational behavior is essentially an interdisciplinary approach to study human behavior at
work. It tries to integrate the relevant knowledge drawn from related disciplines like psychology,
sociology and anthropology to make them applicable for studying and analyzing organizational
behavior.

3. An Applied Science:
The very nature of O.B. is applied. What O.B. basically does is the application of various
researches to solve the organizational problems related to human behavior. The basic line of
difference between pure science and O.B. is that while the former concentrates of fundamental
researches, the latter concentrates on applied researches. O.B. involves both applied research and
its application in organizational analysis. Hence, O.B. can be called both science as well as art.

4. A Normative Science:
Organizational Behavior is a normative science also. While the positive science discusses only
cause effect relationship, O.B. prescribes how the findings of applied researches can be applied
to socially accept organizational goals. Thus, O.B. deals with what is accepted by individuals and
society engaged in an organization. Yes, it is not that O.B. is not normative at all. In fact, O.B. is
normative as well that is well underscored by the proliferation of management theories.
5. A Humanistic and Optimistic Approach:
Organizational Behavior applies humanistic approach towards people working in the
organization. It, deals with the thinking and feeling of human beings. O.B. is based on the belief
that people have an innate desire to be independent, creative and productive. It also realizes that
people working in the organization can and will actualize these potentials if they are given
proper conditions and environment. Environment affects performance or workers working in an
organization.

6. A Total System Approach:

The system approach is one that integrates all the variables, affecting organizational functioning.
The systems approach has been developed by the behavioral scientists to analyze human
behavior in view of his/her socio-psychological framework. Man’s socio- psychological
framework makes man a complex one and the systems approach tries to study his/her complexity
and find solution to it.

Environmental Context:

Self-Concept. Our self-concept represents a It includes Role of IT, Globalization, Diversity in

workplace & its implementation, and Business Ethics & Ethical Behavior. Read more. Syeda
Tooba Saleem. It includes Role of IT, Globalization, Diversity in workplace & its
implementation, and Business Ethics & Ethical Behavior.

Information technology, Globalization, Diversity, and Ethics

(A)Information Technology
As you can see, technology has an impact on every aspect of the workplace. Let’s further explore
some major categories where technology plays a leading role.
 Communication
Technology has made communication easier than ever before. Long gone are the days where you send a
letter and wait for a written response or have to use an operator to connect a call. Emails, texts, interactive
documents, and video conferences all make communication easier and faster than ever before. Electronic
communication brings another level of complexity to an organization as inflection and tone is much
harder to detect in text versus a face-to-face conversation. Utilizing concise and friendly electronic
communication can be challenging but is extremely important to maintaining a professional work
environment.

 Workplace Environments
Technology has shifted the way the workplace looks today. While many people still go into the
office for their workday, other employees have the option to work remotely. Some companies
even operate strictly online and do not require a brick and mortar workplace. In addition, video
conferences have replaced in-person meetings and changed the dynamic of many professional,
working relationships.
 Organization and Efficiency
Technology allows companies to be more organized than ever before. Filing a document can be
done instantaneously and retrieved just as easily. The speed of the internet and the availability of
technology allows for a much more efficient workday. Documents can now be signed
electronically and sent wherever they need to go quickly. Training and development can now be
offered online and allows individuals to complete training on their own time, eliminating the
need to work around many schedules to conduct a training event.
 Accessibility
Technology enables people to be constantly in touch with their work. Email and smartphones
oftentimes prevent people from unplugging from their job. While this can be avoided by setting
aside technology when you are off work, some companies now expect an immediate response to
questions or concerns. While for some this may be a welcomed advantage, for other it can
potentially lead to burnout and frustration. Accessibility of technology is a necessity for almost
every organization. A power outage or lack of internet access can completely shut down a
company.
Globalization
globalization is interpreted as a worldwide phenomenon or process. Some economic and
monetary policies together facilitate the process of globalization. Some of the economic
dimensions of globalization are expansion of international trade, cross-border labour migration,
cross- border flow of investments, etc.
From the OB point of view, the biggest concern for globalization is the impact and influence of
multinational and transnational companies. Participation of these companies in trade, investment,
and production, expanded the international communication and imported various cross-cultural
issues. Nowadays, even to operate locally, Indian organizations need to track these issues and
regularly renew their business practices, changing the mind-sets of their people
Globalization has many dimensions. The most general is the economic globalization. OB studies
are now increasingly becoming complex due to the effect of globalization. Some of the important
areas of concern are changing technology with a sharp increase in cross-border technology
transfers, the mobility of organizations and people in the global world, the competition for
markets and customers on a global scale, etc.
Globalization can be taken to mean the increasing trend to interact beyond physical boundaries.
The causes of globalization include deregulation and privatization of public sectors in certain
countries, technological convergence, and increased competition. Furthermore, globalization has
taken many forms such as foreign investment and international partnerships.
From the perspective of business organizations, there are three different types of globalizations
—multinationals, global, and international companies. The cascading effect of globalization even
transcends to the tasks or the operational environments of business organizations.
Changes in the operational environment not only require focus on new products or service
developments, but also on the skills and competency sets, attitudes, values, and cultures of the
people. Such changes are primarily attributable to the shift in the expectations of customers and
the behavior of competitors.
The consequential effect of globalization on organizations is an increase in alliances and
partnerships rather than on authority and control. This is characterized by the breakdown of tall
hierarchies, increase in use of teams, reorganization of functional departments into cross-
functional groups, reduction in centralized control, and allowing more local autonomy.
Another key aspect, from the perspective of a business organization, is the harvesting of the
knowledge of the people. This is facilitated by knowledge management practices, using various
tools, techniques, and values. Through knowledge management, organizations can acquire,
develop measure, distribute, and provide a return on their intellectual assets.
Globalization has also changed the nature of managerial work, requiring managers, in the
globalized era, to increase their judgmental power, use of persuasion and influence, shaping of
the behaviour of the people, etc.

The 7 Key Advantages Of Diversity

1. Encouraging Diversity In The Workplace Improves Productivity
Productivity is in the effectiveness and efficiency of the employees, employers, and staff in an
organization. As the Department of Labour states, “Productive workplaces are built on teamwork
and a shared vision of where a business is heading. There’s a willingness at all levels to keep
learning and investing in skills".
Productivity is higher in organizations where employees are appreciated and recognized. This
keeps them engaged and also helps them contribute without any sense of abandonment.
Diversity in workplace increases the organization’s morale and creates efficiency and
effectiveness. Workers from cultural backgrounds bring their skills to the table. This helps you
critically examine a problem or task at many diverse levels. It enables you to understand the
customer base from diverse backgrounds. This further results in higher efficiency and
effectiveness, which boosts the employee productivity.
2. Improves Creativity And Innovation
Creativity and innovation are not synonymous. Creativity is the mental ability to develop
practical, unique ideas and concepts. Innovation, on the contrary, is the extension of creativity. It
is the process of transforming these exceptional ideas into new entities.
In this time and age, every other organization is coming up with innovations. Therefore, this is
very crucial for any organization to grow and sustain.
Globalization has brought many new changes in the corporate world. Competition is one of those
changes which demands innovation and creativity to remain relevant in the business and more.
A diverse workforce helps an organization bring more creativity and innovations. Diversity
practice is not only a leveler. It is also an immense possibility for an organization’s growth.
3. Hire Employees from Diverse Pool Of Talents
You often listen to successful leaders around the globe speaking how important it is to hire
diverse teams from a larger pool of talents. Diversity in the workplace helps you choose a wide
range of employees based on their abilities. When business owners do not practice diversity, they
also miss out on the widespread possibilities and customer base.
Hiring diverse candidates also helps in employeeretension. According to Glassdoor, 57% of
employees want their companies to be more diverse and inclusive.
Many companies practice blind hiring to include a wide range of employees from cultural
backgrounds. Blind hiring helps to cut down the biases based on gender, age, race, religion, and
culture of the candidate.
Many a time, these biases stop a recruiter from hiring the right people. When you fail to hire the
candidate,
4. Fight Unconscious Biases
We make our presumptions with our preconceived notions. We do it without any proof or
validation, and that’s what results in unconscious biases. Don’t we unconsciously judge people
from the color of their skin or the ethnicity they belong to? And even from the names in their
resumes.
Yes, we do, and most of the time, we do it unconsciously. These unconscious biases many times
stops you from hiring the best talent. Therefore, companies with diverse teams help fight these
biases very effectively.
5. Improves Employer Brand And Global Reputation
It’s pretty impossible to be in the room and not be a part of the discussion. Especially when you
run a business, you can’t afford to miss out on what your competitors are doing. So, almost every
small/big organization wants diversity in the workplace to be relevant. The criteria are to meet up
the quota or diversity policies and all the goodwill it brings.
Diversity in the workplace plays a vital role in building an excellent reputation for the company.
This leads to increased profitability and equal opportunity for the company and its employees.
Thus, organizations that commit to diversity enjoy a global reputation. This improves the
employer’s brand and respect for their fair employment practices and ethics.
6. Improves Company Culture
Company culture varies from company to company. Some follow an informal and casual
approach. On the other hand, some follow specific dos and don’ts. It also depends on the
company's size, work ethics, goals, and work environment.
Company culture is the personality of the company. Your employee’s beliefs and actions in
internal and external matters tell a lot about your company. Their behavior, feeling and thinking
determines the way they perform.
It is documented from various statistics that diverse workplaces improve company culture.
Employees enjoy working with diverse groups. It keeps them at ease and not fear unwelcoming
biases. Also, it builds respect and also healthy workplace relationships. Cultural Diversity in the
workplace broadens the employees’ perspective and keeps the company culture growing.
7. Millennials And Diverse Workforce
Millennials now are more perceptive towards their work environment. They want satisfaction in
their work and enjoy their work to reflect in the society they live in.
According to glass door, 67% of job seekers weigh diversity as a factor before evaluating
companies and job offers.
Another survey from delolitte also reveals that 83% of millennials are engaged when their
organization has a diverse work culture. And the stats lower to 60% without workplace diversity.
Millennials have a unique outlook on diversity. For them, it is a mix of identities, experiences,
ideas, and opinions.
 This proves how important it is for millennials to break the norms and barriers. And also to work
in an environment that fosters progressive change and collaborative team works.

Organizational ethics

Organizational ethics is the ethics of an organization, and it is how an organization responds to

an internal or external stimulus. Organizational ethics is interdependent with the organizational
culture. Although it is to both organizational behavior and industrial and organizational
psychology as well as business ethics on the micro and macro levels, organizational ethics is
neither organizational behavior nor industrial and organizational psychology, nor is it solely
business ethics (which includes corporate governance and corporate ethics). Organizational
ethics express the values of an organization to its employees and/or other entities irrespective of
governmental and regulatory laws.

Ethics are the principles and values used by an individual to govern his or her actions and
decisions.[1] An organization forms when individuals with varied interests and different
backgrounds unite on a common platform and work together towards predefined goals and
objectives.[1] A code of ethics within an organization is a set of principles that is used to guide the
organization in its decisions, programs, and policies. [2] An ethical organizational culture consists
of leaders and employees

Organizational context:

Context of the Organization

 Capturing Internal and External Issues.
 Internal Issues relate to the internal environment in which the organization operates. ...
 External Issues include social, technological, ethical, legal, political, and economic environment
in which the organization operates.
Organizational context includes 1. Organizational design,

2 .culture and

3. Reward system

Organizational Design:

Organizational design is the process of aligning the structure of an organization with its
objectives, with the ultimate aim of improving efficiency and effectiveness. Work can be
triggered by the need to improve service delivery or specific business processes, or as a result of
a new mandate.

Organizational design involves horizontal organizational network designs and virtual

organizations
Horizontal organizational structure is a flat management structure. Organizations with these
structures often have few managers with many employees, and they allow employees to make
decisions without needing manager approval. Providing employees with autonomy often helps
employees feel empowered and motivated, increasing their connection to the company and its
goals. The relaxed structure of horizontal organizational structures also often naturally
encourages collaboration.

Vertical organizational structure is a pyramid-like top-down management structure. These

organizations have clearly defined roles with the highest level of leadership at the top, followed
by middle management then regular employees. Decision making often works from top to
bottom, but work approval will work from bottom to top.

Organizational structure is the grouping of people to accomplish work. It establishes

relationships among a business's managers and workers, giving them authority to carry out
responsibilities. Different kinds of basic configurations exist, and a small-business owner
chooses one over another by the effect a structure is likely to have on work activities. Grouping
people together in a certain way elicits or prevents specific behaviors, so knowing how each
structure shapes employee behavior helps the small-business owner choose the one that produces
the best work culture for accomplishing her strategic goals

Functional

"Mechanistic" describes the outcome of the functional structure. It's characterized by a top-down
power hierarchy, with decision-making authority pushed up as high as is practically possible.
Many rules exist to keep things running according to a predictable order. People work together
according to function -- salespeople work together on sales, for example -- and employees
perform standardized, narrow jobs. This, coupled with rules and management control, means
employees color within the lines, becoming proficient and efficient at their jobs but exhibiting
little creativity. The structure inhibits initiative and produces followers. The military uses the
functional structure, as do most small businesses.

Team

The team structure produces a much freer workplace. This organic structure adapts as needed by
using fluid employee teams that take charge of company goals and projects. Authority is
decentralized, pushed down to employees, who respond by exhibiting initiative, creativity and
enthusiasm. Accordingly, it has fewer managers -- perhaps only the owner, who oversees all the
teams. Jobs aren’t standardized, and this affects morale: Satisfaction increases as job
specialization decreases. Of course, decreasing specialization decreases efficiency, as well.
Creative industries may use the team structure to good effect.

Divisional
When a company has disparate client categories, product lines or locations, it makes sense to
divide employees into groups dedicated to a single concern. Doing this naturally decentralizes
power, as each division has power over its particular concern. Indeed, each division operates as
a small business unit, and managers respond by learning to behave like leaders.

Matrix

The divisional structure creates unavoidable redundancy; each division must have its own
equipment, for instance. A company may instead combine the functional and divisional
structures in the matrix structure. The functional structure is permanent. Divisional managers
then pull employees from across different functional areas to work in teams on divisional
projects. This matrix gains some of the team model’s flexibility, retains some of the functional
structure’s efficiency, while responding to different market concerns. There’s a built-in potential
for conflict, though. Divisional and functional managers can become territorial and competitive,
and employees may dislike being caught between and answering to two bosses.

Other Conflicts

Both the divisional and functional structures segregate employee groups, which can lead to
insular behavior. Employees in different departments may become indifferent -- even hostile -- to
the concerns of other areas, putting their own well-being first, even ahead of the company’s.
Uncooperative behavior results and interdepartmental coordination suffers. The team structure,
meanwhile, lives and dies on the ability of team members to rise to challenges. They must be
trained to flourish, not only in their own respective fields of functional expertise, but in areas
such as communication, problem solving and diversity.

Steps in designing organizational structure

 Plan the future. ...

 Consider the past. ...
 Build your organizational structure. ...
 Fill in the people. ...
 Balance authority and responsibility. ...
 Fill in employee data and metrics. ...
 Practice robust performance management of employees. ...
 Review your organizational structure annually.

Reward system

What is the purpose of a reward system?

Reward systems are central to the Human Resource Management function. Their purpose is to
attract talented individuals, motivate them and retain those that have a better fit with the
organization.

Reward systems in organizations are used for a variety of reasons. It is generally agreed that
reward systems influence the following:

 Job effort and performance. Following expectancy theory, employees’ effort and
performance would be expected to increase when they felt that rewards were contingent
upon good performance. Hence, reward systems serve a very basic motivational function.

 Attendance and retention. Reward systems have also been shown to influence an
employee’s decision to come to work or to remain with the organization. This was
discussed in the previous chapter.

 Employee commitment to the organization. It has been found that reward systems in
no small way influence employee commitment to the organization, primarily through the
exchange process.

 Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction has also been shown to be related to rewards, as
discussed in the previous chapter. Edward E. Lawler, a well-known researcher on
employee compensation, has identified four conclusions concerning the relationship
between rewards and satisfaction:
 Satisfaction with a reward is a function of both how much is received and how much the
individual feels should have been received;
 Satisfaction is influenced by comparisons with what happens to others, especially one’s
coworkers;
 People differ with respect to the rewards they value; and (4) some rewards are satisfying
because they lead to other rewards.

 Occupational and organizational choice. Finally, the selection of an occupation by an

individual, as well as the decision to join a particular organization within that occupation,
is influenced by the rewards that are thought to be available in the occupation or
organization. To prove this, simply look at the classified section of your local newspaper
and notice how many jobs highlight beginning salaries.

Monetary Reward Systems

The most common type of monetary reward system is an annual or semi-annual bonus. These
mid-year and end-of-year incentives are great for encouraging healthy competition between
employees with respect to performance and productivity. Other examples of monetary rewards
include cash awards, profit sharing plans, and stock options. In many industries, monetary
incentives are enough to get maximum productivity your of employees. This type of reward
system works best with employees who are motivated by cold, hard cash.
Non-Monetary Reward Systems
A non-monetary reward system could be something as simple as a "top performer" or "employee
of the month" certificate. This type of reward satisfies an employee's psychological desire to be
recognized for his or her efforts. Other types of non-monetary rewards to consider are extra time
off, flexible work hours, corporate discounts (such as a gym membership), and free parking.
Employee Assistance Programs
Employee assistance programs are designed to help workers achieve greater work-life balance by
supporting employees' physical and psychological health. Some employee programs offer health-
related corporate discounts, such as fitness memberships. Other employee assistance programs
provide help to employees coping with work stress, family problems, and grief. Employee
assistance programs are a great way to support your staff members with their home
responsibilities so they'll give their best performance at work.
Employee Recognition Programs
Research shows that employees who are recognized for their contributions and accomplishments
tend to work harder and have more positive workplace attitudes. Employee recognition could be
as simple as verbal praise or as formal as an award ceremony. Depending on the type of
employee recognition given rewards can be doled out daily, weekly, or at the end of the month.
As with the other types of reward systems, employee recognition benefits both the employer and
the employee by helping create a more productive, positive work environment.
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Cognitive process

Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and
comprehension. These cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging,
and problem-solving. These are higher-level functions of the brain and encompass language,
imagination, perception, and planning.

Examples of cognitive processes

you look for the items you need, make selections among different brands, read the signs in the
aisles, work your way over to the cashier and exchange money. All of these operations are
examples of cognitive processing

Perception in Organizational Behavior

Perception is simply defined as how a person sees the world around them and how they interpret
that information. It's a subconscious things that the mind does and is contingent on your ability to
pay attention to your surroundings and your existing knowledge. 1 The mind will occasionally
filter information out, which is why you don't notice every single thing around you; it would be a
complete information overload otherwise.
In organizational behavior and business, perception often helps shape a person's personality and
how they act in certain situations. These can affect how they respond to certain things-like
stressful situations-their performance at tasks, and even their creativity. 2 For management, paying
attention to personality traits in employees can help them determine the person's work ethic and
strengths. That is, if the manager's perception is not hindered in some way. In most cases, the
root cause of perception problems can be linked to one particular issue:

Perception is the sensory experience of the world. It involves both recognizing environmental
stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain
information about the properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival.
Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli to meaningful information.
It is the process of interpreting something that we see or hear in our mind and use it later to
judge and give a verdict on a situation, person, group etc.
It can be divided into six types −
 Of sound − The ability to receive sound by identifying vibrations.
 Of speech − The competence of interpreting and understanding the sounds of language
heard.
 Touch − Identifying objects through patterns of its surface by touching it.
 Taste − The ability to receive flavor of substances by tasting it through sensory organs
known as taste buds.
 Other senses − They approve perception through body, like balance, acceleration, pain,
time, sensation felt in throat and lungs etc.
 Of the social world − It permits people to understand other individuals and groups of
their social world. Example − Priya goes to a restaurant and likes their customer
service, so she will perceive that it is a good place to hang out and will recommend it to
her friends, who may or may not like it. Priya’s perception about the restaurant is good.

Perceptual Process

Perceptual process is the different stages of perception we go through. The different stages are −

 Receiving
 Selecting
 Organizing
 Interpreting

Receiving
Receiving is the first and most important stage in the process of perception. It is the initial stage
in which a person collects all information and receives the information through the sense
organs.

Selecting

Selecting is the second stage in the process. Here a person doesn’t receive the data randomly but
selectively. A person selects some information out of all in accordance with his interest or
needs. The selection of data is dominated by various external and internal factors.
 External factors − The factors that influence the perception of an individual externally
are intensity, size, contrast, movement, repetition, familiarity, and novelty.
 Internal factors − The factors that influence the perception of an individual internally
are psychological requirements, learning, background, experience, self-acceptance, and
interest.

Organizing

Keeping things in order or say in a synchronized way is organizing. In order to make sense of
the data received, it is important to organize them.
We can organize the data by −
 Grouping them on the basis of their similarity, proximity, closure, continuity.
 Establishing a figure ground is the basic process in perception. Here by figure we mean
what is kept as main focus and by ground we mean background stimuli, which are not
given attention.
 Perceptual constancy that is the tendency to stabilize perception so that contextual
changes don’t affect them.

Interpreting

Finally, we have the process of interpreting which means forming an idea about a particular
object depending upon the need or interest. Interpretation means that the information we have
sensed and organized, is finally given a meaning by turning it into something that can be
categorized. It includes stereotyping, halo effect etc.

Importance of Perception in OB

We need to understand what the role of perception in an organization is. It is very important in
establishing different role of perceptions like −

 Understanding the tasks to be performed.

 Understanding associated importance of tasks allotted.
 Understanding preferred behavior to complete respective tasks.
  Clarifying role perceptions.
For example, every member in a group has to be clear regarding the role allotted to them.
Programmer writes the code, tester checks it, etc.

Perceptual selectivity:

External Influences on Selective Attention

External influences consist of the characteristics of the observed object or person that activate the
senses. Most external influences affect selective attention because of either their physical
properties or their dynamic properties.

Physical Properties. The physical properties of the objects themselves often affect which
objects receive attention by the perceiver. Emphasis here is on the unique, different, and out of
the ordinary.

A particularly important physical property is size. Generally, larger objects receive more
attention than smaller ones. Advertising companies use the largest signs and billboards allowed
to capture the perceiver’s attention. However, when most of the surrounding objects are large, a
small object against a field of large objects may receive more attention. In either case, size
represents an important variable in perception.

Moreover, brighter, louder, and more colorful objects tend to attract more attention than objects
of less intensity.
 For example, when a factory foreman yells an order at his subordinates, it will probably receive
more notice (although it may not receive the desired response) from workers. It must be
remembered here, however, that intensity heightens attention only when compared to other
comparable stimuli. If the foreman always yells, employees may stop paying much attention to
the yelling.

Objects that contrast strongly with the background against which they are observed tend to
receive more attention than less-contrasting objects. An example of the contrast principle can be
seen in the use of plant and highway safety signs. A terse message such as “Danger” is lettered in
black against a yellow or orange background.

A final physical characteristic that can heighten perceptual awareness is

the novelty or unfamiliarity of the object. Specifically, the unique or unexpected seen in a
familiar setting (an executive of a conservative company who comes to work in Bermuda shorts)
or the familiar seen in an incongruous setting (someone in church holding a can of beer) will
receive attention.

Dynamic Properties. The second set of external influences on selective attention is those that
either change over time or derive their uniqueness from the order in which they are presented.
The most obvious dynamic property is motion. We tend to pay attention to objects that move
against a relatively static background. This principle has long been recognized by advertisers,
who often use signs with moving lights or moving objects to attract attention. In an
organizational setting, a clear example is a rate-buster, who shows up his colleagues by working
substantially faster, attracting more attention.

Another principle basic to advertising is repetition of a message or image. Work instructions that
are repeated tend to be received better, particularly when they concern a dull or boring task on
which it is difficult to concentrate. This process is particularly effective in the area of plant
safety. Most industrial accidents occur because of careless mistakes during monotonous
activities. Repeating safety rules and procedures can often help keep workers alert to the
possibilities of accidents.

Personal Influences on Selective Attention

In addition to a variety of external factors, several important personal factors are also capable of
influencing the extent to which an individual pays attention to a particular stimulus or object in
the environment. The two most important personal influences on perceptual readiness
are response salience and response disposition.

Response Salience. This is a tendency to focus on objects that relate to our immediate needs or
wants. Response salience in the work environment is easily identified. A worker who is tired
from many hours of work may be acutely sensitive to the number of hours or minutes until
quitting time. Employees negotiating a new contract may know to the penny the hourly wage of
workers doing similar jobs across town. Managers with a high need to achieve may be sensitive
to opportunities for work achievement, success, and promotion. Finally, female managers may be
more sensitive than many male managers to condescending male attitudes toward women.
Response salience, in turn, can distort our view of our surroundings. For example, as Ruch notes:

“Time spent on monotonous work is usually overestimated. Time spent in interesting work is
usually underestimated. . . . Judgment of time is related to feelings of success or failure. Subjects
who are experiencing failure judge a given interval as longer than do subjects who are
experiencing success. A given interval of time is also estimated as longer by subjects trying to
get through a task in order to reach a desired goal than by subjects working without such
motivation.”3

Response Disposition. Whereas response salience deals with immediate needs and
concerns, response disposition is the tendency to recognize familiar objects more quickly than
unfamiliar ones. The notion of response disposition carries with it a clear recognition of the
importance of past learning on what we perceive in the present. For instance, in one study, a
group of individuals was presented with a set of playing cards with the colors and symbols
reversed—that is, hearts and diamonds were printed in black, and spades and clubs in red.
Surprisingly, when subjects were presented with these cards for brief time periods, individuals
consistently described the cards as they expected them to be (red hearts and diamonds, black
spades and clubs) instead of as they really were. They were predisposed to see things as they
always had been in the past.4

Thus, the basic perceptual process is in reality a fairly complicated one. Several factors,
including our own personal makeup and the environment, influence how we interpret and
respond to the events we focus on. Although the process itself may seem somewhat complicated,
it in fact represents shorthand to guide us in our everyday behavior. That is, without perceptual
selectivity we would be immobilized by the millions of stimuli competing for our attention and
action. The perceptual process allows us to focus our attention on the more salient events or
objects and, in addition, allows us to categorize such events or objects so that they fit into our
own conceptual map of the environment.

Perceptual organization:

Definition:

Perceptual organisation is a process that groups the visual elements so that it is easy to determine
the meaning of the visual as a whole. It is an essential concept because it allows individuals to
make sense of the things that they see at a rapid pace. The perceptual organization also helps to
lead the viewer to the appropriate conclusion that suits our purpose.

What is Perceptual Organization?

In everyday life, various stimuli keep on stimulating the sense organs of a human body. The
sense organs are the recipient of these stimuli which are converted to sensations and transmitted
to the related parts of the brain, which helps it in interpreting. This is what perception is. It
involves the process of sensation as well as interpretation.

Perception is all about viewing and experiencing and this is why even two people can’t see
similar objects the same way. The information that we have access to governs our beliefs and
mindset. It is ultimately the perception that leads to individual interpretation, and this is why
everyone sees things in their way.

Perceptual selectivity is about external and internal variables, and the perceptual organisation is
about organizing inputs into whole objects that can be easily identified. It is the perceptual
process of an individual that takes into account the incoming information and gives it a
meaningful picture. It is also defined as an integrated approach where different psychological
and physiological processes like mental state, clarity of sensations and accuracy of sense organs
are involved so that the perception does not go haywire.

Several factors play a prominent role in the perceptual organisation theory. These principles or
laws can explain the way perception acts independently from the features and characteristics of
individual stimuli. It has been proved that human perception sometimes has little connection to
the stimulus situation in hand. There is a reason for it as perception is an active and complicated
process that is influenced by numerous other factors besides the stimulus characteristics.

Principles of perceptual organization

Principles of perceptual organization

The Gestalt laws of perceptual organization theory are based on the following groups of rules or
principles

1. Figure-Ground relationship or figure background–As per the principle of figure-ground

relationship the human brain can perceive a figure in a meaningful manner in the background
and the beauty of it is that it cannot be separated from that perceived background.

2. Ambiguous figures(unclear):

Perceptual organization becomes different when there are confusing and disorganized stimuli in
the external environment

3. Perceptual constancy – As the name suggests, the term perceptual constancy is about
stability in perception. The tendency of the human mind to perceive objects as unchanging and
stable in size and shape despite a change in the picture we receive is referred to as perceptual
constancy. The concept of perceptual constancy depends upon numerous factors, for instance,
imagination, learning, cognitive styles, motivations, habits, expectancy and experience. The
different types of perceptual constancies are size constancy, brightness and color constancy,
shape and size constancy etc.

4. Perceptual Grouping – The tendency of the human mind to group several stimuli in an easily
recognizable pattern is known as a perceptual grouping. In this principle, the grouping is based
on closure, continuity, similarity, inclusiveness, pregnant and proximity. A detailed description
of every one of them is as follows-

 Law of Closure – The tendency of the human mind to fill in the gaps and perceive
meaningful objects is simply known as the law of closure as it closes the gap in literal
terms. As per the reports of Gestalt psychologists

For example, draw a circle in a paper and do not close it. When you show this figure to someone
else, the first thing that he will see is a circle, and it is later when the incompleteness of the circle
will register in his mind. This is because his mind has already perceived the figure as a circle.
After all, the law or principle of closure was in operation.
  Law of Pragnanz – The term pragnanz means good figure, and this is why the law of
pragnanz is often referred to as the law of simplicity or law of good figure. It describes
the tendency of a human mind to perceive the objects in an environment in as simple a
manner as possible. For example, draw a few rectangles that are interconnecting each
other. Although the end picture has now some different shapes as well the human mind
will see it as some rectangles because it will be the most simple and easiest figure to
identify in the brain. This is why the term pragnanz is used for this law as it depicts
completeness or fullness of the picture.

As per the reports of Gestalt psychologists, the process of perceptual organisation is dynamic and
will keep on changing until it reaches a stage that the human mind will see as complete, with
maximum meaning and simple to understand. At this point, the gestalt or the perception remains
stable and is for this reason known as a good gestalt.

As per the Gestalt psychology, perceptual organisation process will try to move forward towards
a good gestalt. One of the underlying mechanisms to describe the law of pragnanz is the law of
closure. For instance, it is seen that a child will go on asking questions until and unless his mind
is satisfied. This is because he is looking to understand his perception of a specific thing.

 Law of Proximity – The law of proximity describes the tendency of a human mind to
perceive the objects that are near to each other as if they are grouped. It is the human
mind that segregates objects in groups as per its perception. Draw six circles in a straight
line with a space of half-inch between the first four and one inches for the last two. The
human mind, in most cases, will perceive them as two groups one of four circles and the
other of two circles. This is because the objects are closer to one another in both groups.

The law of proximity in the perceptual organisation theory tends to perceive objects that are
closer to each other as a single entity and not as separate. Even if the individual items are not
connected, it will be seen as a meaningful picture and grouped under as a single entity or pattern.

 Law of Similarity- The law of similarity describes the tendency of a human mind to
perceive the objects that are similar to a single group and not as individual entities. The
grouping can be of both sound and visual stimuli. The law of similarity in perceptual
organisation theory states that stimuli that have the same colour, shape and size are
deemed as together and considered in a pattern because of similar nature.
 Law of Continuity – The law of continuity as the name suggests describes the tendency
of a human mind to perceive the objects that extends itself into space in a similar pattern
 of color, size and shape without a break, a whole figure. For example, if the points are
connected by a curving or a straight line rather than seeing separate lines, they will seem
as one entity because of the law of continuity.
 Law of Inclusiveness – The law of inclusiveness, describes the tendency of a human
mind to perceive the objects of a pattern more readily than other figures. For example, if
you draw big dots in the form of a circle and then small dots in the shape of a rectangle in
its middle, then the viewer will perceive the outer dots of the circle more readily
compared to the smaller ones within it. The outer dots acted as an enclosure or only a
fence and were prominent, thus could be easily identified by the mind.

Social Perception in Organizations

Up to this point, we have focused on an examination of basic perceptual processes—how we see

objects or attend to stimuli. Based on this discussion, we are now ready to examine a special case
of the perceptual process—social perception as it relates to the workplace. Social perception
consists of those processes by which we perceive other people. 5 Particular emphasis in the study
of social perception is placed on how we interpret other people, how we categorize them, and
how we form impressions of them.

Clearly, social perception is far more complex than the perception of inanimate objects such as
tables, chairs, signs, and buildings. This is true for at least two reasons. First, people are
obviously far more complex and dynamic than tables and chairs. More-careful attention must be
paid in perceiving them so as not to miss important details. Second, an accurate perception of
others is usually far more important to us personally than are our perceptions of inanimate
objects. The consequences of misperceiving people are great. Failure to accurately perceive the
location of a desk in a large room may mean we bump into it by mistake. Failure to perceive
accurately the hierarchical status of someone and how the person cares about this status
difference might lead you to inappropriately address the person by their first name or use slang in
their presence and thereby significantly hurt your chances for promotion if that person is
involved in such decisions. Consequently, social perception in the work situation deserves
special attention.

We will concentrate now on the three major influences on social perception: the characteristics
of (1) The person being perceived,
 (2) The particular situation, and

(3) The perceiver. When taken together, these influences are the dimensions of the
environment in which we view other people. It is important for students of management to
understand the way in which they interact

Major Influences on Social Perception in Organizations

The way in which we are evaluated in social situations is greatly influenced by our own unique
sets of personal characteristics. That is, our dress, talk, and gestures determine the kind of
impressions people form of us. In particular, four categories of personal characteristics can be
identified: (1) physical appearance, (2) verbal communication, (3) nonverbal communication,
and (4) ascribed attributes.

 Physical Appearance. A variety of physical attributes influence our overall image.

These include many of the obvious demographic characteristics such as age, sex, race,
height, and weight. A study by Mason found that most people agree on the physical
attributes of a leader (i.e., what leaders should look like), even though these attributes
were not found to be consistently held by actual leaders. However, when we see a person
who appears to be assertive, goal-oriented, confident, and articulate, we infer that this
person is a natural leader.6 Another example of the powerful influence of physical
appearance on perception is clothing. People dressed in business suits are generally
thought to be professionals, whereas people dressed in work clothes are assumed to be
lower-level employees.
 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication. What we say to others—as well as how we say
it—can influence the impressions others form of us. Several aspects of verbal
communication can be noted. First, the precision with which one uses language can
influence impressions about cultural sophistication or education. An accent provides
 clues about a person’s geographic and social background. The tone of voice used provides
clues about a speaker’s state of mind. Finally, the topics people choose to converse about
provide clues about them.
 Impressions are also influenced by nonverbal communication—how people behave. For
instance, facial expressions often serve as clues in forming impressions of others. People
who consistently smile are often thought to have positive attitudes. 7 A whole field of
study that has recently emerged is body language, the way in which people express their
inner feelings subconsciously through physical actions: sitting up straight versus being
relaxed, looking people straight in the eye versus looking away from people. These forms
of expressive behavior provide information to the perceiver concerning how
approachable others are, how self-confident they are, or how sociable they are.
 Ascribed Attributes. Finally, we often ascribe certain attributes to a person before or at
the beginning of an encounter; these attributes can influence how we perceive that
person. Three ascribed attributes are status, occupation, and personal characteristics. We
ascribe status to someone when we are told that the person is an executive, holds the
greatest sales record, or has in some way achieved unusual fame or wealth. Research has
consistently shown that people attribute different motives to people they believe to be
high or low in status, even when these people behave in an identical fashion. 8 For
instance, high-status people are seen as having greater control over their behavior and as
being more self-confident and competent; they are given greater influence in group
decisions than low-status people. Moreover, high-status people are generally better liked
than low-status people. Occupations also play an important part in how we perceive
people. Describing people as salespersons, accountants, teamsters, or research scientists
conjures up distinct pictures of these various people before any firsthand encounters. In
fact, these pictures may even determine whether there can be an encounter.

Characteristics of the Situation

The second major influence on how we perceive others is the situation in which the perceptual
process occurs. Two situational influences can be identified: (1) the organization and the
employee’s place in it, and (2) the location of the event.

 Organizational Role. An employee’s place in the organizational hierarchy can also

influence his perceptions. A classic study of managers by Dearborn and Simon
emphasizes this point. In this study, executives from various departments (accounting,
sales, and production) were asked to read a detailed and factual case about a steel
company.9 Next, each executive was asked to identify the major problem a new president
of the company should address. The findings showed clearly that the executives’
perceptions of the most important problems in the company were influenced by the
departments in which they worked. Sales executives saw sales as the biggest problem,
whereas production executives cited production issues. Industrial relations and public
relations executives identified human relations as the primary problem in need of
attention.
 In addition to perceptual differences emerging horizontally across departments, such
differences can also be found when we move vertically up or down the hierarchy. The
most obvious difference here is seen between managers and unions, where the former see
 profits, production, and sales as vital areas of concern for the company whereas the latter
place much greater emphasis on wages, working conditions, and job security. Indeed, our
views of managers and workers are clearly influenced by the group to which we belong.
The positions we occupy in organizations can easily color how we view our work world
and those in it. Consider the results of a classic study of perceptual differences between
superiors and subordinates.10 Both groups were asked how often the supervisor gave
various forms of feedback to the employees. The results, demonstrate striking differences
based on one’s location in the organizational hierarchy.
 Location of Event. Finally, how we interpret events is also influenced by where the
event occurs. Behaviors that may be appropriate at home, such as taking off one’s shoes,
may be inappropriate in the office. Acceptable customs vary from country to country. For
instance, assertiveness may be a desirable trait for a sales representative in the United
States, but it may be seen as being brash or coarse in Japan or China. Hence, the context
in which the perceptual activity takes place is important.

 Characteristics of the Perceiver

 The third major influence on social perception is the personality and viewpoint of the
perceiver. Several characteristics unique to our personalities can affect how we see
others. These include (1) self-concept, (2) cognitive structure, (3) response salience, and
(4) previous experience with the individual major influence on how we perceive others.
This influence is manifested in several ways. First, when we understand ourselves (i.e.,
can accurately describe our own personal characteristics), we are better able to perceive
others accurately. Second, when we accept ourselves (i.e., have a positive self-image), we
are more likely to see favorable characteristics in others. Studies have shown that if we
accept ourselves as we are, we broaden our view of others and are more likely to view
people uncritically. Conversely, less secure people often find faults in others. Third, our
own personal characteristics influence the characteristics we notice in others. For
instance, people with authoritarian tendencies tend to view others in terms of power,
whereas secure people tend to see others as warm rather than cold. 12 From a management
standpoint, these findings emphasize how important it is for administrators to understand
themselves; they also provide justification for the human relations training programs that
are popular in many organizations today.
 Cognitive Structure. Our cognitive structures also influence how we view people.
People describe each other differently. Some use physical characteristics such as tall or
short, whereas others use central descriptions such as deceitful, forceful, or meek. Still
others have more complex cognitive structures and use multiple traits in their descriptions
of others; hence, a person may be described as being aggressive, honest,
friendly, and hardworking. (See the discussion in Individual and Cultural Differences on
cognitive complexity.) Ostensibly, the greater our cognitive complexity—our ability to
differentiate between people using multiple criteria—the more accurate our perception of
others. People who tend to make more complex assessments of others also tend to be
more positive in their appraisals. 13 Research in this area highlights the importance of
selecting managers who exhibit high degrees of cognitive complexity. These individuals
should form more accurate perceptions of the strengths and weaknesses of their
 subordinates and should be able to capitalize on their strengths while ignoring or working
to overcome their weaknesses.
 Response Salience. This refers to our sensitivity to objects in the environment as
influenced by our particular needs or desires. Response salience can play an important
role in social perception because we tend to see what we want to see. A company
personnel manager who has a bias against women, minorities, or handicapped persons
would tend to be adversely sensitive to them during an employment interview. This focus
may cause the manager to look for other potentially negative traits in the candidate to
confirm his biases. The influence of positive arbitrary biases is called the halo effect,
whereas the influence of negative biases is often called the horn effect. Another personnel
manager without these biases would be much less inclined to be influenced by these
characteristics when viewing prospective job candidates.
 Previous Experience with the Individual. Our previous experiences with others often
will influence the way in which we view their current behavior. When an employee has
consistently received poor performance evaluations, a marked improvement in
performance may go unnoticed because the supervisor continues to think of the
individual as a poor performer. Similarly, employees who begin their careers with several
successes develop a reputation as fast-track individuals and may continue to rise in the
organization long after their performance has leveled off or even declined. The impact of
previous experience on present perceptions should be respected and studied by students
of management. For instance, when a previously poor performer earnestly tries to
perform better, it is important for this improvement to be recognized early and properly
rewarded. Otherwise, employees may give up, feeling that nothing they do will make any
difference.
 Together, these factors determine the impressions we form of others with these
impressions, we make conscious and unconscious decisions about how we intend to
behave toward people. Our behavior toward others, in turn, influences the way they
regard us. Consequently, the importance of understanding the perceptual process, as well
as factors that contribute to it, is apparent for managers. A better understanding of
ourselves and careful attention to others leads to more accurate perceptions and more
appropriate actions.

when the human mind receives sensations that are unfinished or incomplete sound or visual
image, then it tries to neglect the incomplete picture. Instead, it observes the sound or picture as a
finished or whole unit. This inclination is referred to as closure.

Perceptual errors: A perceptual error is the inability to judge humans, things or situations fairly
and accurately. Examples could include such things as bias, prejudice, stereotyping, which have
always caused human beings to err in different aspects of their lives

Perceptual error has strong impact in organization and it hampers in proper decision making skill
while hiring, performance appraisal, review, feedback etc

There are many types of perceptual errors in workplace

1. Selective Perception-People generally interpret according to their basis of interests, idea and
backgrounds. It is the tendency not to notice and forget the stimuli that cause emotional
discomfort. For example we might think that fresher graduates with above 80 % marks will
exceptionally do well in technical interviews of respective subjects

2. Halo Effect-We misjudge people by concentrating on one single behavior or trait. It has deep
impact and give inaccurate result most of the time. For example we always have an impression
of a lazy person can never be punctual in any occasion.

3. Stereotypes-We always have a tendency to classify people to a general groups /categories in

order to simplify the matter. For example-Women are always good homemakers and can do well
in work life balance

4. Contrast Effect-We again sometimes judge people in comparison to others . This example
generally found in sports, academics and performance review

5. Projection-This is very common among Perceptual errors. Projection of one's own attitude,
personality or behavior into some other person.

For example- To all honest people, everybody is honest.

6. Impression-We all know the term "first impression is the last impression" and we apply that
too .For example-During the time of hiring, thought like this "The most decent and modest
person in the interview can do very well in every roles and responsibilities " always arise.

Strategies for Improving Perceptual Skills: 7 Strategies

1. Knowing One Accurately: One of the powerful ways to minimize perceptual distortions
is to know you.
2. Empathize with Others:
3. Have a Positive Attitude:
4. Postpone Impression Formation:
5. Communicating Openly:
6. Comparing One's Perceptions with that of Others:
7. Introducing Diversity Management Programs

Attribution theory:
Attribution theory deals with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal
explanations for events. It examines what information is gathered and how it is combined to
form a causal judgment”.

Heider (1958) believed that people are naive psychologists trying to make sense of the social
world. People tend to see cause and affect relationships, even where there is none!
Heider didn’t so much develop a theory himself as emphasize certain themes that others took up.
There were two main ideas that he put forward that became influential: dispositional (internal
cause) vs situational (external cause) attributions.

Dispositional vs Situational Attribution

1. Dispositional Attribution
Dispositional attribution assigns the cause of behavior to some internal characteristic of a person,
rather than to outside forces.
When we explain the behavior of others we look for enduring internal attributions, such as
personality traits. This is known as the fundamental attribution error.
For example, we attribute the behavior of a person to their personality, motives or beliefs.

2. Situational Attribution
The process of assigning the cause of behavior to some situation or event outside a person's
control rather than to some internal characteristic.
When we try to explain our own behavior we tend to make external attributions, such as
situational or environment features.
Jones & Davis Correspondent Inference Theory

Jones and Davis (1965) thought that people pay particular attention to intentional behavior (as
opposed to accidental or unthinking behavior).

Jones and Davis’ theory helps us understand the process of making an internal attribution. They
say that we tend to do this when we see a correspondence between motive and behavior. For
example, when we see a correspondence between someone behaving in a friendly way and being
a friendly person.
Dispositional (i.e., internal) attributions provide us with information from which we can make
predictions about a person’s future behavior. The correspondent inference theory describes the
conditions under which we make dispositional attributes to the behavior we perceive as
intentional.
Davis used the term correspondent inference to refer to an occasion when an observer infers that
a person’s behavior matches or corresponds with their personality. It is an alternative term to
dispositional attribution.
So what leads us to make a correspondent inference? Jones and Davis say we draw on five
sources of information:
 1. Choice: If a behavior is freely chosen it is believed to be due to internal (dispositional)
factors.
2. Accidental vs. Intentional Behavior: Behavior that is intentional is likely to be
attributed to the person’s personality, and behavior which is accidental is likely to be
attributed to situation / external causes.
3. Social Desirability: Behaviors low in sociable desirability (non conforming) lead us to
make (internal) dispositional inferences more than socially undesirable behaviors. For
example, if you observe a person getting on a bus and sitting on the floor instead of one
of the seats. This behavior has low social desirability (non conforming) and is likely to
correspond with the personality of the individual.
4. Hedonistic Relevance: If the other person’s behavior appears to be directly intended to
benefit or harm us.
5. Personalism: If the other person’s behavior appears to be intended to have an impact on
us, we assume that it is “personal”, and not just a by-product of the situation we are both
in.

Kelley's Co variation Model

Kelley’s (1967) co variation model is the best-known attribution theory. He developed a logical
model for judging whether a particular action should be attributed to some characteristic
(dispositional) of the person or the environment (situational).
The term covariation simply means that a person has information from multiple observations, at
different times and situations, and can perceive the covariation of an observed effect and its
causes.
He argues that in trying to discover the causes of behavior people act like scientists. More
specifically they take into account three kinds of evidence.
 Consensus: the extent to which other people behave in the same way in a similar
situation. E.g., Alison smokes a cigarette when she goes out for a meal with her friend. If
her friend smokes, her behavior is high in consensus. If only Alison smokes, it is low.

 Distinctiveness: the extent to which the person behaves in the same way in similar
situations. If Alison only smokes when she is out with friends, her behavior is high in
distinctiveness. If she smokes at any time or place, distinctiveness is low.

 Consistency: the extent to which the person behaves like this every time the situation
occurs. If Alison only smokes when she is out with friends, consistency is high. If she
only smokes on one special occasion, consistency is low.

Example: Let’s look at an example to help understand his particular attribution theory. Our
subject is called Tom. His behavior is laughter. Tom is laughing at a comedian.

1. Consensus If everybody in the audience is laughing, the consensus is high. If only Tom is
laughing consensus is low.
2. Distinctiveness If Tom only laughs at this comedian, the distinctiveness is high. If Tom
laughs at everything, then distinctiveness is low.

3. Consistency If Tom always laughs at this comedian the consistency is high. If Tom rarely
laughs at this comedian, then consistency is low.

Now, if everybody laughs at this comedian, if they don’t laugh at the comedian who follows and
if this comedian always raises a laugh, then we would make an external attribution, i.e., we
assume that Tom is laughing because the comedian is very funny.
On the other hand, if Tom is the only person who laughs at this comedian, if Tom laughs at all
comedians and if Tom always laughs at the comedian then we would make an internal
attribution, i.e., we assume that Tom is laughing because he is the kind of person who laughs a
lot.
So what we’ve got here is people attributing causality on the basis of correlation. That is to say,;
we see that two things go together and we, therefore, assume that one causes the other.

One problem, however, is that we may not have enough information to make that kind of
judgment. For example, if we don’t know Tom that well, we wouldn’t necessarily have the
information to know if his behavior is consistent over time. So what do we do then?

According to Kelley we fall back on past experience and look for either

1) Multiple necessary causes. For example, we see an athlete win a marathon, and we reason
that she must be very fit, highly motivated, have trained hard etc., and that she must have all of
these to win

2) Multiple sufficient causes. For example, we see an athlete fail a drug test, and we reason that
she may be trying to cheat, or have taken a banned substance by accident or been tricked into
taking it by her coach. Any one reason would be sufficient.

What is Locus of Control?

 Within psychology, Locus of Control is considered to be an important aspect of

personality. The concept was developed originally Julian Rotter in the 1950s (Rotter,
1966).
 Locus of Control refers to an individual's perception about the underlying main causes of
events in his/her life.
 Or, more simply: Do you believe that your destiny is controlled by yourself or by external
forces (such as fate, god, or powerful others)? The full name Rotter gave the construct
was Locus of Control of Reinforcement.
 In giving it this name, Rotter was bridging behavioural and cognitive psychology.
Rotter's view was that behaviour was largely guided by "reinforcements" (rewards and
 punishments) and that through contingencies such as rewards and punishments,
individuals come to hold beliefs about what causes their actions.
 These beliefs, in turn, guide what kinds of attitudes and behaviors people adopt. This
understanding of Locus of Control is consistent
 A locus of control orientation is a belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are
contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal
control (external control orientation).
 Thus, locus of control is conceptualised as referring to a one-dimensional continuum,
ranging from external to internal
 External Locus of Control Individual believes that his/her behavior is guided by fate,
luck, or other external circumstances Internal Locus of Control Individual believes that
his/her behavior is guided by his/her personal decisions and efforts
 Internal locus of control: It is the belief of an individual that his/her behavior
determines many of the events in his/her life people have internal locus of control are
successful in their jobs, carriers and lives.

Strategies to make good locus of control:

 Take responsibility in their life

 Plan your time to achieve your goal
 Accept situations that you cannot control

Attribution errors/bias:
Attribution bias is a cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when people
evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others' behaviors. People constantly
make attributions—judgments and assumptions about why people behave in certain ways.
However, attributions do not always accurately reflect reality. Rather than operating as objective
perceivers, people are prone to perceptual errors that lead to biased interpretations of their social
world. Attribution biases are present in everyday life. For example, when a driver cuts someone
off, the person who has been cut off is often more likely to attribute blame to the reckless driver's
inherent personality traits (e.g., "That driver is rude and incompetent") rather than situational
circumstances (e.g., "That driver may have been late to work and was not paying attention").
Additionally, there are many different types of attribution biases, such as the ultimate attribution
error, fundamental attribution error, actor-observer bias, and hostile attribution bias. Each of
these biases describes a specific tendency that people exhibit when reasoning about the cause of
different behaviors.
Since the early work, researchers have continued to examine how and why people exhibit biased
interpretations of social information Many different types of attribution biases have been
identified, and more recent psychological research on these biases has examined how attribution
biases can subsequently affect emotions and behavior.

Fundamental attribution error

The fundamental attribution error refers to a bias in explaining others' behaviors. According to
this error, when someone makes attributions about another person's actions, they are likely to
overemphasize the role of dispositional factors while minimizing the influence of situational
factors.

For example, if a person sees a coworker bump into someone on his way to a meeting, that
person is more likely to explain this behavior in terms of the coworker's carelessness or hastiness
rather than considering that he was running late to a meeting.

This term was first proposed in the early 1970s by psychologist Lee Ross following an
experiment he conducted with Edward E. Jones and Victor Harris in 1967.[36] In this study,
participants were instructed to read two essays; one expressed pro-Castro views, and the other
expressed anti-Castro views. Participants were then asked to report their attitudes towards the
writers under two separate conditions. When participants were informed that the writers
voluntarily chose their position towards Castro, participants predictably expressed more positive
attitudes towards the anti-Castro writer. However, when participants were told that the writers'
positions were determined by a coin toss rather than their own free will, participants
unpredictably continued to express more positive attitudes towards the anti-Castro writer. These
results demonstrated that participants did not take situational factors into account when
evaluating a third party, thus providing evidence for the fundamental attribution error.

Actor-observer bias

The actor-observer bias (also called actor–observer asymmetry) can be thought of as an

extension of the fundamental attribution error. According to the actor-observer bias, in addition
to over-valuing dispositional explanations of others' behaviors, people tend to under-value
dispositional explanations and over-value situational explanations of their own behavior. For
example, a student who studies may explain her behavior by referencing situational factors (e.g.,
"I have an exam coming up"), whereas others will explain her studying by referencing
dispositional factors (e.g., "She's ambitious and hard-working"). This bias was first proposed
by Edward E. Jones and Richard E. Nisbett in 1971, who explained that "actors tend to attribute
the causes of their behavior to stimuli inherent in the situation, while observers tend to attribute
behavior to stable dispositions of the actor."

There has been some controversy over the theoretical foundation of the actor-observer bias. In a
2006 meta-analysis of all published studies of the bias since 1971, the author found that Jones'
and Nisbett's original explanation did not hold. Whereas Jones and Nisbett proposed that actors
and observers explain behaviors as attributions to either dispositions or situational factors,
examining past studies revealed that this assumption may be flawed. Rather, the theoretical
reformulation posits that the way people explain behavior depends on whether or not it is
intentional, among other things. For more information on this theoretical reformulation,
see actor-observer asymmetry, or refer to Malle's meta-analysis in #Further reading.
Self-serving bias

A self-serving bias refers to people's tendency to attribute their successes to internal factors but
attribute their failures to external factors. This bias helps to explain why individuals tend to take
credit for their own successes while often denying responsibility for failures. For example, a
tennis player who wins his match might say, "I won because I'm a good athlete," whereas the
loser might say, "I lost because the referee was unfair."

The self-serving bias has been thought of as a means of self-esteem maintenance.A person will
feel better about themselves by taking credit for successes and creating external blames for
failure. This is further reinforced by research showing that as self-threat increases, people are
more likely to exhibit a self-serving bias

For example, participants who received negative feedback on a laboratory task were more
likely to attribute their task performance to external, rather than internal, factors. The self-serving
bias seems to function as an ego-protection mechanism, helping people to better cope with
personal failures.

Impression management:

Meaning of impression management

Impression management is a conscious or unconscious effort towards influencing the

perceptions, decisions and opinions of other people. In simpler words, it is a process of
controlling or managing impressions of others in social interactions. Let’s look at some of the
types and examples of impression management to understand the concept.

There are two primary types of impression management.

1. Constructive: one that helps in the formation of self-identity.

We see the success of constructive impression management in the advertising world. Take
Starbucks, for example. It’s considered ‘cool and hip’ when you purchase a chai tea latte.

2. Strategic: one that helps in achieving interpersonal goals.

We see maximum instances of strategic impression management in our professional lives.

Whether you’re attending a job interview, interacting with a client or attending a conference—
you dress appropriately and regulate your tone and language accordingly.

STRATEGIES OF IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

No matter what anybody says, first impressions in business environments matter to a great
extent. Not only do impressions help you maintain professionalism but also contribute to
business growth and development. You’ll see two basic types of strategies of impression
management in workplaces:

1. Demotion-preventive

If someone is trying to stay out of trouble or lessen the impact of a damaging event, they’ll use
the demotion-preventive strategy. Many will justify their action(s) or find excuses to prove
themselves right. Many will offer their apologies so that they can repair the damage to some
extent.

2. promotion-enhancing

If someone is trying to project an ideal version of themselves, they’ll use a promotion-enhancing

strategy. Some will work towards identifying personal or professional obstacles that interrupt
their career growth. Some will work harder with stricter deadlines or more workload, therefore
stepping outside their comfort zone. Some will even voice their concern(s) about their efforts not
going.

Impression management techniques

Impression management is a valuable tool that helps you engage in strategic behavior, but it can
get tricky. Learn to differentiate between constructive and destructive impression techniques
before you engage with people. Here’s a list of seven common techniques that we use in
everyday life.

1. Conformity:

It’s the act of matching your behavior with the group or environmental norms and attitudes. For
example, students need to conform to a set of rules while they’re present on school grounds or in
the classroom.

2. Excuses:

They generally refer to an explanation that cushions the consequences of a negative or

unacceptable event. For example, we may make excuses when we’re late to work.

3. Acclaim:

It means to proudly and openly acknowledge somebody when they do their work properly or
correctly. For example, in team feedback sessions, managers give employees who are doing a
good job a pat on the back.

4. Flattery:

To excessively compliment someone to appear likable or perceptive is to flatter them. For

example, if you want an extra serving of food, you may compliment and flatter the chef.
5. Self-promotion:

To emphasize your best characteristics or downplay your weaknesses are some of the effective
ways of promoting or advertising yourself. Social media influencers are widely known for self-
promotion.

6. Favors:

To do something nice for others to receive approval or acceptance is to do a favor. For example,
you may take on some extra work so that your coworker can attend their child’s school play.

7. Association:

Sometimes we associate with certain people to protect or promote our self-image. For example,
people network at conferences so that they can reach out to more people in the industry later.

UNIT-II: Cognitive processes-II

Personality and Attitude

Personality

Personality is basically defined as the quality of an individual. Simply, it defines who we are. We
meet numerous people in our life out of which we notice few people come up with a fun-loving
jolly nature who are carefree, full of life where are few people are conservative and strict. As we
observe people according to their personality we tend to talk with them or can connect with
them. The personality of an individual remains the same throughout the life. As it is more about
inheritance as it is believed that personality is developed in genetically form. Personality is
basically the sum of total personal characteristics namely physical and psychological. Sometimes
our values help more to define our personality.

In short, thoughts or emotions of an individual make a personality. It remains the same for the
life time. Lastly, personality is an outcome of what an individual learn over the period of time.

Attitude

Attitude is all about thinking or feelings of an individual about a particular topic or a person or a
place. Depending on the experience, there is the possibility that an individual might change their
attitude. It is more about the thinking of an individual which is based on the environment from
where they belong. Our attitude changes as we gain more experience but the situation of an
individual.

In short, behavior or way of response or thinking in any particular situation of an individual

shows the attitude. It keeps changing according to the situation. Lastly, attitude is the result of
the experience of an individual over the time.

Conclusion:

There is a very thin line of difference between personality and attitude. Though, we can say that
personality is all about who we are and attitude totally depends on you and the environment
where you reside. Personality is basically static while attitude is dynamic.

Personality as a continuum

The word personality is derived from a Greek word “persona” which means “to speak through.”
Personality is the combination of characteristics or qualities that forms a person’s unique
identity. It signifies the role which a person plays in public. Every individual has a unique,
personal and major determinant of his behavior that defines his/her personality.

Personality trait is basically influenced by two major features −

 Inherited characteristics

 Learned characteristics

Inherited Characteristics

The features an individual acquires from their parents or forefathers, in other words the gifted
features an individual possesses by birth is considered as inherited characteristics. It consists of
the following features −

 Color of a person’s eye

  Religion/Race of a person

 Shape of the nose

 Shape of earlobes

Learned Characteristics

Nobody learns everything by birth. First, our school is our home, then our society, followed by
educational institutes. The characteristics an individual acquires by observing, practicing, and
learning from others and the surroundings is known as learned characteristics.

Learned characteristics includes the following features −

 Perception − Result of different senses like feeling, hearing etc.

 Values − Influences perception of a situation, decision making process.

 Personality − Patterns of thinking, feeling, understanding and behaving.

 Attitude − Positive or negative attitude like expressing one’s thought.

Traits of Personality

Personality traits are the enduring features that define an individual’s behavior. A personality
trait is a unique feature in an individual. Psychologists resolved that there are five major
personality traits and every individual can be categorized into at least one of them. These five
personality traits are −

 Extrovert

 Neurotic

 Open

 Agreeable

 Conscientious

Major Personality Attributes

Following are the five major personality attributes that influence OB −

Locus of Control

Locus of control is the center of control of an individual’s code of conduct. People can be
grouped into two categories i.e., internals and externals respectively.
People who consider themselves as the masters of their own fates are known as internals, while,
those who affirm that their lives are controlled by outside forces known as externals.

Before making any decision, internals actively search for information, they are achievement
driven, and want to command their environment. Thus, internals do well on jobs that craves
complex information processing, taking initiative and independent action.

Externals, on the other hand, are more compliant, more willing to follow instructions, so, they do
well in structured, routine jobs.

Machiavellianism

Machiavellianism is being practical, emotionally distant, and believing that ends justify means.

Machiavellians are always wanting to win and are great persuaders. Here are the significant
features of a high-mach individuals −

 High-Machs prefer precise interactions rather than beating about the bush.

 High-Machs tend to improvise; they do not necessarily abide by rules and regulations all
the time.

 High-Machs get distracted by emotional details that are irrelevant to the outcome of a
project.

Self-esteem

It is the extent up to which people either like or dislike themselves. Self-Esteem is directly
related to the expectations of success and on-the-job satisfaction.

Individuals with high self-esteem think that they have what it takes to succeed. So, they take
more challenges while selecting a job.

On the other hand, individuals with low self-esteem are more susceptible to external distractions.
So, they are more likely to seek the approval of others and to adapt the beliefs and behaviors of
those they respect.

Self-monitoring

Self-monitoring is the capability of regulating one’s behavior according to social situations.

Individuals with high self-monitoring skill easily adjust their behavior according to external,
situational factors. Their impulsive talents allow them to present public personae which are
completely different from their private personalities.

However, people with low self-monitoring skills cannot cover themselves. Regardless of any
situation, they are always themselves. They have an attitude of, “what you see is what you get.”
Risk taking

Generally, managers are reluctant on taking risks. However, individual risk-taking inclination
affects the bulk of information required by the managers and how long it takes them to make
decisions.

Thus, it is very important to recognize these differences and align risk-taking propensity with
precise job demands that can make sense.

Meaning of personality:

Personality, a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Personality embraces

moods, attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions with other people. It
includes behavioral characteristics, both inherent and acquired, that distinguish one person from
another and that can be observed in people’s relations to the environment and to the social group.

 The term personality has been defined in many ways, but as a psychological concept two
main meanings have evolved. The first pertains to the consistent differences that exist
between people: in this sense, the study of personality focuses on classifying and
explaining relatively stable human psychological characteristics.

 The second meaning emphasizes those qualities that make all people alike and that
distinguish psychological man from other species; it directs the personality theorist to
search for those regularities among all people that define the nature of man as well as the
factors that influence the course of lives.

 This duality may help explain the two directions that personality studies have taken: on
the one hand, the study of ever more specific qualities in people, and, on the other, the
search for the organized totality of psychological functions that emphasizes the interplay
between organic and psychological events within people and those social and biological
events that surround them.

 The dual definition of personality is interwoven in most of the topics discussed below. It
should be emphasized, however, that no definition of personality has
found universal acceptance within the field.

Johari Window and Transactional Analysis:

Definition: Johari window is a psychological tool to self-assess one’s behaviour as well as the
relationship with others, through feedback or disclosure. It is one of the most effective means of
self-analysis by considering the other’s perspective to understand oneself in a better way.

It helps in determining the areas of expertise or strengths, the shortcomings, the scope of
development and challenge to be faced.

Johari window model

The johari window model was propounded by joseph luft and harrington ingham in the year
1955.

The model consists of four quadrants, each of which determines a different combination. These
combinations are a result of facts known or unknown by oneself about himself along with the
facts known or unknown to others.

To better understand this model, let us go through the following four possible combinations of
the johari window model:

 Arena or open: The arena or open area represents everything which is made public or is
commonly known oneself and to others too. It includes a person’s behaviour, attitude,
skills, strengths, weaknesses, etc.

 Blind Spot: The area of talent or a specific trait or behaviour of a person which can be
positive or negative, known to others; however, the person himself is unaware of it.

 Façade/ Hidden: It is a hidden area which is secretly known to the person alone, i.e. his
feeling, emotions, ideas, etc., while others are unaware of it.
  Unknown Area: The area which remains undiscovered by the person himself or herself
and also hidden from others, is termed as unknown areas. This area consists of new
opportunities and scope for development along with threats and uncertainties.

Need for Johari Window

Johari window is one of the most useful tools for organizations to become successful and
succeed over its competitors. To learn about its other advantages, read below

Self-Awareness: It acts as a self-analysis tool. Thus, making oneself aware of his strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats by considering the views of others too.

Cordial Relationships: It helps to improve the interpersonal relations since everyone gets to
know each other in a better way and each focus on self-improvement.

Improves Communication: Johari window paves the way for open interaction and develops
understanding among the managers and the subordinates.

Team Development: Strong team building is difficult if the team members are not familiar with
each other. This model enhances the interpersonal relationship among the team members by
making each familiar with the others in the team.

Personal Development: It provides scope for betterment since the blind area reveals those
unknown facts which are known to others but may have been ignored by the individual himself.
These facts are sometimes related to the individual’s attitude, habits, behaviour which needs to
be mended.

Group Dynamics: The Johari window encourages open conversations and feedback within a
group. This enhances group performance and develops a mutual understanding among the group
members by eliminating the problem areas and misunderstandings.

Application of Johari Window in Business

Johari window serves as an essential tool to analyse the employees’ potential, work on
organizational relations and improve team performanc

The other people associated with the business also contributes to organizational improvement
and development. These are the financial institutions, shareholders, customers, suppliers, etc.

Taking into consideration the known and unknown facts by the company and the customers, the
Johari window provides us with the four quadrants.

Let us see the various ways of modifying the business relations using this model:

Feedback to Reduce Blind Area

Taking constant feedbacks from the customers and knowing about the competitive products the
consumers may prefer; makes the company aware of customer satisfaction level, product
performance, consumer loyalty, level of competition, etc.

Being updated with the market trend and response diminishes the blind spot of the organization.
It also increases the arena, as shown in the diagram above.

Move Out of Comfort Zone to Decrease Unknown Area

Innovation leads to learning and learning contributes to growth and development.

Therefore the organization must explore new possibilities or diversify into new products or
means of production through proper research and development, to increase market share and
profitability

Exploring the untapped opportunities and developing new ideas can maximize the open area by
diminishing the unknown region and shrinking the blind spot as well as the facade.

Disclosure to Reduce Hidden Area

At times, there are some strengths or positive traits of the product or the organization that is not
much promoted. These may not be known to the customers creating a hidden area for the
organization.

Therefore, the organization must reveal their strengths like the premium quality of raw materials
used the better shelf life of products, etc. to develop customer’s trust and loyalty.

Going through the above diagram, we can say that disclosing the internal information can reduce
the facade or the hidden area by expanding the arena.

Nature of Attitude:

An attitude is a positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of an object that is expressed at some

level of intensity. Our attitude can vary in strength along both positive effect, and with negative
effect, with ambivalence or with apathy and indifference. It usually implies feelings that are
either positive or negative. Social psychologists use the term attitude differently. Gordon All port
formulated the following definition: “An altitude is a mental and neural stale of readiness,
organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s
response to ill objects and situations with which it is related.”
Nature of Attitude

 Attitude are a complex combination of things we tend to call personality, beliefs, values,
behaviors, and motivations.

 An attitude exists in every person’s mind. It helps to define our identity, guide our
actions, and influence how we judge people.

 Although the feeling and belief components of attitude are internal to a person, we can
view a person’s attitude from his or her resulting behavior.

 Attitude helps us define how we see situations, as well as define how we behave toward
the situation or object.

 Attitude provides us with internal cognitions or beliefs and thoughts about people and
objects.

 Attitude cause us to behave in a particular way toward an object or person.

Characteristics of attitudes

Attitude can be characterized by:

 Affective Cognitive consistency: The degree of consistency between the affective and
cognitive components influences the attitude—behavior relationship. That is, the greater
the consistency between cognition and evaluation, the greater the strength of the attitude-
behavior relation.

 Strength: Attitudes based on direct experience with the object may be held with greater
certainty. Certainty is also influenced by whether affect or cognition was involved in the
creation of the attitude. Attitudes formed based on affect are more certain than attitudes
based on cognition

 Valence: It refers to the degree or grade of likeliness or unlikeliness toward the

entity/incident. If a person is fairly unconcerned toward an object then his attitude has
low valence.

 Direct Experience:An attitude is a summary of a person’s past experience; thus, an

attitude is grounded in direct experience predicts future behavior more accurately.
Moreover, direct experience makes more information available about the object itself.

 Multiplicity: It refers to the amount of features creating the attitude. For example, one
may show interest in becoming a doctor, but another not only shows interest, but also
works hard, is sincere, and serious.
  Relation to Needs: Attitudes vary in relative to requirements they serve. Attitudes of an
individual toward the pictures serve only entertainment needs, but attitudes of an
employee toward task may serve strong needs for security, achievement, recognition, and
satisfaction.

Components of Attitude:

1. Cognitive Attitude: The aspect of attitude involves belief or knowledge towards people
object or things. It involves information, facts or ideas which individuals have

2. Affective component: The aspect of attitude involves emotion of feelings towards people
object or things

3. Behavioral component: The aspect of attitude involves action towards people, object or
thing. Based on the information and emotions we act towards a person, object or thing.

Job satisfaction and organizational commitment

What Is Job Satisfaction?

Job satisfaction, an unquantifiable metric, is defined as a positive emotional response you

experience when doing your job or when you are present at work. Leading organizations are now
trying to measure this feeling, with job satisfaction surveys becoming a staple at most
workplaces.

It’s important to remember that job satisfaction varies from employee to employee. In the same
workplace under the same conditions, the factors that help one employee feel good about their
job may not apply to another employee. For this reason, it is essential to have a multidimensional
approach to employee satisfaction, covering the following areas:

 The challenging nature of work, pushing employees to new heights

 A level of convenience (short commutes, access to the right digital tools, and flexible
hours)

 Regular appreciation by the immediate management and the organization as a whole

 Competitive pay, which employees maintain a good quality of life

 The promise of career progression in sync with employees’ personal growth targets

Factors effecting job satisfaction:

 Optimal Working Conditions

 Opportunity for Advancement

  Workload and Stress Level

 Respect from Co-Workers

 Relationship with Supervisors

 Financial Rewards

 Personal factors

 Factors inherent in the job

 Factors controlled by management

Organizational commitment:

Organizational commitment refers to the connection or bond employees have with their
employer (the organization). This is based on industrial-organizational psychology (I/O
psychology) and describes the individual's psychological attachment to the organization.

1. Affective Commitment

Affection for your job occurs when you feel a strong emotional attachment to your organization,
and to the work that you do. You'll most likely identify with the organization's goals and values,
and you genuinely want to be there.

If you're enjoying your work, you're likely to feel good, and be satisfied with your job. In turn,
this increased job satisfaction is likely to add to your feeling of affective commitment.

Those who truly love what they do will likely be more motivated to progress within their
organization, think creatively, and experiment with new ways of working.

2. Continuance Commitment

This type of commitment occurs when you weigh up the pros and cons of leaving your
organization. You may feel that you need to stay at your company because the loss you'd
experience by leaving it is greater than the benefit you think you might gain in a new role.

These perceived losses, or "side bets," can be monetary (you'd lose salary and benefits);
professional (you might lose seniority or role-related skills that you've spent years acquiring); or
social (you'd lose friendships or allies).

The severity of these "losses" often increases with age and experience. You're more likely to
experience continuance commitment if you're in an established, successful role, or if you've had
several promotions within one organization.
Fear of losing your job may motivate you to finish your work on time and work well with others.
But it can also hinder your motivation to learn and develop. For example, you might shy away
from trying new things or thinking outside the box for fear of slipping up. Or you may stop going
after promotions or new projects in case you rub people the wrong way and damage your
reputation.

3. Normative Commitment:

This type of commitment occurs when you feel a sense of obligation to your organization, even
if you're unhappy in your role, or even if you want to pursue better opportunities. You feel that
you should stay with your organization because it's the right thing to do.

This sense of obligation can stem from several factors. You might feel that you should remain
with your organization because it has invested money or time in your training. Or perhaps it
provided a reward in advance, such as paying for your college tuition.

This obligation can also result from your upbringing. For instance, your family might have
stressed the importance of loyalty, above all else.

However, loyalty alone is not enough to motivate you to do a good job. You may lack drive to
help your organization achieve its long-term goals. Or you might struggle to maintain
strong relationships with co-workers because you resent them for keeping you from furthering
your career.

Factors that contribute to commitment:

 Attractive package

 Sound superior-subordinate relations

 Employee relations

 Job satisfaction

 Appropriate allowances

 Use of motivational techniques

 Organizational proactive strategies to meet

 Sound human and employee needs industrial relations

Definitions of Motivation
The word Motivation derives from the Latin word “Movere”. The Latin word “Movere” means
“To move”, “To drive” or “To drive forward” etc. Motivation can be defined as stimulating,
inspiring and inducing the employees to perform to their best capacity. Motivation is a
psychological term which means it cannot be forced on employees. It comes automatically from
inside the employees as it is the willingness to do the work.

Joe Kelly defined Motivation as “Motivation is a process where by needs instigate behavior
directed towards the goals that can satisfy those needs.”

According to W. G. Scot, “Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to

accomplish the desired goals.”

Process of Motivation

1. Unsatisfied need. Motivation process begins when there is an unsatisfied need in a

human being.

2. Tension. The presence of unsatisfied need gives him tension.

3. Drive. This tension creates an urge of drive in the human being an he starts looking for
various alternatives to satisfy the drive.

4. Search Behavior. After searching for alternatives the human being starts behaving
according to chosen option.

5. Satisfied need. After behaving in a particular manner for a long time then he evaluates
that whether the need is satisfied or not.

6. Reduction of tension. After fulfilling the need the human being gets satisfied and his
tension gets reduced.

For example, if an employee develops a need to earn more, this need will make him restless and
he will start thinking how to satisfy his need. To satisfy his need he may think of working hard in
organization and get promotion so he will start working hard. After sometime he will get
incentives or increments or promotion which will satisfy his need.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs or motivational needs:

In a 1943 paper titled "A Theory of Human Motivation," American psychologist Abraham
Maslow theorized that human decision-making is undergirded by a hierarchy of psychological
needs. In his initial paper and a subsequent 1954 book titled Motivation and Personality, Maslow
proposed that five core needs form the basis for human behavioral motivation.

Maslow's theory presents his hierarchy of needs in a pyramid shape, with basic needs at the
bottom of the pyramid and more high-level, intangible needs at the top. A person can only move
on to addressing the higher-level needs when their basic needs are adequately fulfilled.

1. Physiological needs: The first of the id-driven lower needs on Maslow's hierarchy are
physiological needs. These most basic human survivals needs include food and water,
sufficient rest, clothing and shelter, overall health, and reproduction. Maslow states that
these basic physiological needs must be addressed before humans move on to the next
level of fulfillment.

2. Safety needs: Next among the lower-level needs is safety. Safety needs include
protection from violence and theft, emotional stability and well-being, health security,
and financial security.

3. Love and belonging needs: The social needs on the third level of Maslow’s hierarchy
relate to human interaction and are the last of the so-called lower needs. Among these
needs are friendships and family bonds—both with biological family (parents, siblings,
children) and chosen family (spouses and partners). Physical and emotional intimacy
ranging from sexual relationships to intimate emotional bonds are important to achieving
 a feeling of elevated kinship. Additionally, membership in social groups contributes to
meeting this need, from belonging to a team of coworkers to forging an identity in a
union, club, or group of hobbyists.

4. Esteem needs: The higher needs, beginning with esteem, are ego-driven needs. The
primary elements of esteem are self-respect (the belief that you are valuable and
deserving of dignity) and self-esteem (confidence in your potential for personal growth
and accomplishments). Maslow specifically notes that self-esteem can be broken into two
types: esteem which is based on respect and acknowledgment from others, and esteem
which is based on your own self-assessment. Self-confidence and independence stem
from this latter type of self-esteem.

5. Self-actualization needs: Self-actualization describes the fulfillment of your full

potential as a person. Sometimes called self-fulfillment needs, self-actualization needs
occupy the highest spot on Maslow's pyramid. Self-actualization needs include education,
skill development—the refining of talents in areas such as music, athletics, design,
cooking, and gardening—caring for others, and broader goals like learning a new
language, traveling to new places, and winning awards.

Theory X and Theory Y

In 1960, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y suggesting two aspects of
human behaviour at work, or in other words, two different views of individuals (employees): one
of which is negative, called as Theory X and the other is positive, so called as Theory Y.
According to McGregor, the perception of managers on the nature of individuals is based on
various assumptions.

Assumptions of Theory X

 An average employee intrinsically does not like work and tries to escape it whenever
possible.

 Since the employee does not want to work, he must be persuaded, compelled, or warned
with punishment so as to achieve organizational goals. A close supervision is required on
part of managers. The managers adopt a more dictatorial style.

 Many employees rank job security on top, and they have little or no aspiration/ ambition.

 Employees generally dislike responsibilities.

 Employees resist change.

 An average employee needs formal direction.

Assumptions of Theory Y

 Employees can perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise their physical
and mental efforts in an inherent manner in their jobs.

 Employees may not require only threat, external control and coercion to work, but they
can use self-direction and self-control if they are dedicated and sincere to achieve the
organizational objectives.

 If the job is rewarding and satisfying, then it will result in employees’ loyalty and
commitment to organization.

 An average employee can learn to admit and recognize the responsibility. In fact, he can
even learn to obtain responsibility.

 The employees have skills and capabilities. Their logical capabilities should be fully
utilized. In other words, the creativity, resourcefulness and innovative potentiality of the
employees can be utilized to solve organizational problems.

Thus, we can say that Theory X presents a pessimistic view of employees’ nature and behaviour
at work, while Theory Y presents an optimistic view of the employees’ nature and behaviour at
work. If correlate it with Maslow’s theory, we can say that Theory X is based on the assumption
that the employees emphasize on the physiological needs and the safety needs; while Theory X is
based on the assumption that the social needs, esteem needs and the self-actualization needs
dominate the employees.

McGregor views Theory Y to be more valid and reasonable than Theory X. Thus, he encouraged
cordial team relations, responsible and stimulating jobs, and participation of all in decision-
making process.

Implications of Theory X and Theory Y

Quite a few organizations use Theory X today. Theory X encourages use of tight control and
supervision. It implies that employees are reluctant to organizational changes. Thus, it does not
encourage innovation

Many organizations are using Theory Y techniques. Theory Y implies that the managers should
create and encourage a work environment which provides opportunities to employees to take
initiative and self-direction. Employees should be given opportunities to contribute to
organizational well-being. Theory Y encourages decentralization of authority, teamwork and
participative decision making in an organization. Theory Y searches and discovers the ways in
which an employee can make significant contributions in an organization. It harmonizes and
matches employees’ needs and aspirations with organizational needs and aspirations.
In the 1980s, American businesses experienced a high demand for Japanese products and
imports. This gave the Japanese markets a competitive edge. The secret for their success lay not
in the fact that they were offering high-quality goods at low prices but the way the businesses
were managing their employees. Japan was known for the highest productivity in the world.

Dr. William G. ‘Bill’ Ouchi, an American professor and author of Japanese descent, studied this
Asian economic boom. Among several management theories that emerged and evolved over
time, Ouchi’s Theory Z studied the so-called Japanese Management. In his book, Theory Z: How
American Business Can Meet the Japanese Challenge (1981), he suggested how American
corporations can match up to Japanese demands with highly effective management practices.

William Ouchi’s Theory Z emerged after a comparative study between Japanese and American
management styles. The professor argued that American businesses could learn from their
Japanese counterparts. Theory Z has its roots in another management theorist’s work—Douglas
McGregor—who was widely popular for his Theory X and Y of motivation. McGregor believed
that the management styles of managers and team leaders depend on the way they view
employees. While McGregor’s work was widely read and adopted, it was unable to address the
concerns of growing international competitors.

Ouchi’s Theory Z combined both American and Japanese management styles that laid emphasis
on employee needs and positive work-related outcomes. This hybrid management approach
breaks away from McGregor’s theory and places more reliance on employees. Theory Z assumes
that employees have strong loyalty and interest in their teams and organization. Therefore, a
combination of job security, holistic concern for employees, collective decision-making and
individual responsibility motivates employees to be productive and realize their true potential.

1. Distinguishing features of theory z of motivation

2. limitations of the theory z of motivation

Distinguishing features of theory z of motivation

Similar to McGregor’s Theory X and Y, William Ouchi’s Theory Z makes certain assumptions
about employees. However, it goes one step further and makes assumptions about organizational
culture as well. Here are the different features of Theory Z that highlight those assumptions:

1. MUTUAL TRUST

Trust, integrity and openness are instrumental in driving efficiency in an organization. Increased
trust reduces friction and conflict among employees, leading to better cooperation, teamwork and
collaboration. The theory also suggests that there is no need for a formal structure as perfect
teamwork and cooperation can drive changes effectively.

2. EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT
To improve commitment toward goals and performance levels, it’s essential to involve
employees. It means that employee participation in the decision-making process, especially in
matters affecting them, generates a greater sense of responsibility and interest.

3. STRONG BOND

To increase loyalty and commitment toward the organization, there must be a strong bond
between the organization and employees. In other words, the organization must make active
efforts toward career advancement. For example, promotions and long-term employment
measures ensure a conducive work environment where people feel encouraged to do better.

Under Theory Z of motivation, the focus is on building an integrated organization, where

employees are on the same page. Coordination between managers and their teams is crucial in
increasing job satisfaction and employee engagement. When employees feel empowered,
responsible and independent, they feel valued. This gives way to a positive workplace culture
that prioritizes employee well-being.

Limitations of the theory z of motivation

While Ouchi’s Theory Z seems like a promising management practice that puts human relations
at the center, it has its own set of limitations. Let’s look at the disadvantages in detail:

 An organization can’t exist without a structure. While mutual trust, cooperation and
perfect teamwork sound good in theory; it’s difficult to rely solely on interpersonal
relationships for an organization’s efficiency. Without structure, there will be chaos and a
lack of accountability and responsibility.

 Participation of employees in decision-making isn’t easy to implement. Managers may

not enjoy such high levels of involvement. Not every employee will be comfortable
voicing their opinions and ideas. It’s highly likely that the involvement of all employees
will slow down the decision-making process.

 Long-term career planning and employment measures may not be always feasible. While
it may provide job security, it may fail to improve loyalty among employees. Especially
in today’s job market, employees are quick to leave organizations for better opportunities.
Provision for lifetime employment may be ineffective. Moreover, organizations will be
forced to retain poorly performing employees permanently.

Despite its limitations, Theory Z is characterized by concern for employees that go beyond the
workplace. It recognizes an individual’s potential and primarily focuses on an individual’s needs
rather than the work itself. If you want to implement some of the practices proposed by Ouchi,
you need to learn how to build and maintain trust-rich relationships.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the
motivator-hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in
satisfaction while there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg,
the opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No satisfaction” and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No
Dissatisfaction”.

Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-

a. Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for
existence of motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for
long-term. But if these factors are absent / if these factors are non-existant at
workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene factors are those
factors which when adequate/reasonable in a job, pacify the employees and do not
make them dissatisfied. These factors are extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also
called as dissatisfiers or maintenance factors as they are required to avoid
dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job environment/scenario. The hygiene
factors symbolized the physiological needs which the individuals wanted and expected
to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:

b. Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded

as motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are
inherent to work. These factors motivate the employees for a superior performance.
These factors are called satisfiers. These are factors involved in performing the job.
Employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding. The motivators symbolized the
psychological needs that were perceived as an additional benefit. Motivational factors
include:

 Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for their

accomplishments by the managers.
  Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of achievement. This
depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.

 Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and

advancement opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to
perform well.

 Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work.
The managers should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize
control but retain accountability.

 Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful, interesting

and challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory

The two factor theory is not free from limitations:

1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.

2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But the research
conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.

3. The theory’s reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the raters. The raters
may spoil the findings by analyzing same response in different manner.

4. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find his job
acceptable despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.

5. The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural reaction of
employees when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work.
They will blame dissatisfaction on the external factors such as salary structure, company
policies and peer relationship. Also, the employees will give credit to themselves for the
satisfaction factor at work.

6. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations, Herzberg’s Two-Factor
theory is acceptable broadly.

Implications of Two-Factor Theory

The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers must stress upon guaranteeing the adequacy of
the hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction. Also, the managers must make sure that
the work is stimulating and rewarding so that the employees are motivated to work and perform
harder and better. This theory emphasize upon job-enrichment so as to motivate the employees.
The job must utilize the employee’s skills and competencies to the maximum. Focusing on the
motivational factors can improve work-quality.

Motivation across the cultures

Geert Hofstede, a Dutch social psychologist, professor at Maastricht University in the

Netherlands and a former IBM employee, conducted some pioneering research on cross-cultural
groups in organizations, which led to his cultural dimensions theory.

In this theory, Hofstede defines culture as the unique way in which people are collectively taught
in their environments. He looks to compare and understand the collective mindset of these
groups of people and how they differ. His conclusions were that cultural differences showed
themselves in six significant buckets. Hofstede created an “index” for each category to show
where individual cultures fell along the spectrum:

 Power Distance: this is an index that describes the extent to which the less powerful
members of organizations accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. A higher
index number suggests that hierarchy is clearly established and executed in society, while
a lower index would indicate that people question authority in that culture. (Latin, Asian,
and Arab countries score on the high side, while Anglo and Germanic countries score
low. The US is in the middle.)

 Individualism: this measures the degree to which people in a society are integrated into
groups. The United States scores very high in this category.

 Uncertainty avoidance: this is defined as a “society’s tolerance for ambiguity.” Cultures

scoring high in this area opt for very defined codes of behavior and laws, while cultures
scoring lower are more accepting of different thoughts and ideas. Belgium and Germany
score high while countries like Sweden and Denmark score lower.

 Masculinity vs femininity: in more masculine societies, women and men are more
competitive, while in feminine societies, they share caring views equally with men.
Anglo countries like the UK and the US tend to lean toward masculinity in their cultures,
while Scandinavian countries tend toward femininity.

 Long-term Orientation vs. Short-term Orientation: this measures the degree to which
a society honors tradition. A lower score indicates traditions are kept, while a higher
score indicates the society views adaptation and problem-solving as a necessary
component of their culture. Asian cultures have strong long-term orientation, while
Anglo countries, Africa and Latin America have shorter-term orientation.

 Indulgence vs. restraint: this is a measurement of happiness if simple joys are fulfilled.
Indulgent societies believe themselves to be in control of their lives, while restrained
societies believe that external forces dictate their lives. There is less data about this
 particular dimension, but we do know that Latin America, the Anglo countries and
Nordic Europe score high on indulgence, while Muslim countries and East Asia tend to
score high on restraint.

 When you compare Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory to Maslow’s hierarchy of

needs, as we briefly did above, you can see where cultural differences shift the order of
needs on the pyramid. We mentioned above that Belgium and Germany score high on the
uncertainty avoidance dimension—they don’t like social ambiguity, they want to be able
to control their futures and feel threatened by the unknown. So it would make sense that,
while “safety” is the second rung of the pyramid here in the United States, it’s a more
significant need to satisfy in German culture.

 Hofstede’s cultural dimension highlight the importance cultures place on different needs.
These dimensions can be used to determine differences in individual needs based on their
cultural teachings and beliefs.

 Now that we’ve discussed this in some detail, it’s important to understand that not all
motivational drivers are culture-bound. For example, the desire for interesting work
appears to be important to all workers everywhere. Growth, achievement and
responsibility were also highly rated across various cultures. The manager of an
international team doesn’t have to approach everything differently. But keeping in mind
that cultural differences drive individuals’ needs will help a manager create motivating
circumstances for all his workers.

Positive organizational behavior-OPTIMISM

Positive Organizational Behavior (POB) is defined as "the study and application of positively
oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities that can be measured, developed,
and effectively managed for performance improvement in today’s workplace" (Luthans, 2002a,
p. 59).[1]

For a positive psychological capacity to qualify for inclusion in POB, it must be positive and
must have extensive theory and research foundations and valid measures. In addition, it must be
state like, which would make it open to development and manageable for performance
improvement. Finally, positive states that meet the POB definitional criteria are primarily
researched, measured, developed, and managed at the individual, micro level.[2]

The state-like criterion distinguishes POB from other positive approaches that focus on positive
traits, whereas its emphasis on micro, individual-level constructs separates it from positive
perspectives that address positive organizations and their related macro-level variables and
measures. Meeting the inclusion criteria for POB are the state-like psychological resource
capacities of self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resiliency and, when combined, the underlying
higher-order, core construct of Positive psychological capital or PsyCap.[

Origins of POB: The Positive Psychology Movement

Although POB research is relatively new, its core ideas are based on ideas of earlier scholars.
POB origins developed from the Positive Psychology movement, initiated in 1998 by Martin
Seligman and colleagues. Positive Psychology aims to shift the focus in psychology from
dysfunctional mental illness to mental health, calling for an increased focus on the building of
human strength.
The levels of analysis of positive psychology have been summarized to be at the subjective level
(i.e., positive subjective experience such as well being and contentment with the past, flow and
happiness in the present, and hope and optimism into the future); the micro, individual level (i.e.,
positive traits such as the capacity for love, courage, aesthetic sensibility, perseverance,
forgiveness, spirituality, high talent, and wisdom); and the macro group and institutional level
(i.e., positive civic virtues and the institutions that move individuals toward better citizenship
such as responsibility, altruism, civility, moderation, tolerance, and a strong work ethic).

By integrating positive psychology to organizational setting, Fred Luthans has pioneered the
positive organizational behavior research in 1999. Since then, Luthans and colleagues have been
attempting to find ways of designing work settings that emphasize people's strengths, where they
can be both their best selves and at their best with each other. Thus far research has shown that
employees who are satisfied and find fulfillment in their work are more productive, absent less,
and demonstrate greater organizational loyalty.

Despite initial studies and conceptualizations, the field of POB is still in its infancy. Further
research regarding the precise antecedents, processes, and consequences of positive
psychological behavior is needed. The challenge currently awaiting POB is to bring about a more
profound understanding the real impact of positive states for organizational functioning and how
these states can be enhanced within the work place.

Job Design: Job design follows job analysis i.e. it is the next step after job analysis. It aims at
outlining and organizing tasks, duties and responsibilities into a single unit of work for the
achievement of certain objectives. It also outlines the methods and relationships that are essential
for the success of a certain job. In simpler terms it refers to the what, how much, how many and
the order of the tasks for a job/s.

Job design essentially involves integrating job responsibilities or content and certain
qualifications that are required to perform the same. It outlines the job responsibilities very
clearly and also helps in attracting the right candidates to the right job. Further it also makes the
job look interesting and specialized.

There are various steps involved in job design that follow a logical sequence, those that were
mentioned earlier on. The sequence is as follows:

1. What tasks are required to e done or what tasks is part of the job?

2. How are the tasks performed?

3. What amount are tasks are required to be done?

4. What is the sequence of performing these tasks?

All these questions are aimed at arriving upon a clear definition of a specific job and thereby
make it less risky for the one performing the same. A well defined job encourages feeling of
achievement among the employees and a sense of high self esteem.

The whole process of job design is aimed to address various problems within the organisational
setup, those that pertain to ones description of a job and the associated relationships. More
specifically the following areas are fine tuned:

 Checking the work overload.

 Checking upon the work under load.

 Ensuring tasks are not repetitive in nature.

 Ensuring that employees don not remain isolated.

 Defining working hours clearly.

 Defining the work processes clearly.

The above mentioned are factors that if not taken care of result into building stress within the
employees.

Benefits of Job Design

The following are the benefits of a good job design:

 1. Employee Input: A good job design enables a good job feedback. Employees have the
option to vary tasks as per their personal and social needs, habits and circumstances in the
workplace.

2. Employee Training: Training is an integral part of job design. Contrary to the philosophy
of “leave them alone’ job design lays due emphasis on training people so that are well
aware of what their job demands and how it is to be done.

3. Work / Rest Schedules: Job design offers good work and rest schedule by clearly defining
the number of hours an individual has to spend in his/her job.

4. Adjustments: A good job designs allows for adjustments for physically demanding jobs
by minimizing the energy spent doing the job and by aligning the manpower
requirements for the same.

Job design is a continuous and ever evolving process that is aimed at helping employees make
adjustments with the changes in the workplace. The end goal is reducing dissatisfaction,
enhancing motivation and employee engagement at the workplace.

Self-Efficacy According to Bandura (1994) self-efficacy is “the belief in one’s capabilities to

organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations.” In other
words, self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation.
Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel. Since
Bandura published his seminal paper on”Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral
Change,” in 1977, the subject has become one of the most studied topics in psychology. As
Bandura and other researchers have demonstrated, self-efficacy can have an impact on
everything from psychological states to behavior to motivation. The Role of Self-efficacy
Virtually all people can identify goals they want to accomplish, things they would like to change,
and things they would like to achieve. However, most people also realize that putting these plans
into action is not quite so simple. Bandura and others have found that an individual’s self-
efficacy plays a major role in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached. People with a
strong sense of self-efficacy:  View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered  Develop
deeper interest in the activities in which they participate  Form a stronger sense of commitment
to their interests and activities  Recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments People with
a weak sense of self-efficacy:  Avoid challenging tasks  Believe that difficult tasks and
situations are beyond their capabilities  Focus on personal failings and negative outcomes 
Quickly lose confidence in personal abilities.(Bandura, 1982)

Sources of Self-Efficacy Beliefs begin to form in early childhood as children deal with a wide
variety of experiences, tasks, and situations. However, the growth of self-efficacy does not end
during youth, but continues to evolve throughout life as people acquire new skills, experiences,
and understanding. Self- Efficacy and Emotional Intelligence 25 According to Bandura, there are
four major sources of self-efficacy.
 1. Mastery Experiences “The most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is
through mastery experiences,” Bandura explained. Performing a task successfully strengthens
our sense of self-efficacy. However, failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can
undermine and weaken self-efficacy.

2. Social Modeling Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is another important
source of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, “Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by
sustained effort raises observers’ beliefs that they too possess the capabilities master comparable
activities to succeed.”

3. Social Persuasion Bandura also asserted that people could be persuaded to believe that they
have the skills and capabilities to succeed. Consider a time when someone said something
positive and encouraging that helped you achieve a goal. Getting verbal encouragement from
others helps people overcome self-doubt and instead focus on giving their best effort to the task
at hand. 4. Psychological Responses Our own responses and emotional reactions to situations
also play an important role in self-efficacy. Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and
stress levels can all impact how a person feels about their personal abilities in a particular
situation. A person who becomes extremely nervous before speaking in public may develop a
weak sense of self-efficacy in these situations

Sources of self-efficacy:

It include-

 Prior experience

 Behavior model

 Persuasion from others

 Role models

 Mentors

 Assessment of physical, social and emotional state

High self-efficacy beliefs:

 Be active and select best opportunities

 Manage the situation by avoiding the hurdles

 Plan, prepare and practice

  Learn from setbacks and failures

 Manage stress

Low self-efficacy beliefs:

 Be passive

 Avoid difficult tasks

 Focus on personal deficiencies

 Fail to try or make a weak trail

 Worry and frustration

What is emotional intelligence or EQ?

Emotional intelligence (otherwise known as emotional quotient or EQ) is the ability to

understand, use, and manage your own emotions in positive ways to relieve stress, communicate
effectively, empathize with others, overcome challenges and defuse conflict. Emotional
intelligence helps you build stronger relationships, succeed at school and work, and achieve your
career and personal goals. It can also help you to connect with your feelings, turn intention into
action, and make informed decisions about what matters most to you.

Emotional intelligence is commonly defined by four attributes:

1. Self-management – You’re able to control impulsive feelings and behaviors, manage

your emotions in healthy ways, take initiative, follow through on commitments, and
adapt to changing circumstances.

2. Self-awareness – You recognize your own emotions and how they affect your thoughts
and behavior. You know your strengths and weaknesses, and have self-confidence.

3. Social awareness – You have empathy. You can understand the emotions, needs, and
concerns of other people, pick up on emotional cues, feel comfortable socially, and
recognize the power dynamics in a group or organization.

4. Relationship management – You know how to develop and maintain good

relationships, communicate clearly, inspire and influence others, work well in a team, and
manage conflict.
UNIT-III: Dynamics of OB-II

What is Communication?

Communication: Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one

place, person or group to another.

Every communication involves (at least) one sender, a message and a recipient. This may sound
simple, but communication is actually a very complex subject.
The transmission of the message from sender to recipient can be affected by a huge range of
things. These include our emotions, the cultural situation, the medium used to communicate, and
even our location. The complexity is why good communication skills are considered so desirable
by employers around the world: accurate, effective and unambiguous communication is actually
extremely hard.

As this definition makes clear, communication is more than simply the transmission of
information. The term requires an element of success in transmitting or imparting a message,
whether information, ideas, or emotions.

A communication therefore has three parts: the sender, the message, and the recipient.

The sender ‘encodes’ the message, usually in a mixture of words and non-verbal communication.
It is transmitted in some way (for example, in speech or writing), and the recipient ‘decodes’ it.

Of course, there may be more than one recipient, and the complexity of communication means
that each one may receive a slightly different message. Two people may read very different
things into the choice of words and/or body language. It is also possible that neither of them will
have quite the same understanding as the sender.

In face-to-face communication, the roles of the sender and recipient are not distinct. The two
roles will pass back and forwards between two people talking. Both parties communicate with
each other, even if in very subtle ways such as through eye-contact (or lack of) and general body
language. In written communication, however, the sender and recipient are more distinct.

Categories of Communication

There are wide ranges of ways in which we communicate and more than one may be
occurring at any given time.

The different categories of communication include:

 Spoken or Verbal Communication, which includes face-to-face, telephone, radio or

television and other media.

 Non-Verbal Communication, covering body language, gestures, how we dress or act, where
we stand, and even our scent. There are many subtle ways that we communicate (perhaps
even unintentionally) with others. For example, the tone of voice can give clues to mood or
emotional state, whilst hand signals or gestures can add to a spoken message.

 Written Communication: which includes letters, e-mails, social media, books, magazines,
the Internet and other media? Until recent times, a relatively small number of writers and
publishers were very powerful when it came to communicating the written word. Today, we
can all write and publish our ideas online, which have led to an explosion of information
and communication possibilities.
Visualizations: graphs and charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can all communicate
messages.

Interactive communication is an exchange of ideas where both participants, whether human,

machine and art form is active and can have an effect on one another. It is a dynamic, two-way
flow of information.[1]

Many forms of communication previously thought one-way, like books and television, have
become interactive with the rise of computers, the Internet, and digital and mobile devices. These
developing collaborative technologies, or new media, have rapidly increased the opportunities
for interactive communication across mediums, disciplines, cultures, social classes, locations,
and even time.

Interactive communication is a modern term that encompasses these evolving forms

of conversation. It is a primary characteristic of the present Information Age. New experiments
in interaction design are evolving on a daily basis.

Interactive communication forms include basic dialogue and nonverbal communication, game-
books, interactive fiction and storytelling, hypertext, interactive television and movies, photo
and video manipulation, video sharing, video games, social media, user-generated
content, interactive marketing and public relations, augmented reality, ambient intelligence,
and virtual reality.

Communication channels:

Communication flows through various channels. These channels include vertical i.e., down ward
and upward, horizontal and diagonal or cross wise,

Vertical communication is communication that flows up and down the organization, usually
along the chain of command or formal reporting lines; it takes place between managers and their
superiors and subordinates.

The communications network of most organizations consists of vertical lines of communication

providing upwards and downwards means of transmitting information.

Upward communication, Opens in new window in particular, consists of messages transmitted

vertically up the line from subordinates to superiors. In this flow, employees communicate ideas,
suggestions, comments and complaints or feedbacks upwards to their direct superior.

Downward communication Opens in new window occurs when information

flows downward in the organization’s hierarchy from superiors to subordinates. This vertical
communication line is used by group leaders and managers to assign goals, provide job
instructions, inform employees of policies and procedures, point out problems that need
attention, and offer feedback about performance.
Communication channels: The 7 essentials for a business

 Face-to-face communication (aka. video conferencing)

 Phone calls.

 Text messages.

 Instant messaging.

 Emails.

 Live chat.

 Social media.

Communication networks:

Definition: The Formal Communication Network shows the pattern of the communication, i.e.
the way in which the formal communication is facilitated

There are several types of formal communication networks classified on the basis of the degree
to which they are centralized and decentralized. These are:

1. Wheel Network: This is the most centralized forms of a communication network

wherein all the information flows from one central person, typically the leader. The other
members have little or no communication link with each other. Here, the
leaderdeliberately controls the line of communication and make sure that the information
group.

2.Chain Network: Under the chain pattern, the information flows either up or down the line.
Here each person gets the information from his immediate superior and then passes it to their
immediate subordinates. Likewise, the chain gets created, and all members get connected to a
single person, typically the leader. This network is suitable

Group Dynamics A group is when "two or more people share a common definition and
evaluation of themselves and behave in accordance with such a definition." (Vaughan & Hogg,
2002, Page 200). According to Keith Davis – “The social process by which people interact face
to face in small groups is called group dynamics. It is concerned with the interaction of
individuals in a face to face relationship. It focuses on team work, wherein small groups are
constantly in contact with each other and share their ideas to accomplish the given tasks.”
Importance of Group Dynamics The following importance of group dynamics as under: The
group can influence the way it believes the members. The leaders are often informed by other
leaders interacting within the party. Compared to a group with a bad leader, a group with a
strong leader makes good.

1. The group will provide the impact of collective effort, i.e. if the collective is made up of
positive thinking then each time its performance is more than double.

2. Apart from that, group dynamism can give the individuals work fulfillment.

3. Group may also impart the spirit of the team among members.

Also members' attitudes & ideas depend on group dynamism. For example, with the help of the
facilitator negative thinkers convert to positive thinkers. Types of Group A common way of
classifying a group is through whether they are formal or informal in nature or not. Formal
working groups are set up to achieve Organizational goals through an organization. Also, formal
groups could take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups. It is decided
by using the Organizational chart that depicts accepted formal connections within an
organization between persons. Examples of command group are managers and faculty members
in a business school, college managers and teachers, manufacturing supervisors and supervisors,
and so on.

1. COMMAND GROUPS Through the aid of the Organizational map, command groups are
assured, and sometimes consist of a supervisor and the subordinates who report to that
supervisor. An example of a command group is the president of the academic division and the
representatives of the faculty within that department. 2. TASK GROUPS Task groups consist of
people working collectively to attain a common task. Members are collectively added to achieve
a narrow variety of goals within a specified period of time. Task groups are often referred to as
task forces, too. The organization appoints members and assigns the targets and duties to be
fulfilled. Examples of assigned tasks include the development of a new product, the
enhancement of a production process or the motivational contest proposal.

3. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS With the support of the enterprise a functional group is formed to
accomplish dear objectives within an unspecified time frame. Functional organizations remain in
place until existing goals d priorities have been accomplished. Examples of functional group may
be a department for advertising and marketing, a department for the customer service, or an
accounting department. Unlike formal groups, informal groups are shaped naturally and
responsively to individuals' common interests and shared values. They are created for purposes
other than the attainment of Organizational objectives and no longer have a specified time frame.
Informal groups may have a significant effect both Types Of Groups Command Groups Task
Groups Functional Groups 36 Organizational Behaviour pleasant and negative in groups.
Informal groups may take the font of interest groups, groupings of friendships or reference
groups. • Informal Group – There are different types of informal groups:

1. INTEREST GROUPS. Interest groups generally go on over time, and may also end longer
than general informal groups. Furthermore, leaders of interest groups may not be in the same
Organizational department process today, but they are certain collectively by some shared
interest. Team hobbies' aspirations and ambitions are special to each group and can no longer be
aligned with corporate expectations and goals. College students who work together to create a
community learning for a particular class will be an example of an interest group.

2. FRIENDSHIP GROUPS Friendship groups are influenced by members sharing common

social events, political views, oral values, or different regular bonds. Members enjoy the
company of each other, and meet frequently to engage in these events after work. For example,
as soon as a month, a group of employees structuring a friendship group may also have an
exercise group, a softball team, or a potluck lunch. Friendship groups enhance things to do or
stage the office drama among the Organizational members when they share some common
hobby such as taking part in certain sports activities, etc.

3. REFERENCE GROUPS A reference category is kind of a category that people use to find
themselves. The fundamental purposes of the reference groups, Cherrington says, are social
validation and social comparison. Public approval encourages people to explain their behaviors
and beliefs and public affirmation enables individuals to understand their own actions by
comparing themselves against others. Reference classes have a significant impact on the actions
of members. Through discussing themselves with other stakeholders, individuals will evaluate if
their conduct is acceptable or not, and whether their behaviors and beliefs are right or wrong.
Types of Informal Groups Interest Groups Friendship Groups Reference Groups

Group Development Stages of Group Development According to the Five-Stage Model of group
development, groups go through five distinct stages during the process of its development.

These are as follows: 1. Forming is the early stage of community growth where the group
leaders come in touch with each other first and get to know each other. This stage is primarily
characterized by a feeling of confusion among the group participants as they are now trying to
develop floor policies and relationship patterns among themselves.

2. Storming is the next stage characterized by a high level of conflict between the members.
Members often show greater animosity to each other and resist influence by the chief. If such
disputes are no longer resolved correctly, the community can also dissolve additionally.
Nonetheless, usually the group ends up in phrases with all the specific and recognizes the
position of leadership at this stage's giving up.
 3. Norming is the third stage of the group growth process at some point where the individuals of
the group come closer to each other and the group continues to act as a cohesive unit. The group
members now identify with the group and share a responsibility to achieve the group's desired
stage of success. The standardization stage is complete when members of the community can set
a common goal and decide on how to accomplish it.

4. Performing is the fourth stage when the group is prepared to start its work sooner or later. As
the group is now fully formed after their intemal acceptance and sharing responsibility conflicts,
pave been resolved, they can now devote strength to achieving their goals. Forming Storming
Norming Performing Adjourning 38 Organizational Behaviour

5. Adjouming is the closing stage when the group starts to dissolve itself periodically after
meeting the goals for which it was once formed. Group Performance Factors A group is
described as two or more interacting and independent individuals who have collectively come to
attain specific goals. With the assistance of certain significant variables or influences, group
habits are influenced or influenced.

The principal variables are: 1. Formal leadership: Virtually every task force has a structured
chief. Superior, foreman, mission chief, department manager, general manager, chairman or
managing director etc. are the general titles of such leaders. Such leaders may play an important
role in the success of the party. Furthermore they are responsible for group loss.

2. Roles: The world is a stage, with all men and women simply being players. All individuals in
groups are actors; they enjoy distinctive kinds of roles. A function is a projected action in a
social unit at a given position. Specific groups place extraordinary positions on particular
individuals. In a community, we can have unique ideas about function. Group Performance
Factors Formal Leadership Roles Norms Group Status Group Size Composition of the Group
Group Cohesion Unit–III 39 Role identity: there are positive behaviors and attitudes that are
consistent with a position.

This is called identity of role.

• Perception of the role: Team leaders want perception of the role. Task comprehension in an
individual's understanding of how he or she will behave in a given situation.

• Role expectations: Role expectations are described as how others behave in a given situation
when one needs to act.

• Role conflict: Role conflict is a scenario in which a man or woman is confronted through
expectations of a divergent role.

3. Norms: Both classes have certain norms set up. Norms refer to suitable behavioral
requirements that are shared by members of the group. Formalized principles are written in
corporate documents, and certain rules and legislation are guaranteed to be followed by all
individuals within an organization. But in organizations most norms are informal. 4. Group
status: Status may also be described, through others, as a social rank or position given in a group.
We live in a community organized by categories. Status is important to leaders of the party. 5.
Group size: The group dimension determines the ordinary overall performance or behavior of the
group. Small groups are faster at assignment finish than big ones. If the group is influenced by
problem solving, the best for small groups is to large groups. So if the aim of the hand is to
achieve productivity, smaller groups are better.

6. Composition of the group: Since group is affiliation with variety of abilities and knowledge of
unique kinds of humans. If a group is heterogeneous in terms of age , gender, ethnicity,
educational background, attitudes , beliefs, abilities, and expertise as an alternative to
homogeneous, it can be tremendous to a job as a whole.

7. Group cohesion: The degree to which individuals are attracted to each other and inspired to
remain in the group is known as group cohesiveness. The cohesiveness of group behavior is
considerably affected by the use of group. The following suggestions can make cohesiveness of a
larger group: i. the group smaller

a. Make Increase the members spend together

b. Encourage agreement about group goals

c. Increase the status of the group

d. Stimulate opposition with different group

e. Give reward to the group rather than the members

f. Physically isolate the group Social loafing Social loafing refers to people 's propensity to put
even less energy into functioning within a group context. This phenomenon, further considered
to be the Ringelmann effect, was first cited in 1913 through the French agricultural engineer Max
Ringelmann.

In one study, in my view, and in groups, he had human beings pull on a rope. He concluded that
as the number of pulling people grew, the overall 40 Organizational Behaviour pulling pressure
of the group used to be much less than the effort of the individual had been when measured
alone. Teams and Types of Teams Teams have a wide variety of things to do. They will produce
products, provide services, conclude deals, plan projects, advise and take decisions. The four
most popular types of groups that you are likely to find in an organization are defined aptly
throughout this section: problem-solving teams, self-managed work teams, cross-fiction teams
and virtual teams.

1. Problem-Solving Teams The feedback or offer suggestions about how to develop work
strategies and approaches in problemsolving teams. Rarely, however, are such teams allowed to
arbitrarily bring all of their supported behavior into law. Some of the most widely practiced
functions of problem-solving teams at some point in the 1980s was once great circles that are
working teams of eight to ten workers and managers who have a common place of duty and
typically meet to address their best issues, see why the problems occur, propose solutions, and
take corrective action.

2. Multifunctional teams There are teams made up of around the same hierarchical level of
workers, but from distinct areas of work that come together to accomplish a task. The goal was
to improve verbal communication and job tracking, leading to better productivity and more
happy customers.

3. Self-managed teams Self-managed teams work in many departments to organize complex

tasks involving research , design, process creation, and even resolution of Organizational
problems , particularly for cross-departmental projects involving people of similar age. Although
a self-managed team's internal leadership style is fantastic from ordinary management and helps
to neutralize the often-related problems with ordinary leadership styles, a self-managed group
also needs to assist senior management to function effectively. Types of Team Problem Solving
Team Multifunct ional Team Self Managed Team Project Team

Additionally, the teams which are self-managed can be interdependent or independent. Of

course, the mere mistreatment by a self-managed team of a team of people does not make them
both a team and self managed.

4. Project teams Also known as an enterprise team will be a team which was used solely for a
given period of time and for a specific, clearly definable purpose. Typically managers label
human groups as "teams" based primarily on having a common goal. Members of these teams
may belong to different groups, but tasks for the same project may be assigned, allowing
outsiders to see them as a single entity

Dynamics of OB –III Power and Politics

Personal power is the ability to control the environment around you. This can be accomplished
through the five different types of power: reward power, coercive power, legitimate power,
expert power, and referent power

Power and Politics in Organizations

Power and politics in organizations are a reality that no organization can ignore. Though the
evolution of the modern corporation and the concomitant rise of the managerial class with a
professional way of running the firms is touted to be one of the contributory factors for the
decline on power politics in organizations, one cannot just simply say that there are no power
centers or people with vested interests even in the most professionally run and managed firms.
The reason for this is that power and politics are as old as human nature and recorded
history and hence, one cannot simply wish away the primal urge to resist those in power
and in turn, try an impose the will by those in power. This is the interplay of forces within
organizations wherein the top management and the senior leadership often tries to have it their
way whereas those in the middle and those who have been passed over for promotion as CEOs
and other C level positions try to resist such power moves.

Def: The capacity of a person, team, department or organization to influence others

For simplicity and understanding purposes power is usually classified into following categories:

1. Coercive Power- This kind of power involves the usage of threat to make people do
what one desires. In the organizational set up, it translates into threatening someone with
transfer, firing, demotions etc. it basically forces people to submit to one’s demand for
the fear of losing something.

2. Reward Power- As the name suggests, this type of power uses rewards, perks, new
projects or training opportunities, better roles and monetary benefits to influence people.
However an interesting aspect of this type of power is that, it is not powerful enough in
itself, as decisions related to rewards do not rest solely with the person promising them,
because in organizations, a lot of other people come into play like senior managers and
board.

3. Legitimate Power- This power emanates from an official position held by someone, be it
in an organization, beurocracy or government etc. The duration of this power is short
lived as a person can use it only till the time he/she holds that position, as well as, the
scope of the power is small as it is strictly defined by the position held.

4. Expert Power- This is a personal kind of power which owes its genesis to the skills and
expertise possessed by an individual, which is of higher quality and not easily available.
In such a situation, the person can exercise the power of knowledge to influence people.
Since, it is very person specific and skills can be enhanced with time; it has more
credibility and respect.

5. Referent Power- This is a power wielded by celebrities and film stars as they have huge
following amongst masses who like them, identify with them and follow them. Hence,
they exert lasting influence on a large number of people for a large number of decisions;
like from what car to buy to which candidate to choose for a higher office in the country.

Contingencies of power

There are four main contingencies of power. These four contingencies consist of substitutability,
centrality, discretion, and visibility. Each in it’s own way contributes to the way the power base
can and will influence others within an organization.
Substitutability

A Company known as Microsoft best demonstrates substitutability. The availability of resources

in the computer industry is vast, however Microsoft has developed a company of self-reliance.
Many of their competitors have been driven out of business do to the fact that Microsoft has
developed an operating system that is easy to use. This system is one of the most widely used
systems known in North America which runs independently with it’s own software thus creating
a monopoly over the computer software industry. They have controlled tasks by buying smaller
competitors and destroyed their businesses. Controlling their domain by not letting other
companies even have a chance at competing with them therefore giving Microsoft the power to
charge almost any price for their product.

Centrality

Employees and employers have had many battles in the past and will have many battles in the
future and one key element to these battles is centrality. This element determines how much and
how many are effected by the powerholder’s decisions. Kal Tire is a great example, having a
head office in Vernon, BC, that can make decisions that effect all of the smaller outlets across
the country. Whereas the individual outlets can only perform tasks and deploy orders to it’s own
small group of people of one store. Kal Tire is not a unionized company, however if it were up to
the employees, they would have a high source of centrality, because the inventory levels are very
low in all areas of the company and that stockpiling costs extra money. If the employees were to
go on strike it would be very difficult to disperse the required stock to each individual outlet
where the stock is actually sold.

Discretion

The power to make decisions without asking. This usually deals with upper and lower
management positions. It is actually the ability to follow company protocol. Management seems
to the average employee as the people who tell them what to do, but what they do not understand
is that each individual is actually being tested no matter what their position is. The only
difference between the workers at the top and the workers at the bottom is their ability to follow
specified rules and regulations. If a supervisor fires a worker, the worker feels anxiety towards
the man instead of himself for not following the rules. Discretion increases as you move up in
management. For instance the owner of the company has a lot more power of discretion than the
supervisor, because the owner has a lot less rules and guidelines that he must follow. Most
companies have specific guidelines in which they must follow or else their own job will be up
for review. Thus making a vital role in management’s proper execution or lack of discretion,
extremely important.

Visibility
Visibility is the key element of letting others know how much power one has within a company.
Whether or not one decides to be discrete about this is up to them. The only way others will
know how much power an employee has is by several different signs one being how well known
is that person with the senior managers. People often use diplomas or trophies to display how
much knowledge or power they control. The best way to become visible to an employer or
manager is to take on tasks that stand out from the rest, either in difficulty or presentation. An
example of this would be the difference between making it to management or being passed over.
Blow your own horn, this is a very advantageous technique but if used improperly can also be a
hindrance to one’s career because no one likes an arrogant loud mouth. One must take on tasks
that will put them in direct line with the managers demonstrating the ability to achieve skills that
are upheld by the employer and senior personnel.

What is employee empowerment?

When someone is empowered, they have the ability to accomplish something ー and they know it,
giving them the confidence needed to succeed. Employee empowerment refers to the manner in
which companies provide their employees with anything and everything they need to succeed.
This involves far more than simple resource allocation, however. Companies that are interested
in empowering employees should act on the following:

 Give employees a voice by regularly soliciting and acting on their feedback.

 Provide opportunities for employees to grow through more autonomy, additional

responsibilities, or even an entirely new role.

 Recognize employees frequently to increase their engagement and confidence in their

own abilities.

 And, of course, provide employees with the tools, training, and authority they need to
excel.

A company’s leaders, HR professionals, and fellow employees all play key roles in establishing a
supportive, empowered environment. All parties need to establish mutual trust, feel comfortable
taking risks, and establish clear expectations and guidelines. Without this collaboration, truly
empowering employees is impossible.

Empowerment is the degree of autonomy and self-determination in people and in communities.

This enables them to represent their interests in a responsible and self-determined way, acting on
their own authority. It is the process of becoming stronger and more confident, especially in
controlling one's life and claiming one's rights. Empowerment as action refers both to the process
of self-empowerment and to professional support of people, which enables them to overcome
their sense of powerlessness and lack of influence, and to recognize and use their resources.

Why is empowerment so important?

Empowerment enables leaders and team members to live to their fullest potential and to own
their own work. Leaders who build a culture of empowerment set their people up for success in
three major ways by enabling employees to:

 Experience continual growth

 Align their vision and values with organizational goals

 Leverage failures into learning opportunities

Empowerment is the capacity to trust ourselves to stretch into our full potential and the guidance
to make it matter for the organization. It enables us to focus on our talents and gifts, joining them
with those of others for the betterment of the team.

At BetterUp, we cultivate company cultures of empowerment by enabling people to discover

their full potential. Surpass your limits, and empower your team members to do the same, today.

Characteristics Or Nature Of Group

(1) Size: The first feature of a group is its size. In order to form a group, there should be at least
two persons. A single individual does not form a group. It is important to note that a group does
have a minimum limit of persons forming it, but it does not have the maximum limit. There can
be any number of persons in a group according to the need.

(2) Interaction with each other: Every member of a group remains in contact with each other.
Everybody needs others. The group becomes meaningful only when all the members of the
group work together. Every member of the group influences others with his conduct and in turn
himself gets influenced by the conduct of other members.

(3) Common Goal: A group is formed with the purpose of achieving a collective goal. In the
absence of any collective goal, a group cannot come into existence. Every individual has two
goals-individual and collective. When an individual happens to be the member of a group he has
to give priority to the collective goal over his individual goal.

(4) Norms: Every group has some norms. These norms are laid down by the members of the
group. Normally they are in oral form (or say unwritten). It is obligatory for all the members to
observe them. The group puts pressure on all the members to observe these norms.

(5) Informal Leadership: Every group has a leader. The choice of the leader is not formal but a
particular member is accepted as a leader because of his ability and experience. Whenever a
problem raises its head, the members look up to their leader for guidance. So much so that within
a group more than one leader can be accepted in respect of different problems or situations.

(6) Cohesiveness: It is an important characteristic of a group to have some sort of cohesiveness

among themselves. It is only this quality that impels individuals to be a member of the group.
The group takes care of the interests of its members. It is because of this that an individual feels
satisfied after having become the member of a group.

(7) Interdependency: All the members of a group look up to each other for the solution of a
problem. It can, therefore, be said that the members depend on each other for the achievement of
the objectives.

(8) Regularity: Another important feature of a group is that all its members regularly interact
with each other.

(9) Social Pressure: Groups are formed and prosper in society. It is, therefore, their
responsibility to take care of the interests of society along with the interests of their members.

(10) Devotion: It is an important characteristic of a group. It means that the success of the group
depends on the degree of their devotion to the group.

BASIS GROUP TEAM

Meaning A group is made when A team is that group of

independent individuals, having interdependent individuals, who join
something in common, come hands for the realization of a specific
together. goal.

Accountability Individual Individual and mutual

Decision-Making Group members Team leader

Authority

Individual Growth Proper training but limited Skill development and application
application

Focus On Individual goals Team goals

Dependency Independent members Interdependent members

Specific Roles No Yes

Assigned to
Individuals
 BASIS GROUP TEAM

Interpersonal Not necessary Compulsory

Understanding

Leadership Unstructured Structured

Level of Trust Low High

Level of Low High

Commitment

Conflict Weak Strong

Management

Synergy Neutral or negative Positive

Examples

‘A group of candidates came for an interview. Out of these, two candidates were selected and
were placed in the research team.’

In the above illustration, the candidates who came for an interview, neither knew each other nor
have a common goal. Instead, they had similar but individual objectives.

Also, when the two selected candidates were placed in the research team; they were introduced
to the other members of the team. They even came to know about everyone’s skills and
strengths. Everyone in the team has a single goal or objective to accomplish.

What is a Group?

A group is the accumulation of three or more people who share a common purpose, interest,
traits, characteristics or situation. The individuals in a group may or may not have interpersonal
interactions.

Characteristics of a Group

A group posses certain features, which differentiate it from a team. Following are some of these:
  Individual Goals: Each of the members of a group is there to fulfil their objectives.

 Size and Composition: The size of a group can be small or large; however, it comprises
of people having something in common.

 Independent Individuals: The members of a group are not reliant on one another for
their actions.

 Individual Accountability: Everyone in a group is personally responsible for his or her

actions.

 Status: The level to which the group is valued in the outer world, defines its status.

 Collective Identity: The individuals are together known to be a part of the particular
group.

What is a Team?

A team is an organized and systematic group, comprising of individuals with competent skills
and expertise, who gather for the attainment of a common objective, collaboratively. The team
members work as a single unit and take up the responsibility of task completion mutually. Team
building is a well-organised process, that requires proper nurturing of a workgroup.

Characteristics of a Team

A team arises out of a group. What special features do a team have?

Let us discuss some of the significant characteristics of a team that discriminates it from a group:

 Common Goal: The members work to achieve a particular team objective.

 Team spirit: The enthusiasm of the members to reach out the team goal is always high.

 Trust: In a team, individuals believe and rely on each other’s capabilities and skills.

 Leadership: There is a clear leadership within a team, and the selected team leader heads
the activities.

 Mutual Accountability: Each individual is equally responsible for the underperformance

and failure of the team.

 Interdependency: The actions of the members within a team are jointly dependent on
that of other members.

 Defined Roles: Every individual in a team, has been allocated specific roles or
responsibilities to accomplish.
  Streamline Direction: The team leader is the one who shows the way to the members
and monitors their operations.

 Collaboration: There is a high degree of synergy or coordination among the team

members.

Types of Groups

Groups can be deliberately made or unknowingly formed. When people happen to be in the same
circumstances or situation, they are considered to be a part of one group.

Also, a group is essentially created to proceed with a given task and its timely execution. People
collaborate to form various kinds of groups as mentioned below:

Some of the most common ones out of these are formal or informal, permanent or temporary and
primary or secondary groups. To learn more about the above-mentioned classification of groups,
you may refer to our next content on Types of Groups.

Types of Teams

Now, let us understand the various kinds of teams differentiated by their purpose, direction and
interaction:

Management Team

The team which comprises of the department heads who are responsible for managing the whole
business operations is called a management team.

Operational Team

The operational team takes care of the overall functioning of an organization, and the team
members fix the issues that hinder the company’s smooth operation.

Self-directed Team

The team which not lead by any leader or manager; instead, each member controls and directs
their actions.

Troubleshooting Team

The team comprising of people with analytical thinking and problem-solving who come together
for streamlining the process is a troubleshooting team.

Virtual Team
Such teams are ubiquitous in the organizations which have a global presence. Since the team
members are located in different countries, with different time zones, they cannot directly
interact with each other.

Thus, such people stay connected through technology, in spite of varying languages and cultures.

Special Purpose Team

It is formed to fulfil a specific project or purpose. After completion of the task, such a team is
disintegrated.

Project Team

Similar to the special purpose team, a project team is the one which is built to efficiently execute
a given project on time, by following a common strategy.

It can be further sub-divided into the following four categories

Functional Team: Such a team is formed within a department and is usually permanent. It is
regulated by a manager and works on regular projects ensuring that their part of the task is
appropriately accomplished.

Multi-functional Team: It consists of team members who hold expertise in their fields. Such a
team can be set temporarily or permanently, depending on the project and organization.

The purpose of these teams is to carry out high level or special projects.

Contract Team: The team which is formed by hiring the members from an external source is a
contract team. A contract binds all the individuals in it.

The project manager is the one who coordinates between the team members and the client. After
the project completion, the customer can disassociate from the team.

Matrix Team: In this ‘two-boss system or matrix organizational structure, the top-level
managers exercise superior power or control, whereas the middle-level managers take care of the
functioning and decision-making.

Group Dynamics

ypes of Groups: Formal and Informal

What is a group? A group is a collection of individuals who interact with each other such that
one person’s actions have an impact on the others. In organizations, most work is done within
groups. How groups function has important implications for organizational productivity. Groups
where people get along, feel the desire to contribute to the team, and are capable of coordinating
their efforts may have high performance levels, whereas teams characterized by extreme levels
of conflict or hostility may demoralize members of the workforce.

In organizations, you may encounter different types of groups. Informal work groups are made
up of two or more individuals who are associated with one another in ways not prescribed by the
formal organization. For example, a few people in the company who get together to play tennis
on the weekend would be considered an informal group. A formal work group is made up of
managers, subordinates, or both with close associations among group members that influence the
behavior of individuals in the group. We will discuss many different types of formal work groups
later on in this chapter.

Stages of Group Development

Forming, Storming, Norming, and Performing

American organizational psychologist Bruce Tuckman presented a robust model in 1965 that is
still widely used today. Based on his observations of group behavior in a variety of settings, he
proposed a four-stage map of group evolution, also known as the forming-storming-norming-
performing model (Tuckman, 1965). Later he enhanced the model by adding a fifth and final
stage, the adjourning phase. Interestingly enough, just as an individual moves through
developmental stages such as childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, so does a group, although
in a much shorter period of time. According to this theory, in order to successfully facilitate a
group, the leader needs to move through various leadership styles over time. Generally, this is
accomplished by first being more directive, eventually serving as a coach, and later, once the
group is able to assume more power and responsibility for itself, shifting to a delegator. While
research has not confirmed that this is descriptive of how groups progress, knowing and
following these steps can help groups be more effective. For example, groups that do not go
through the storming phase early on will often return to this stage toward the end of the group
process to address unresolved issues. Another example of the validity of the group development
model involves groups that take the time to get to know each other socially in the forming stage.
When this occurs, groups tend to handle future challenges better because the individuals have an
understanding of each other’s needs.
Forming

In the forming stage, the group comes together for the first time. The members may already
know each other or they may be total strangers. In either case, there is a level of formality, some
anxiety, and a degree of guardedness as group members are not sure what is going to happen
next. “Will I be accepted? What will my role be? Who has the power here?” These are some of
the questions participants think about during this stage of group formation. Because of the large
amount of uncertainty, members tend to be polite, conflict avoidant, and observant. They are
trying to figure out the “rules of the game” without being too vulnerable. At this point, they may
also be quite excited and optimistic about the task at hand, perhaps experiencing a level of pride
at being chosen to join a particular group. Group members are trying to achieve several goals at
this stage, although this may not necessarily be done consciously. First, they are trying to get to
know each other. Often this can be accomplished by finding some common ground. Members
also begin to explore group boundaries to determine what will be considered acceptable
behavior. “Can I interrupt? Can I leave when I feel like it?” This trial phase may also involve
testing the appointed leader or seeing if a leader emerges from the group. At this point, group
members are also discovering how the group will work in terms of what needs to be done and
who will be responsible for each task. This stage is often characterized by abstract discussions
about issues to be addressed by the group; those who like to get moving can become impatient
with this part of the process. This phase is usually short in duration, perhaps a meeting or two.

Storming

Once group members feel sufficiently safe and included, they tend to enter the storming phase.
Participants focus less on keeping their guard up as they shed social facades, becoming more
authentic and more argumentative. Group members begin to explore their power and influence,
and they often stake out their territory by differentiating themselves from the other group
members rather than seeking common ground. Discussions can become heated as participants
raise contending points of view and values, or argue over how tasks should be done and who is
assigned to them. It is not unusual for group members to become defensive, competitive, or
jealous. They may even take sides or begin to form cliques within the group. Questioning and
resisting direction from the leader is also quite common. “Why should I have to do this? Who
designed this project in the first place? Why do I have to listen to you?” Although little seems to
get accomplished at this stage, group members are becoming more authentic as they express their
deeper thoughts and feelings. What they are really exploring is “Can I truly be me, have power,
and be accepted?” During this chaotic stage, a great deal of creative energy that was previously
buried is released and available for use, but it takes skill to move the group from storming to
norming. In many cases, the group gets stuck in the storming phase.

Once group members discover that they can be authentic and that the group is capable of
handling differences without dissolving, they are ready to enter the next stage, norming.
Norming

“We survived!” is the common sentiment at the norming stage. Group members often feel elated
at this point, and they are much more committed to each other and the group’s goal. Feeling
energized by knowing they can handle the “tough stuff,” group members are now ready to get to
work. Finding themselves more cohesive and cooperative, participants find it easy to establish
their own ground rules (or norms) and define their operating procedures and goals. The group
tends to make big decisions, while subgroups or individuals handle the smaller decisions.
Hopefully, at this point the group is more open and respectful toward each other, and members
ask each other for both help and feedback. They may even begin to form friendships and share
more personal information with each other. At this point, the leader should become more of a
facilitator by stepping back and letting the group assume more responsibility for its goal. Since
the group’s energy is running high, this is an ideal time to host a social or team-building event.

Performing

Galvanized by a sense of shared vision and a feeling of unity, the group is ready to go into high
gear. Members are more interdependent, individuality and differences are respected, and group
members feel themselves to be part of a greater entity. At the performing stage, participants are
not only getting the work done, but they also pay greater attention to how they are doing it. They
ask questions like, “Do our operating procedures best support productivity and quality
assurance? Do we have suitable means for addressing differences that arise so we can preempt
destructive conflicts? Are we relating to and communicating with each other in ways that
enhance group dynamics and help us achieve our goals? How can I further develop as a person to
become more effective?” By now, the group has matured, becoming more competent,
autonomous, and insightful. Group leaders can finally move into coaching roles and help
members grow in skill and leadership.

Adjourning

Just as groups form, so do they end. For example, many groups or teams formed in a business
context are project oriented and therefore are temporary in nature. Alternatively, a working
group may dissolve due to an organizational restructuring. Just as when we graduate from school
or leave home for the first time, these endings can be bittersweet, with group members feeling a
combination of victory, grief, and insecurity about what is coming next. For those who like
routine and bond closely with fellow group members, this transition can be particularly
challenging. Group leaders and members alike should be sensitive to handling these endings
respectfully and compassionately. An ideal way to close a group is to set aside time to debrief
(“How did it all go? What did we learn?”), acknowledge each other, and celebrate a job well
done.

Five Dysfunctions of a Team

The Five Dysfunctions of a Team outlines the root causes of politics and dysfunction on the
teams where you work, and the keys to overcoming them. Counter to conventional wisdom, the
causes of dysfunction are both identifiable and curable. However, they don't die easily. Making a
team functional and cohesive requires levels of courage and discipline that many groups cannot
seem to muster.

1. Absence of Trust

The fear of being vulnerable with team members prevents the building of trust within the team.

This occurs when team members are reluctant to be vulnerable with one another and are
unwilling to admit their mistakes, weaknesses or needs for help. Without a certain comfort level
among team members, a foundation of trust is impossible.

The Role of the Leader here is to Go First!

2. Fear of Conflict

The desire to preserve artificial harmony stifles the occurrence of productive, ideological
conflict.

Teams that are lacking on trust are incapable of engaging in unfiltered, passionate debate about
key issues, causing situations where team conflict can easily turn into veiled discussions and
back channel comments. In a work setting where team members do not openly air their opinions,
inferior decisions are the result.

The Role of the Leader here is to Mine for Conflict.

3. Lack of Commitment

The lack of clarity or buy-in prevents team members from making decisions they will stick to.

Without conflict, it is difficult for team members to commit to decisions, creating an

environment where ambiguity prevails. Lack of direction and commitment can make employees,
particularly star employees, disgruntled.

The Role of the Leader here is to Force Clarity and Closure.

4. Avoidance of Accountability

The need to avoid interpersonal discomfort prevents team members from holding one another
accountable for their behaviors and performance.
When teams don't commit to a clear plan of action, even the most focused and driven individuals
hesitate to call their peers on actions and behaviors that may seem counterproductive to the
overall good of the team.
The Role of the Leader here is to Confront Difficult Issues.
5. Inattention to Results

The pursuit of individual goals and personal status erodes the focus on collective success.
Team members naturally tend to put their own needs (ego, career development, recognition, etc.)
ahead of the collective goals of the team when individuals aren't held accountable. If a team has
lost sight of the need for achievement, the business ultimately suffers.
The Role of the Leader here is to Focus on Collective Outcomes.

Addressing the Dysfunctions

Like it or not, all teams are potentially dysfunctional. This is inevitable because they are made up
of fallible, imperfect human beings. However, facing dysfunction and focusing on teamwork is
particularly critical at the top of an organization because the executive team sets the tone for how
all employees work with one another.

Counter to conventional wisdom, the causes of dysfunction are both identifiable and curable.
However, they don't die easily. Making a team functional and cohesive requires levels of courage
and discipline that many groups cannot seem to muster.

To begin improving your team and to better understand the level of dysfunction you are facing,
ask yourself these simple questions:

 Do team members openly and readily disclose their opinions?

 Are team meetings compelling and productive?

 Does the team come to decisions quickly and avoid getting bogged down by consensus?

 Do team members confront one another about their shortcomings?

 Do team members sacrifice their own interests for the good of the team?

Although no team is perfect and even the best teams sometimes struggle with one or more of
these issues, the finest organizations constantly work to ensure that their answers are "yes." If
you answered "no" to many of these questions, your team may need some work.

The first step toward reducing politics and confusion within your team is to understand that there
are five dysfunctions to contend with, and address each that applies, one by one.

The Rewards

Striving to create a functional, cohesive team is one of the few remaining competitive advantages
available to any organization looking for a powerful point of differentiation. Functional teams
avoid wasting time talking about the wrong issues and revisiting the same topics over and over
again because of lack of buy-in. Functional teams also make higher quality decisions and
accomplish more in less time and with less distraction and frustration.
Successful teamwork is not about mastering subtle, sophisticated theories, but rather about
embracing common sense with uncommon levels of discipline and persistence. Ironically, teams
succeed because they are exceedingly human. By acknowledging the imperfections of their
humanity, members of functional teams overcome the natural tendencies that make teamwork so
elusive.

Exercises

To build trust in your team, you may like to use the personal histories exercise. Click here to
access it.

You may also like to complete the team effectiveness exercise. The purpose of this exercise is to
give team members a forum for providing one another with focused, direct and actionable
feedback about how their individual behavior can improve the performance of the team. Click
here to access it.

Conclusion

Teams willing to address the five dysfunctions can experience a number of benefits. In
conclusion, high performing, cohesive teams:

 Are comfortable asking for help, admitting mistakes and limitations and take risks
offering feedback

 Tap into one another's skills and experiences

 Avoid wasting time talking about the wrong issues and revisiting the same topics over
and over again because of lack of buy-in

 Make higher quality decisions and accomplish more in less time and fewer resources

 Put critical topics on the table and have lively meetings

 Align the team around common objectives

 Retain star employees

Team Building for the Modern Workplace

Earning an MBA can help you gain the skills and leadership abilities necessary to thrive in the
corporate world. Organizational leadership involves a group of motivated individuals working
toward a common goal, and team building is a critical aspect of success. Managers must have a
robust understanding of personality types to ensure a productive and collaborative work
environment.
Organizational Leadership & Team Building

The individual personalities of your team and how those temperaments collaborate dictate the
nature of the organization. Within this type of group structure:

 Management must ensure a solid core for the group to form and provide a basis for
progression toward a common goal.

 Organizational structure is superior to individual leadership as leaders are prone to self-

serving interests.

To benefit the group and result in a more cohesive, effective, and ultimately successful unit
within the organization, leaders must have the ability to carry out these activities effectively.
Modern-day team-building techniques are meant to bring out the best skills in individuals and
encourage a sense of unity throughout a company. Although many of these methods are updated,
they stem from early training practices.

Early Team Building Approaches

Strong teams form through training, empowerment, and feedback. Team building studies began
in the 1920s and 1930s and are linked to the often-referenced Hawthorne Studies. These
research activities examined groups of workers exposed to various conditions and concluded that
building a group identity and feelings of social support were significant among workers.

Conditions pertinent to effective team development involved managers:

 Taking a personal interest in each individual’s achievements.

 Taking pride in the group’s record.

 Helping the group work collaboratively to establish its working status quo.

 Faithfully posting performance feedback.

Critical conditions for the group were:

 Taking pride in collaborative achievements.

 Not feeling pressure to change.

 Being consulted before organizational change.

 Developing confidence.

Other often-referenced team development models include:

  Bruce Tuchman’s Theory (1965) depicts a four-stage (forming, storming, norming, and
performing and later, adjourning) model that claims that, as the group matures and grows
more capable, their relationships evolve, thus necessitating a change in leadership style as
well.

 Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Continuum shows that as the leader relinquishes authority
and freedom to the team, the leader’s control diminishes.

 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Model reveals that ideal team development
transitions from a stage of immaturity to one of maturity. At this point, the team is self-
managing, containing at least one potential future leader.

While all of these theories have been revised and updated, the fundamental principles are still
applicable to modern team-building concepts.

Workplace Team Building Activities

Team building activities can promote teamwork, boost creativity and build confidence. The
following are some examples of team-building activities that enhance:

 Communication: A team’s plane hypothetically crashes on a desert island; the team has
to choose and rank 12 items needed to survive.

 Relationships: Teams pick a charity and work together in a volunteer situation.

 Thinking-style: Individuals are handed a picture that is part of a story. Each person
describes his or her picture, and the groups work together to figure out the story’s
sequence based on the descriptions.

 Values: Each person describes someone they respect or admire, elaborating on the traits
that influence their choice.

 Bonding: During learning lunches, each employee shares a special hobby or interest with
the group.

 Trust: An individual leads a blindfolded partner through a room full of objects (chairs,
boxes, etc.).

UNIT-V leading high performance

Job design:

Job design, or redesign, is a process of determining job roles and what a job involves, as well as
how it relates to other relevant jobs and the organization’s structure. It includes deciding on the
duties and responsibilities of the job holder, the way the job is done, as well as what support and
resources the job holder needs. It can be done stringently or flexibly, depending on the nature
and scope of the work that needs to be done.

The main purpose of job design is to optimize work processes, ensure the right value is created
and improve productivity. It does this by clarifying roles, systems and procedures; reducing
repetitive elements within and between jobs; and optimizing the workers’ responsibility.

However, these aspects of managing people are not only about the face-value effectiveness of
allocating resources. They’re also closely linked to core employee attitudes and work behaviors,
including motivation, commitment, discretionary effort and job satisfaction. These are enhanced
through techniques such as job enlargement, job enrichment and job rotation.

Job design is an important element of people strategy as it influences:

 How well organized work is.

 How fulfilling and motivating employees find their work.

 What opportunities employees have to develop skills and progress?

 Whether workloads are sustainable and healthy.

Job design is thus a central component of job quality or ‘good work’ that benefits those doing the
job as well as the organization’s long-term growth and sustainability.

Approaches to Job Design

Everything you need to know about the approaches to job design. Job designing and redesigning
have become regular features on an effective organizations strategy charts.

Job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment are among approaches to design or redesign a job.

Job design refers to the way in which sets of interrelated tasks—leading to a desired and
expected outcome—are organized.

Parker and Wall (1998) have highlighted that while designing jobs, the needs and goals of the
employees and the organization need to be considered and aligned.

The main objective of job design is to integrate the employee’s needs with that of organizational
requirement.

The approaches to job design are as follows:-

1. Job Enrichment

2. Job Enlargement
3. Job Simplification

4. Job Rotation

5. Traditional Approach

6. Classical or Scientific or Engineering Approach

7. Behavioral Approach.

Approaches to Job Design: Job Enrichment, Job Enlargement, Job Simplification, Job
Rotation and a Few Others

Approaches to Job Design – 4 Major Approaches

There is an interaction between job design/redesign and process because accomplishing anything
in an organization more often than not requires knowledge of whom to see and how to present an
idea to that person. Process refers to how tasks are carried out, and regardless of how the job is
designed or redesigned, all workers participate in such processes as decision-making, leadership,
communication, motivation, and conflict-resolution, and process is closely related to decision-
making.

It may be necessary to make changes in job design and process in order to meet individual and
organizational needs process determination depends on the ways of working and the individual
personalities and teams involved. There are key groups who may need to be consulted, e.g., team
leaders, and customers; not to do so is likely to minimize or nullify an effective process.

In order to achieve organizational effectiveness, collectively process and people need to be

balanced and the search for this stabilization leads to the consideration of the alternative methods
of job design. Gaining such a balance is often related to the areas of job satisfaction and job
performance.

It is the process of organizing work into the tasks required to perform a specific job. The Human
Resource Management has realized the importance of designing a job in terms of productivity
and job specification. It reduces monotony, boredom, increased job turnover, absenteeism and
job dissatisfaction.

There are four approaches to job design:

Approach # 1. Job Enrichment:

It is an approach to job design that is based on the assumption that in order to motivate
personnel, the job itself must provide opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility,
advancement and growth. It gives employees more opportunities for autonomy and feedback. It
also gives them more responsibilities that require decision making, such as scheduling work,
determining quality, etc.

According to Herzberg, an enriched job has eight characteristics.

These features are:

(a) Direct feedback – The evaluation of performance system or immediate feedback to the
employees.

(b) New learning – A feeling of growing intellectual among employees.

(c) Client relationship – An employee who serves a client or customer directly has an enriched
job.

(d) Scheduling own work – Employees who perform creative work are given the opportunity to
schedule their own work.

(e) Unique experience – An enriched job provides unique experience or quality.

(f) Control over resources – This approach for employee leads to enrichment.

(g) Direct communication authority – An enriched job allows the worker to communicate
directly with people.

(h) Personal accountability – A feeling of personal accountability enhancing job enrichment.

Approach 2. Job Enlargement:

It involves adding more tasks to a job or assignment of varied tasks or duties of the jobs of
employees at the same level. According to Herzberg, “job enlargement is simply adding a zero to
zero. Zero meaning that one set of boring tasks is simply added to another set of boring tasks. A
recent study found that by expanding the scope of job, workers found benefits such as mere
satisfaction, reduce boredom, monotony and increased motivation.”

Enlargement is done only on the horizontal level i.e. the jobs remains the same, but of larger
scale than before. According to George Strauss and L.R. Sayles, “Job enlargement implies that
instead of assigning one man to each job, a group of men can be assigned to a group of jobs and
then allowed to decide for themselves how to organize the work. Such change, permit mere
social contact and greater control over the work process.”

Approach # 3. Job Simplification or Work Simplification:

Under this method, the complete job is simplified by breaking down into small sub-parts. Then,
each part of the job is assigned to a worker who does the same task over and over again. This is
done so that employees who gain proficiency in doing the repetitive task require less training.
This will lower down training costs and in turn increases productivity and profit. Time and
motion study are generally used for job simplification. However, company may not always be
benefited from this technique, as it increases absenteeism and boredom due to repetitive nature
of job.

Approach 4. Job Rotation:

This is one of the methods to reduce boredom which implies moving of employees from one job
to another within a working group so that there is some variety and relief from boredom of
monotonous jobs. Herzberg characterized this approach as merely substituting “one zero for
another zero”.

It is horizontal or lateral transfer, where employees are shifted to another activity to meet the
needs of work scheduling. It not only reduces boredom and monotony of job but also increases
employee’s skills and knowledge. This method improves the self-image and personal worth of
the employee. However, employees who look for more challenging job become frustrated.

Goal setting for high performance

Setting organizational goals can sometimes feel like making New Year’s resolutions. The idea
seems promising at first, and you have no trouble getting everyone on board, but a few weeks
later, those goals are forgotten.

You’re not the first person to struggle with establishing goals that can improve your
organization. It’s actually something that Michelle Abraham, a leadership development
consultant who works closely with University of Massachusetts Global, has seen time and time
again. She recently addressed this very topic in her recent webinar, “The secret to setting goals
for organizational success.” In it she says:

Goals can give you and your work a sense of purpose and a reason for doing what you're
doing.

In this article, we’ll examine her insights and determine how to measure organizational
performance using smart goals. But before jumping in, you might want to revisit why identifying
your objectives is important in the first place.

5 benefits of setting goals for organizational success

Abraham describes motivation, vision, accountability, success and fulfillment as outcomes for
goal-setting. We’ll help define each so you can begin to establish these benefits for yourself.

1. Setting goals can help motivate employees

Imagine signing up for a race just to learn there was no finish line — it would probably seem
pretty pointless. A professional environment that’s lacking clear goals can feel the same way.
But with something to work toward, employees tend to be more engaged. Researchers have
found that setting goals can help employees feel a greater connection to their organization. Not
only does this contribute to increased optimism in the office, but it also encourages better
employee performance.

2. Setting goals ensures employees are working toward a shared vision

It can be frustrating to find out that individual employees have been devoting time to projects
that work toward seemingly different objectives. How can you avoid this issue? By setting goals
at both the macro and micro levels. This can help ensure everyone is aligned and help you
understand when it may be necessary to give feedback that can get workers back on track.

3. Setting goals can help keep everyone accountable

Once you set a goal, the next step is to start evaluating whether you’re making progress. Instead
of gauging general effort, you can start asking employees specific questions about meeting
milestones. This can help ensure that they aren’t just working, but are moving toward a specific
outcome.

4. Setting goals can help you quantify success

Without setting goals, there’s no real way to identify when a project is complete. To avoid
needlessly prolonging something and risking burnout, you can use goals that will clearly define
success—as well as indicate how far you’ve come and how far you have to go to achieve them.

5. Meeting goals can help employees feel more fulfilled

It’s hard to beat the satisfaction you feel by meeting goals — even small ones. This sense of
fulfillment can make the work you do seem more meaningful. It can also bolster your
overall employee satisfaction and retention rate, because tracking goal progress can help
employees better understand how their efforts impact the entire organization. They’ll likely feel
more valued. That could mean you’ll experience fewer hiring-related costs in the future.

How to set effective goals for organizational success

Think back to goals you've set in the past. Which ones were successful? There’s a good chance
they included a few key ingredients. You’ve likely heard of the acronym S.M.A.R.T.
before. Abraham further breaks down the meaning in UMass Globe’s webinar, but here are the
basics of what all goals should be using this framework:

 Specific —simply wanting to improve your organization is too general. Do you want to
bring on more clients? Are you looking to expand locations? Whatever the case may be,
making your goal as specific as possible can ensure better execution planning.
  Measurable — If you can't measure your progress, you'll have no idea where you are in
relation to your goal. Wanting to attract new clients is specific, but it's not yet
measurable. The difference between landing three and 300 clients can drastically affect
your approach.

 Achievable — it’s essential to stay grounded in reality. Setting a goal that’s too lofty will
only result in getting discouraged and potentially wasting time. In other words, if you
only have the recourses to serve 20 clients, don’t aim for 30.

 Relevant — your goals should align with your organization’s mission and benefit your
team. Don’t bring on new employees when you need to focus on client acquisition first.

Socio technical design

In organizational development, socio-technical systems (or STS) are an approach to complex

organizational work design that recognizes the interaction between people and technology in
workplaces.

The term socio-technical system also refers to the interaction between society’s complex
infrastructures and human behaviour. In this sense, society itself, and most of its sub-structures,
are complex socio-technical systems.

At the heart of successful, sustainable improvement is a well designed program that strikes a
balance between the technical and the social aspects of improvement.

SCOPE AND DELIVERABLES

Socio technical systems theory is a theory stating that effective work sites have joint
optimization of their social and technological systems, and that teams should have sufficient
autonomy to control key variances in the work process.

It is often used in the context of self directed work teams (SDWTs) which are cross functional
work groups organized around work processes that complete an entire piece of work, requiring
several interdependent tasks, and that have substantial autonomy over the execution of those
tasks.

Critics of socio-technical systems have pointed out that improvements while real, are only as
good as the current manager’s knowledge and willingness to use the concepts. The real challenge
to organizations is to create socio-technical systems that can be sustained over long periods of
time. Organizational culture is an important component in creating effective socio-technical
systems.
Systems theory must be carefully understood by organizational management to have a positive
impact on productivity. Management that integrates socio-technical systems into planning for
performance, show long term consistent gains in productivity and performance.

The basic premise of involving your employees in workplace decision-making has proven to be a
key component in sustained performance improvement.

What we will do

o Facilitate leadership team meetings to clearly articulate a vision of the future state that
includes the desired outcomes for the change.

o Understand your organization’s current culture, processes and practices.

o Determine the optimal interaction between your technical and social structures.

o Define a change strategy (or combination of strategies) that is/are consistent with your
organizational system.

o Propose a methodology for achieving the change, that shows immediate and highly
tactical actions.

o Provide a clear roadmap and timeline for implementing the methodology.

o Facilitate the implementation of the agreed-upon change strategy.

o Develop an agreed-upon approach for measuring and monitoring progress.

o Create an appropriate progress communication vehicle.

o Provide guidance on an organizationally suitable reward and recognition approach.

What we need you to do

o Commit to the change.

o Ensure the active participation of the leadership team in the change program.

o Provide us with access to the required internal personnel.

o Authorize those personnel to provide us with the required information in a timely fashion.

o Assign resources as needed.

o Implement approved recommendations in a timely manner.

  Time-bound — Without a timeline, you and your team will likely push off achieving
your goal. But if you decide to attract 2 clients per week for 10 weeks, you are much
more likely to achieve it.

In short, effective goals are intentional. They aim to do more than just hope and dream. They
should help you think ahead, anticipate roadblocks, capitalize on momentum and achieve your
intended outcome.

Quality of work-life or QWL can be defined as the total quality of an employee's work-life at
an organization.

Not only QWE is tied to happier employees but also better business results. When the quality of
work-life is stable, productivity is bound to increase. So does the level of employee retention. All
in all, it seeks to benefit employees, their families, and the organization as well.

Here are some factors which contribute to improving the quality of work in a holistic manner:

6 Ways to Achieve An Excellent Quality Of Work Life

1. Job Satisfaction

The term "job satisfaction" refers to how satisfied an employee is at his/her organization. Factors
such as working environment, people at work, job security, and work responsibilities majorly
impact an individual's job dissatisfaction levels.

With better job satisfaction comes an improved quality of work life. An employee who is
satisfied with his position at the company is more likely to do good work. Consequently, job
dissatisfaction is more likely to lower employee engagement as well as higher turnover rates.

2. Workplace Stress

Stress is a silent killer. This is especially true for most working individuals. With the added
pressure to manage their work-life, employees feel extreme levels of stress. Not only does it
impact their physical health, but it affects their emotional wellbeing as well.

According to stress.org, workplace stress is a result of the following factors:

 Workload contributes to the primary reason for stress at almost 46%

 People Issues comes second at 28%

 Work-life balance (20%)

 Lack of job security (6%)

The good news is that with proper organizational commitment and personal effort, stress can
be effectively handled.

3. Financial Reimbursement

He purpose behind any work is to get a substantial income in return.

Rewards pay, and benefits enhance organizational QWL. With better compensation, employees
are more involved in their work. Unless the company provides extrinsic motivation (in the form
of better financial gain), workers will less likely go beyond the job requirements.

After obtaining good pay, employees are more likely to find job satisfaction as well as more
committed to achieving the company's goals.

4. Work-Life Balance

Rigid work schedules are a big no for the current millennial workforce. The modern worker
wants to balance his life at work with his personal life. That means more remote working and
more flexible work hours.

Achieving a satisfactory work-life balance is a significant factor in the quality of work-life.

Splitting time, energy, and resources into two different aspects of your life is challenging.
Adding to this challenge are obstacles such as long hours of commute, family commitments, or
longer working hours.

To improve the quality of work-life in your organization, you can't overlook the importance of
introducing an excellent work-life balance. However, not everyone seeks the same kind of work-
life balance. That's why it is vital to have open communication channels with your workforce.

5. Working Conditions / Job Environment

Businesses need to understand the value of a pleasant working environment for enhanced
organizational effectiveness. The job environment affects life at work, mood, performance, and
motivation.

Improved Quality of Lighting

Good lighting makes a drastic difference in employees' performance and attitude. Research
states that exposure to natural light helps in improving energy, mood, focus, and productivity.

A great alternative to natural lighting is blue-enriched light bulbs. Using such lighting will
promote calmness and positivity in the workplace.

Comfortable Working Environment

Make an effort to provide relaxing working conditions by providing comfy chairs, indoor plants,
break rooms, and office snacks. Make the workplace an enjoyable and fun place to be.

Respect and Fairness

Unless an employee is being treated fairly and with respect, he/she is less likely to feel any
connection to the place of work. This implies that every employee deserves to feel belonged
regardless of their race, gender, sexuality, or job role.

Finally

Providing the most excellent quality of work-life can be contributed to many factors. It can
include proper work-life integration or a work environment that provides the balance everyone
needs. It all depends on how you change your organizational system. Do you have one in mind?
Tell us in the comments below.

Issues in QWL

QWL as an abbreviation means Quality of Work Life in a business or Industrial organization.

Trade unions claim that they are responsible for the improvement in various facilities to workers
whereas management takes credit for improved salaries, benefits and facilities. However, P/HR
manager has (identified) specific issues in QWL besides normal wages, Salaries; fringe benefits
etc. and take lead in providing them so as to maintain higher order QWL. Klott, Mundick and
Schuster suggested major QWL issues. They are:

1. Pay and Stability of Employment: Good pay still dominates most of the other factors in
employee satisfaction. Various alternative means for providing wages should be developed in
view of increase in cost of living index, increase in levels and rates of income tax and profession
tax. Stability to a greater extent can be provided by enhancing the facilities for human resource
development.

2. Occupational Stress: Stress is a condition of strain on one’s emotions, thought process

and physical condition, Stress is determined by the nature of work, working conditions, working
hours, pause in the work schedule, worker’ abilities and nature and match with the job
requirements. Stress is caused due to irritability, hyper-excitation or depression, unstable
behavior, fatigue, stuttering, trembling, psychosomatic pains, heavy smoking and drug abuse.
Stress adversely affects employee’s productivity. The P/HR manager, in order to minimize
the stress, has to identify, prevent and tackle the problem. He may arrange the treatment of the
problem with the health unit of the company.

3. Alternative Work Schedules: Alternative work schedules including work at home, flexible
working hours, staggered hours, reduced work week, part-time employment which may be
introduced for the convenience and comfort of the workers as the work schedule which offers the
individual the leisure time, flexible hours of work is preferred.
4. Recognition: Recognizing the employee as a human being rather than as a laborer increases
the QWL. Participative management, awarding the rewarding system, congratulating the
employees for their achievement, job enrichment, offering prestigious designations to the jobs,
providing furnished and decent work places, offering memberships to clubs or association,
providing vehicles, offering vacation trips are some of the means to recognize the employees.

5. Congenial Worker Supervisor Relation: Harmonious supervisor-worker elations give the

worker a sense of social association, belongingness, achievement of work results etc. This in turn
leads to better QWL.

6. Adequacy of Resources: Resources should match with stated objectives otherwise,

employees will not be able to attain the objectives. This results in employee dissatisfaction and
lower QWL.

7. Seniority and Merit in Promotions: Seniority is generally taken as the basis for promotion in
case of operating employees. Merit is considered as the basis for advancement for managerial
people whereas seniority cum-merit is preferred for promotion of ministerial employees. The
promotional policies and activities should be fair and just in order to ensure higher QWL.

What is Ergonomics?

Ergonomics can roughly be defined as the study of people in their working environment. More
specifically, an ergonomist (pronounced like economist) designs or modifies the work to fit the
worker, not the other way around. The goal is to eliminate discomfort and risk of injury due to
work. In other words, the employee is our first priority in analyzing a workstation. Officially:

When evaluating a job, looking for three main characteristics known as Ergonomic Stressors: the
force required to complete a task, any awkward or static working postures adopted in completing
a task, and the repetitiveness of a task. Any of these factors, or any combination of these factors,
may place someone at greater risk for discomfort.

Purpose

The Department of Environment, Health and Safety’s (EHS) purpose is to help all UNC
employees create and maintain a healthy and safe working environment.

Goal

EHS wants to provide information and education to allow any employee to avoid injury. EHS
wants to educate people on the basics of ergonomics. Not only will they be able to help
themselves at work, but these principles can be applied to home, hobbies or help friends and
coworkers who may have similar issues. Remember, knowledge is contagious.

Services
Services EHS offer include:

 Providing information about ergonomics

 Providing consultation regarding workstation setup

 Giving on-campus training on ergonomics (as requested)

 Providing product evaluations

 Providing an online self-assessment tool. This tool will walk the individual through a self
evaluation and provide the user with recommendations to modify their workstation.

Principles of Reinforcement in Learning

Reinforcement has played a central role in learning. Most learning experts agree that
reinforcement is the single most important principle of learning. Yet, there is much controversy
over its theoretical explanation. The first major theoretical treatment given to reinforcement in
learning is Thorn dike's classic law of effect. According to Thorndike, "of several responses
made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction
(reinforcement) will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely followed by
discomfort (punishment).

Will be less likely to occur". From a strictly empirical standpoint, most behavioural scientists,
generally accept the validity of this law. Therefore, reinforcement is the attempt to develop or
strengthen desirable behaviour by either bestowing positive consequences or with holding
negative consequences.

Reinforcement is the process by which certain types of behaviours are strengthened. It is the
attempt to develop or strengthen desirable behaviour by either bestowing positive consequences
or with holding negative consequences. Thus, a "reinforcer" is any stimulus that causes certain
behaviour to be repeated or inhibited. By introducing some rein forcers, the organizations can
maintain or increase the probability of such behaviours as quality oriented performance,
decision-making, high level of attendance and punctuality and so on. There are four basic
reinforcement strategies:

1. Positive reinforcement

2. Negative reinforcement

3. Extinction

4. Punishment

Positive Reinforcement
A positive reinforcement is a reward for a desired behaviour. The reward should be sufficiently
powerful and durable so that it increases the probability of occurrence of desirable behaviour.
Positive reinforcement results from the application of a positive consequence following a
desirable behaviour.

For example

i. Bonuses paid at the end of a successful business year are an example of positive
reinforcement

ii. Employees will work hard for a raise or a promotion

iii. Salesmen will increase their efforts to get rewards and bonuses

iv. Students will study to get good grades and

v. Children will throw temper tantrums to get candy or ice creams.

In these examples, the rises, promotions, awards, bonuses, good grades candy and ice cream are
positive reinforcers.

Negative Reinforcers: Negative reinforcement also known as "escape conditioning" or

"avoidance learning" it is also a method of strengthening desired behaviour. Negative
reinforcement results from with holding a threatened negative consequence when a desired
behaviour occurs.

For example students study hard, write term papers and do their homework on time to avoid the
consequences of failure in the examination.

Just as people engage in behaviours in order to get positive reinforcers, they also engage in
behaviours to avoid or escape unpleasant conditions. Terminating an unpleasant stimulus in
order to strengthen or increase the probability of a response is called negative reinforcement. If
people find that a response successfully ends an aversive condition, they are likely to repeat it.
For example, Heroin addicts will do almost anything to obtain heroin to terminate their painful
withdrawal symptoms.

Responses that end discomfort and those that are followed by rewards are likely to be
strengthened or repeated because both lead to a more desirable outcome. Some behaviour is
influenced by a combination of positive and negative reinforcement. For example, if you eat a
plateful of rather disgusting leftovers to relieve intense hunger then you are eating solely to
remove hunger, a negative reinforcer. But if your hunger is relieved by dinner at a fine
restaurant, both positive and negative reinforcement will have played a role.

Extinction
(with holding reinforcers) - We have seen that responses followed by reinforcers tend to be
repeated and that responses no longer followed by reinforcers will occur less and less frequently
and eventually die out. In humans, extinction can lead to frustration or even rage. Consider a
child having a temper tantrum. If whining and loud demands do not bring the reinforcer, the
child may progress to kicking and screaming. It is what we expect and don't get that makes us
angry.

An alternative to punishing undesirable behaviour is extension - the attempt to weaken behaviour

by attaching no consequences (either positive or negative) to it. It is equivalent to ignoring the
behaviour. The rationale for using extinction is that a behaviour not followed by any
consequence is weakened. However, some patience and time may be needed for it to be
effective.

This type of reinforcement is applied to reduce undesirable behaviour, especially when

suchbehaviours were previously rewarded. This means that if rewards were removed from
behaviours that were previously reinforced, then such behaviours would become less frequent
and eventually die out. For example, if a student in the class is highly mischievous and disturbs
the class, he is probably asking for attention. If the attention is given to him, he will continue to
exhibit that behaviour. However, if he is continuously ignored and not recognised, then such
undesirable behaviour will vanish over a period of time.

Punishment

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. Punishment tends to lower the probability of a

response by following it with an aversive or unpleasant consequence. And punishment can be
accomplished either adding an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant stimulus.

The added unpleasant stimulus might take the form of criticism, a scolding, a disapproving 244
Principles of Management and Organisational Behaviour look, a fine, or a prison sentence. The
removal of a pleasant stimulus might consist of with holding affection and attention, suspending
a driver's license, or taking away a privilege such as watching television.

We often confuse negative reinforcement and punishment. Unlike punishment, negative

reinforcement increases the probability of a desired response by removing an unpleasant stimulus
when the correct response is made.

Punishment is the attempt to eliminate or weaken undesirable behaviour. It is used in two ways.
One way to punish a person is through the application of a negative consequence following an
undesirable behaviour. The other way to punish a person is through the with holding a positive
consequence following an undesirable behaviour.

Punishment is the most controversial method of behaviour modification and involves delivering
an unpleasant consequence contingent upon the occurrence of an undesirable behaviour.
The punishment process consists of "application" of an undesirable consequence or "withdrawal"
of a desirable consequence for an undesirable behaviour, which has never been associated with
reward before.

According to B. F. Skinner, punishment is still the most common technique of behaviour control
in today's life. When a child misbehaves, he is spanked. If a person does not behave as the
society or law wants him to behave, he is punished by arrest and jail.

Certain undesirable behaviours must be punished; otherwise, they will have far reaching effects.
Accordingly, in situations where punishment is desirable as a means of behaviour modification,
certain guidelines would make it more effective thus minimizing its disfunctional consequences.

a. Praise in public; punish in private.

b. Apply punishment before the undesirable behaviour has been strongly reinforced. Thus,
the punishment should immediately follow the undesirable behaviour.

c. The punishment should focus on the behaviour and not on the person. One problem with
punishment is that it may have unintended results. Because punishment is discomforting
to the individual being punished, the experience of punishment may result in negative
psychological, emotional, performance or behavioural consequences. For example, the
person being punished may become angry, hostile, depressed or despondent.

Behavior modification

Behavior modification is defined as "the alteration of behavioral patterns through the use of such
learning techniques as biofeedback and positive or negative reinforcement." More simply, you
can modify your child's behavior with positive consequences and negative consequences.
Behavior modification is based on the idea that good behavior should lead to positive
consequences and bad behavior should lead to negative consequences.

Discipline

Discipline strategies fall under positive or negative punishment. Positive punishment involves
adding a consequence, while negative punishment involves taking something away.

Positive Punishment

Punishment is used to stop negative behaviors. And while it sounds confusing to refer to
punishment as "positive," in operant conditioning, the term positive means adding. So a positive
punishment involves adding a consequence that will deter the child from repeating the behavior.

Specific examples of positive punishment include:

  Giving a child an extra chore as a consequence for lying when asked if they cleaned their
room

 Telling a child to write an apology letter after they hurt someone's feelings

 Insisting a child do a sibling's chore after hurting their sibling

Negative Punishment

Negative punishment involves taking something away. Examples include taking away
privileges or removing positive attention.

Specific examples of negative punishment include:

 Actively ignoring a temper tantrum

 Placing a child in time-out so they are not receiving any positive attention

 Taking away a child's electronics privileges

Reinforcement

Reinforcement is a technique that encourages or discourages specific behavior. Like punishment,

reinforcement can be positive or negative.

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement refers to giving a child something that reinforces good behavior.
Discipline that relies mostly on positive reinforcement is usually very effective. 3

Specific examples of positive reinforcement include:

 Saying, “Great job putting your dish away before I even asked you to!”

 Allowing a child to earn time to play on their tablet because they completed their
homework

 Giving a teenager a later curfew because they got on the honor roll

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is when a child is motivated to change their behavior because it will take
away something unpleasant.

A child who stops a behavior because their parent yells at them is trying to get rid of the negative
reinforcer (the yelling). Negative reinforcement should be used sparingly with kids as it is less
effective than positive reinforcement.1
Specific examples of negative reinforcement include:

 A child has been getting into arguments with peers at the bus stop. The child's mother
starts going to the bus stop with them every day. The child begins behaving so their
mother won’t wait for the bus with them.

 A teenager complains about school during the ride to school every morning. The child's
father turns on talk radio loudly to drown him out. The next day the teenager doesn't
complain about anything because they don't want to listen to talk radio.

 Parents nag their child to do chores. The child does their chores to make the nagging stop.

Leadership theories

Contingency Theory

- Situational Leadership Theory

- Transformational Leadership Theory

- Transactional Theories

- Behavioral Theory

- Great Man Theory of Leadership

- Trait Theory of Leadership

1. Contingency Theory

This theory proposes that no one way or style of leadership may be applicable to all situations. In
other words, it recognizes that there might be variables influencing any particular situation, and a
leader must choose the right course of action, taking into account those variables.

In this regard, leadership researchers White and Hodgson state, "Effective leadership is about
striking the right balance between needs, context, and behavior." The best leaders have not only
the right traits but also the ability to assess the needs of their followers, analyze the situation at
hand, and act accordingly.

2. Situational Leadership Theory

Like the Contingency Theory, the Situational Theory stresses the importance of situational
variables and doesn't consider anyone's leadership style to be better than the others.

Put forward by US professor, Paul Hersey and leadership guru, Ken Blanchard, the situational
theory is a combination of two factors — the leadership style and the maturity levels of the
followers. According to this theory, different situations demand different styles of leadership and
decision-making. Leaders must act by judging the situation they are facing.

3. Transformational Leadership Theory

The Transformational Leadership theory, also known as Relationship theories, focuses on the
relationship between the leaders and followers. This theory talks about the kind of leader who is
inspirational and charismatic, encouraging their followers to transform and become better at a
task.

Transformational leaders typically motivated by their ability to show their followers the
significance of the task and the higher good involved in performing it. These leaders are not only
focused on the team's performance but also give individual team members the required push to
reach his or her potential. These leadership theories will help you to sharp your Skill.

4. Transactional Theories

Transactional Theories, also referred to as Management theories or exchange leadership theories,

revolve around the role of supervision, organization, and teamwork. These leadership theories
consider rewards and punishments as the basis for leadership actions. This is one of the oft-used
theories in business, and the proponents of this leadership style use rewards and punishments to
motivate employees.

5. Behavioral Theory

In the Behavioral Theory, the emphasis shifts from the traits or qualities of leaders to their
behaviors and actions. In sharp contrast to the Great Man Theory and the trait approach to
leadership, this theory considers effective leadership to be the result of many learned or acquired
skills. It proposes that an individual can learn to become a good leader. This is one of the best
leadership theories.

6. Great Man Theory of Leadership

This is one of the earliest leadership theories and is based on the assumption that leadership is an
inborn phenomenon and that leaders are "born" rather than "made." According to this theory, a
person capable of leading has the personality traits of a leader — charm, confidence, intellect,
communication skills, and social aptitude — from birth, which set them apart. This theory
emphasizes leadership as a quality that you either possess or you don't; it isn't something that you
can learn.

While the theory sounds pretty discouraging to those wanting to learn the ropes of leadership,
you might take heart in the fact that most modern theorists dismiss it and even by some leaders
themselves. It's still an interesting take on leadership and one that highlights the qualities of great
leaders, which have more or less remained unchanged over time
7.Trait Theory of Leadership

This theory walks in the footsteps of the Great Man theory in assuming that leaders are born with
traits that make them more suitable for the role of a leader than others who lack those natural-
born traits. As such, the theory pinpoints certain qualities such as intelligence, accountability,
sense of responsibility, and creativity, among others, that lets an individual excel at leadership.

One major flaw in the trait approach to leadership is that it doesn't offer a conclusive list of
leadership traits. However, the credibility of the theory lies in the fact that the significance of
personality traits in leadership is well supported by research. Trait Theory of Leadership will
help you to improve your leadership theories.

Managerial Skills for grate leaders

Whetten and Cameron provided an empirical derivation of effective leadership skills. They are
based on an interview study of 400 highly effective managers. 10 skills identified are:

1. Verbal communication (including listening)

2. Managing time and stress
3. Managing individual decisions
4. Recognizing, defining, and solving problems
5. Motivating and influencing others
6. Delegating
7. Setting goals and articulating a vision
8. Self awareness
9. Team building
10. Managing conflict

Whetton and Cameron highlighted three things in relation to these skills. The skills are behaviors
and not traits. The skills sets have conflicting demands and all are not either soft or hard.
Effective leaders are multiskilled people and limitations in skills do limit effectiveness.

This list can be compared with another list of five skills and we can see commonality among
them:
1. Cultural flexibility

2. Communication skills

3. Creativity

4. HRD skills

5. Self-management of learning
Great leaders have these qualities.

They have learned to:

1. Always be a Servant

2. Have Uncommon Strength

3. Draw on the Wisdom from Above

4. Possess Godly Charisma

5. Walk in Dignity and Honor