|| Jai Sri Gurudev ||

Sri Adichunchanagiri Shikshana Trust®

S J B INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi&
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Accredited with NAAC ‘A’
grade)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Course Material

Semester & Section : 6th Semester

Subject Name : Renewable Energy Power Plants
Subject Code : 21ME652
Faculty Name : Mr. Shankara D R
Designation : Assistant
Professor

Academic year: Even Semester-2023-2024

Renewable Energy Power Plants 21ME652

Module-4
Hydro-electric power plant
4.1 INTRODUCTION

The hydroelectric or the hydel power plants, generate power using the potential energy of water
available on earth's surface. The rain water collected at different altitudes on the earth's surface
has potential energy with respect to the level of the oceans towards which the water flows. This
energy of the rain water is utilised to drive hydraulic turbines, and in turn to run electric
generators and produce electrical energy. The hydel power developed depends on the head of
water and the quantity of natural rainfall. Generally, reservoirs are constructed to collect the
natural rain and used to generate power throughout the year. Thus the reservoir area, which is a
measure of the water collected and the height of the dam, which is the measure of the head of the
water are two important factors. However, the quantity of water available depends upon the
hydrological cycle and the total rain-fall received by the area in which the power plant is located.

Hydrographs
It is a graph representing the discharge of flowing water with respect to time for a specific
period. The time axis may have units of hour, day, week or month. The discharge units may be
m3/sec, km2-cm/hr or day-second-metre. Discharge hydrographs are also known as flood or run-
off hydrographs) Fig. 4-5 shows typical hydrographs or discharge curves based on daily,
monthly and yearly flows.

Uses of a Hydrographs
A hydrograph is useful to determine a number of parameters, such as:

1) Rate of flow at any instant during the specific recorded period.

2) Total volume of flow in a given period, as the area under the hydrograph represents the
volume of water in a given duration.

3) The mean annual run-off for any of the recorded period.

4) The maximum and minimum run-off for any selected period

5) The maximum rate of run-off during the floods and duration of frequency of floods (peak of
the curve indicates the flood)

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Fig. 4-5. Hydrographs or discharge curves

Unit Hydrograph

A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph with a volume of 1 cm of run-off resulting from a rainfall of

specified duration and a real pattern, which is constructed using the hydrograph data. The theory
of unit hydrograph was introduced by Sherman. He indicated that the time base is common to all
hydrographs resulting from rainfalls of a given duration. When the rainfall distribution is similar
with respect to time and area, then the ordinate of each hydrograph will be proportional to the
volume of run-off.

Limitations to the use of unit hydrograph are:

1) The rainfall distribution varies from one area to another. Hence, the use of unit hydrograph is
limited area of basin of about 5000 sq. km.

2) For long and narrow basins, and odd shaped basins the rainfall distribution is not even, hence
unit hydrograph is not suitable.

4.1.5 Flow Duration Curve

This is another useful graphical representation of the run-off for a given period. The run-off data
on the ordinate against the corresponding percentage of time on the abscissa represents a Flow
Duration Curve. The area under the curve represents the average yield from the stream.

Fig. 4-6 shows a typical flow duration curve. the flow may be expressed as m3/sec/ week or any
other convenient unit of time When the available head of water is known, then the total energy of
flow can be computed. Thus by flow duration curve it is possible to estimate the total power
available at the site. A flow duration curve can be used to determine the minimum and maximum
conditions of flow of water. If the magnitude on the ordinate is the estimated power contained in

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the stream flow against the corresponding percentage of time on the abscissa, then the curve is
known as Power Duration Curve.

4.1.7 Selection of Site for Hydel Plants

There are many factors that are to be considered while selecting site for a hydel power plant.
The important factors are as follows:

1) Availability of Water. The site selected should be such that requisite quantity of water is be
available throughout the year for economical generation of power. To estimate the availability of
water, geographical, meteorological and geological investigations of the site are to be carried-
out. Previous records of rainfall of the particular area are to be studied. If needed, aerial and
ground survey can be conducted. Stream flow rate, minimum and maximum quantity of water
available in a year is to be estimated.

2) Storage of Water. The site selected should have good storage capacity, sufficient enough to
use for a full year. This depends upon the reservoir capacity and the catchment area. It is always
intended to store water enough to use even during dry periods, to the extent possible.

3) Head of Water. Head of water is the highest level of water at the upstream from where water
flows down for power generation. Higher the head available, lesser the quantity of water required
for a known power output and hence, lesser is the storage requirement. Power generated depends
mainly on the head of water available, which is seen from the relation,

Where, m = discharge or rate of water flow, kg/sec.

H = head of water, m

g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2

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η= efficiency of the prime mover and generator (about 0.8 to 0.9)

Hence, the site selected should give the highest head of

water.

4) Ground Water Data. It is an important factor to be considered, since it decides the stability
of the ground at the reservoir and dam construction area. It is essential to select a site which has
lesser ground water movement, as it provides a solid reservoir base and also seepage will be
minimum. A strong reservoir base also helps in reducing the foundation costs for the darn
construction.

5) Distance from the Load Centre.

It is always essential that the site selected should be as nearer as possible to the load centre.
Increased distances lead to increased power transmission costs and higher transmission losses.
Other factors to be considered in the selection of a good site are the easy accessibility to the site
by road and/or rail, cheap cost of the land and the availability of non-polluted, clean water for
power generation.

4.1.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydel

Plants Advantages

1) Operating cost of the plant including auxiliaries is low.

2) The maintenance of the plant is comparatively less.

3) Less labour is required to operate the plant.

4) No nuisance of smoke, exhaust gases, soot and other pollution.

5) The sites of hydel plants are usually away from the developed areas and hence the land is very
cheap.

6) Load fluctuations can be met rapidly without loss of efficiency.

7) There are no stand-by losses.

8) Since no fuel used, there are no problems of handling, charging and

disposal. Disadvantages

1) Initial cost of the plant including the cost of dam is very high.

2) The feasibility of a hydel plant depends mainly on the availability of water and hence the
natural phenomenon of rain and thus the problems of stopping the plant may arise during dry
seasons.

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3) Usually the sites will be away from the load centres, which causes loss of power and high
costs in transmission lines.

4) It takes considerably long time for erection compared to the erection of thermal plants.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDEL PLANTS

Hydel power plants can be classified as follows:-

1. Quantity of water available

a) Run-off river plants without pondage

b) Run-off river plants with pondage

c) Pumped storage plant

2. Head of water

a) Low head plant b) Medium head plant c) High head plant.

3. Nature of load

a) Base load plant b) Peak load plant

4. Capacity of plant

a) Low capacity plant (100-999 kW)

b) Medium capacity plant (1 MW-10 MW)

c) High capacity plant (above 10 MW)

4.2.1 Run-off River Plants without Pondage

In such plants water is not stored, but only the running water is used for power
generation. In such power plants the power generated directly depends upon the rate of flow
available. Hence, during rainy seasons some excess quantity of water may run waste without
doing any power generation. During dry periods the power production will be very poor, since
the water flow rate will be low.

4.2.2 Run-off River Plants with Pondage

In such plants, the excess water available during rainy seasons is stored in the reservoirs. The
plant works with the normal run-off during the rainy season, while the stored water from the
reservoir is utilised to supplement the low flow rate during dry periods. Power production will
not be affected by the dry seasons. Hence, plants with pondage can generate a constant rate of

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power through out the year. If Pumped Storage Plants Such plants are most suitable for
supplying sudden peak load requirements. However, such demands can be met only for a short
duration. In the normal operation they can meet the average demand only.

Fig. 4-8. Pumped storage plant

Fig. 4-8 shows the schematic of a pumped storage plant. Such type of plant consists of two
storage reservoirs. The upstream reservoir is the main (head race) storage reservoir to which
water flows from the catchment area. The second reservoir is the down stream (tail race)
reservoir, in which the used water from the upstream is collected.

The water in the down stream reservoir is pumped back to the main upstream reservoir,
during off peak periods. This facilitates making use of the excess water during peak hours. A
pumped storage plant is a peak load plant and operates in combination with other base load
plants such as a thermal power plant. The off peak load capacity of the thermal plant is used for
pumping water from the down stream reservoir to the main upstream reservoir. The schematic
arrangement of pumped storage plant operating along with a thermal plant to meet the peak load
demands, is shown in Fig. 4-9.

Advantages of Pumped Storage Plants

1) Compared to peak load plants, the initial cost of this plant is low.

2) The power plant operation is flexible, since it can operate both as peak load and base load
plant.

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3) Such plant can meet sudden peak hour demands, and is highly reliable in operation.

4) Since they operate at higher load factors, the overall efficiency of the plant is high.

Fig. 4-9. Pumped storage plant for peak load

4.2.4 Storage and Pondage

Storage plants are the plants with facilities for storing water at their sites. However, often such
plants cannot store as much water as required for the full year operation. For continuous
operation, it is always preferred to have one or more reservoirs upstream. Depending upon the
place of storage and the function, the reservoirs are grouped as storage and pondage.

Storage: Storage can be defined as the collection of a large quantity of run-off during
mansoon seasons, which is essentially used in the dry seasons for the plant operation. This is the
main or the upstream reservoir, made by the construction of a dam across the stream (Fig. 4-10).

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Fig.4-10. Storage reservoir based hydel plant

Pondage: It is defined as a regulating means of water, and is a small reservoir that is used for the
collection of the excess flow water from the dam spill ways of the main reservoir or from the
river stream. It is basically a small pond or reservoir just behind the power house (Fig. 4-11).

Fig. 4-11. Pondage reservoir based hydel plant

The amount of regulation obtained with pondage usually involves storing water during
low loads (during low power demand periods such as early morning hours and Sundays) to aid
carrying peak loads during the week. The water that would go over the dam spill-way unused
during low-loads can be released and added to normal river flow to supply peak loads, usually
for a few hours of duration. For fluctuating loads, pondage increases the maximum capacity that
a plant can carry.

Plants with reservoirs upstream can store excess water of spring floods for release during
summer to supplement the low rates of flow during this dry season. Reservoir water elevation
will generally be lowest during the year at the end of the summer.

Pondage increases the capacity of a river for a brief period only, like for a week. But, _
storage increases the capacity of a river over an extended period such, like 6 months to 2 years.

4.2.5 Low Head Hydel Plant hydel plant

Hydel Plant with a water head of less than50 meter is termed &low head plant (the such plants, a
small dam is constructed across a river to obtain the necessary water head:, The excess water is
allowed to over the dam, while the water head is made use to run a hydraulic turbine. The water
from the dam is taken through a canal to the turbine. For low head plants Francis or Kaplan
turbines are used. There is no water hammer problem in such plants, hence no, surge tank is
provided in the water line. The schematic arrangement of a typical low head hydel plant is shown
in Fig. 4-12.

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Fig. 4-12. Low head hydel plant

4.2.6 Medium Head Hydel Plant

A hvdel with a water head of in the range of 50 to 100 meters is termed a medium head plant. In
this, the water is stored in a main reservoir. This water is allowed to a small pond or forebay
through a canal. The water from the forebay is taken to the turbine through penstock. In such
plants the forebay itself acts as the surge tank, and hence receives the excess water during the
low demand periods. Francis turbine is most suitable for medium head hydel plant. The
schematic arrangement of a typical medium head by n Fig. 4-13.

Fig. 4-13. Medium head hydel plant

4.2.7 High Head Hydel

Plant hydel plant with a water head of more than 100 meters is termed a high head plant. In this
case, the water from the main reservoir is carried through tunnels up to the surge tank, ord.
Where it is taken through the penstock. Since the water head is very high, the effect of water

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hammer is too severe in such plants. Thus, it is essential to provide a surge tank in the water line
at appropriate location. The surge tank takes care of the increasing and decreasing water levels
during the low-demand and high demand periods, respectively. The Francis and Pelton wheel
turbines are most suitable for high head plants. A typical high head hydel power plant is shown
in Fig. 4-14.

Fig. 4-14. High Head Hydel

4.3 GENERAL LAYOUT OF A HYDEL PLANT

Fig. 4-15 shows the general layout of a storage type hydel power plant with necessary
components and protective devices. The main components of a storage type hydel power plant
arc as follows:

1. Catchment area

2. Storage Reservoir

3. Dam

4. Penstock

5. Forebay

6. Power house

7. Draft tube

8. Trash rack

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9. Spill way

10. Surge tank

The last three units are the protective devices, which help in the safe functioning of the
hydel plant.

Fig. 4-15. General layout of a hydel power plant

The different components and their functions are briefly discussed below.

1. Catchment Area: The complete area around the reservoir, around the river and the river
basins near the reservoir is termed the catchment area. A larger catchment area results in better
run-off into the reservoir. The reservoir capacity and the dam size are dependent on the size of
the catchment area and the intensity of the rainfall.

2. Reservoir: The main purpose of reservoir is to store water during rainy season and supply the
same during dry season. The reservoir is located at a region of heavy rain fall, with sufficient
catchment area. 3. Dam: The function of a dam is to increase the height of water level behind it,
hence to increase the reservoir capacity. The -darn also helps to increase the working head of the
power plant.

4. Trash Racks: The water intakes from the dam or from the forebay are provided With trash
racks to prevent the entry of debris. The debris if allowed may damage the wicket gates and
turbine runners, or choke-up the nozzles of the impulse turbine, thus hampering the plant
operation. If the winter is severe, arrangements to heat the trash racks by electrical means are

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made to prevent the clinging of ice around it. Sometimes bubbling arrangement is made near the
trash racks, which brings them in contact with warm water and minimises the icing problem.

5. Forebay: It serves as a regulating reservoir and temporary storage pond. It receives the excess
water when the load on the plant is reduced and provides water for initial increment of an
increasing load, while the water in the canal is being accelerated. Thus, forebay is a naturally
provided storage which is able to absorb the flow variations. This can also be considered as the
naturally provided surge tank as it performs the work of a surge tank.

6. Surge Tank: It is a protective device connected to the penstock. Its function is to protect
penstock against water hammer effects during low demand periods and avoid vacuum effect
during high demand periods. It achieves this by stabilizing the velocity and pressure in the
penstock.

7. Penstock: A pipe between the surge tank and prime mover is known as penstock. The
structural design of a penstock is same as other pipes, except for that it is made stronger inside,
to withstand high pressures caused by water hammer during load fluctuations. Penstocks are
usually made of steel through reinforced concrete. Penstocks are equipped with head gates at the
inlet which can be closed during repair of the penstocks. In very cold weather conditions, it is
better to bury the penstock to prevent the ice formation in the pipe and to reduce to number of
expansion joints required.

8. Spillway: It is considered as a safety valve of a clam. It must have the capacity to discharge
major floods without damage to the dam and at same time keeps the reservoir level below some
predetermined maximum level.

9. Power House / Prime Mover: Power house is the place where prime mover is run and
electric power is generated. The main purpose of the prime mover is to convert the kinetic energy
of water into the mechanical energy to produce electric current. These are Pelton, Kaplan and
Francis turbines.

10. Draft Tube: This essential part of reaction turbine installation. It supplements the action of
the runner by utilizing most of the remaining kinetic energy of the water at the discharged end of
the runner.

4.4.2 Spillways

It is a safety device constructed with the dam. It functions when the dam faces flood
problems. If allows the passage of excess water from the reservoir, whenever the level raises
above the predetermined safer level, thus avoiding the damage to the darn. The different types of
spill ways are:

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1) Ogee Spillway: Fig. 4-17a shows a ogee spillway. It is the crust of the dam, designed
in such a way that, whenever the reservoir level reaches the safe limit the water starts flowing
out. This is the simplest spillway and widely used for concrete dams.

2) Chute Spillway: A chute spillway is shown in Fig. 4-17b. In this type of spillway, the
excess water during floods flows-out of the dam and gets discharged through concrete channels
constructed along the sloping dam as shown in figure. This type of spillway is suitable for
earthen dams.

3) Shaft Spillway: Fig. 4-17c shows a shaft spillway. In this, water flows through a
horizontal tunnel to the penstock from the reservoir. In the dam a vertical shaft is constructed
connecting the horizontal tunnel. Whenever the water level exceeds the safe limit, excess water
starts flowing through the vertical shaft as shown in figure.

4) Siphon Spillway: Fig. 4-17d shows a siphon spillway. When the water level reaches
A-A the siphon starts working and siphons out water up to B-B. This type is suitable for small
capacity reservoirs.

Fig. 4-17. Spillways

4.4.3 Penstocks

Penstocks are the pipelines that connects between the water source (such as the reservoir,
forebay, water way) and the hydraulic turbine. These are usually large circular pipes with

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diameters ranging form 1 meter to 8 meters. Penstocks are usually made of steel or concrete
pipes.

Care should be taken to keep the entry to the penstock at the dam or the forebay at a low
level, submerged always under the water. If the entry is open to air, it may take air along and
create aeration prob1lAms in the prime mover, thus affecting the performance.

The penstocks should be laid in such a way that there are no sharp bends. Sharp bends
cause frictional losses and reduce the effective water head. Generally penstocks are exposed
type, since they are economical and easy to repair and maintain. However, covered penstocks can
be used when the regions are prone to sliding rocks, snow, earth and such dangers, so as to avoid
damage to the pipe line.

4.4.4 Water Hammer - Surge Tanks

Whenever there is a sudden fall in the demand, the governor closes the penstock valve to a
minimum. This sudden closure of the valve increases the pressure inside the penstock due to the
kinetic energy of the water which is high enough to damage the penstock pipe. This effect is
termed Water Hammer. Also, whenever there is a sudden rise in the load demand the gates are
opened instantly by the governor, thereby creating vacuum in the penstock pipe. This causes to
bubbling and foaming action. This leads to operational problems in the turbine. These problems
can be overcome by providing a surge tank in the penstock line. Basically, a surge tank is a
cylindrical Open top storage unit, which connected to the penstock line and located very close to
the turbine.

Function of Surge Tank

During the normal demand/flow periods, the turbine gates are open to normal position,
since there are no fluctuations in the water level in the surge tank. The normal water level in the
surge tank is always lower than that of the basic reservoir level. This is due to the head loss due
to the frictional losses in the flow line. It is shown as level A in Fig. 4-18. During low demand
periods, the turbine gates are closed partly and water flow is reduced to keep the turbine speed
constant. Due to sudden closure of the flow path, the flowing water in the penstock comes to a
halt thereby building pressure in the line. If there is no surge tank this creates a water hammer in
the penstock and may cause damage to the pipe line. With the surge tank present in the line, this
sudden stoppage of water flow results in an increase in the level in the surge tank (level B, as
shown in figure). This causes a retarding head and reduces the velocity of water in the penstock
thereby avoiding water hammer effect.

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Fig. 4-18. Function of a surge tank

Similarly, when the demand is normal, the gate is opened to the normal position, so that
the flow velocity on the penstock reaches the normal value. For this, the required water is
supplied by the surge tank, and the water level in the surge tank suddenly reduces and fluctuates
up and down till its motio7n is damped down by friction.

When there is a sudden rise in the load, additional water required is supplied by the surge
tank thus avoiding the possibility of vacuum formation in the penstock. During this the water
level suddenly drops down below the normal as the water excess water is supplied by the surge
tank. This is indicated as level C in Fig. 4-18.

Types of Surge Tanks

Different types of surge tanks are used in the power plants depending upon the design and
topographical requirements. Some important types of surge tanks are as follows:

a) Cylindrical Surge tank

This is the simplest design. It is simply a plain cylindrical tank connected to the penstock line
through a short connecting conduit (Fig. 4-19a). The tank size is kept to a level so as to maintain
a stable flow to the turbine, and minimum fluctuations in the water level. However, this design is
not a common design due to its slow response to demands and also it is expensive. This is not a
commonly used design in hydel plants.

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Fig. 4-19. Types of surge tanks

b) Conical Surge tank

It is a conical shaped vessel connected to the penstock (Fig. 419b). it is a better design
than the cylindrical surge tank. Since it has an increasing area of cross section, it can handle the
water fluctuations more effectively. Also, it has a considerably faster response to load
fluctuations.

c) Spillway type Surge tank

This is a closed cylindrical vessel with a bell mouth spill way connected to it (Fig. 4 19c).
The tank is designed to meet the water demand from the stock available in it, while the excess
water during low demand periods over flows out of the surge tank through the spill way,

d) Differential Surge tank

This is cylindrical tank with a central riser with small ports at the lower end (Fig. 4-19d). Water
movement in the tank is through the ports. It responds effectively to the variations in load
demands, and also the oscillations in the wafer level are minimal.

e) Gallery type Surge tank

This is special surge tank design. It has two separate water galleries (Fig. 4-19e). The upper
gallery stores the water when the load on the turbine drops, while the lower gallery supplies
water when there is a sudden increase on the turbine load.

t) Inclined Cylindrical Surge tank

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This is a cylindrical tank inclined at some angle q (Fig. 4-19f). With this inclination the effective
area of water surface increase by an amount cosec q. Hence, the actual height of the surge tank
can be reduced. Due to increased water area, this surge tank can respond faster to load variations
than the simple cylindrical design. However, its construction is difficult, expensive and preferred
only when the topographical situations demand for such requirements.

4.4.5 Draft Tubes

Draft tube is an integral part of the reaction turbine, which connects the runner exit to the tail
race. It can be a metallic or concrete pipe having gradually increasing cross section towards the
outlet to ensure that as little energy as possible is left in water as it discharges into the tail race.
The area of the draft tube at the top is circular and same as that of the turbine outlet, so that
shock and aeration problems are minimum. Draft tube provides a negative suction head at the
runner outlet by which it is possible to install the turbine above the tail race level without any
loss of head. Since the velocity of the water leaving the runner is quite high, the kinetic energy
will be lost if water is allowed to discharge freely. The draft tube reduces outlet velocity and
increases the useful pressure head thereby increasing the turbine output. The different types of
draft tubes used in hydel plants are illustrated schematically in Fig. 4-20.

1) Straight divergent tube (Fig. 4-20a), is used in low specific speed vertical shaft Francis
turbines. It has a circular inlet and rectangular outlet. The cone angle should be less than 8° for
optimum turbine performance. It gives a better speed regulation when the turbine load drops
down.

2) Moody spreading tube (Fig. 4-20b) has two split section at the outlet. This section
reduces the whirl action of water flowing at high velocity.

3) Simple elbow tube (Fig. 4-20c) has circular cross section throughout.

4) Elbow type draft tube has a circular inlet and a rectangular outlet (Fig. 4-20d) .

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Fig. 4-20. Types of draft tubes

Example: At a particular site, the mean monthly discharge is as follows:

Month Discharge,m3/s Month Discharge,m3/s

January 100 July 1000
February 225 August 1200
March 300 September 900
April 600 October 600
May 750 November 400
June 800 December 200

From the given monthly flow data, the hydrograph is drawn as shown in Fig. a. Total flow is 7075
m3/s, and the average flow is 589.6 m 3/s. To draw the flow duration curve, we have to compute the
maximum periods for which each of the discharges are available, and the % of time for each flow.
This is done as shown in the table below. In the table, column (a) lists the given discharge rates,
column (b) gives the maximum length of time of the discharge availability, and column (c) computes
the % of time of availability.

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Discharge, m3/s(a) (c) % of time =b/12 x

Length of time, months(b) 100

100 12 100

200 11 91.7

225 10 83.33

300 9 75

400 8 66.7

600 7 58.3

750 5 41.7

800 4 33.3

900 3 25

1000 2 16.7

1200 1 8.3

Using this computed data of % of time against the discharge, the flow duration curve is Plotted
(the thick dotted curve) as shown in Fig. b.

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From the flow duration plot and the intersection of the average flow, it can be seen that
the average flow is available for about 60% of the total period of 12 months.

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Example : At a particular site, the mean monthly discharges (in millions of m 3) of a river in
12 months from January to December are 30, 25, 20, 0, 10, 50, 80, 100, 110, 65, 45 and 30,
respectively. Draw the hydrograh and flow duration curve.

Also, estimate the power developed in MW if the available head is 90 m and the overall
efficiency of generation is 85%. Assume each month of 30 days.

Solution:
Hydrograph & Flow duration curve
From the given monthly flow data compute the maximum periods for which each of the
discharges are available, and the % of time for each flow, as described in Example above, and
plot the hydrograph and flow duration curves as explained earlier (curves not drawn here,
students to draw the curves with reference to Fig. above).

Power Developed in MW

From the given flow data, the average flow per month is,

= (30+25+20+0+10+50+80+100+110+65+45+30)/12

= 47.08 millions of m3/month

= 47.08 x 106 m3/month

Power developed in MW is given by the relation,

P=mgHη
where, m = flow rate in kg/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
H = Head of water in meters

P = 13.6x106 watts

or P = 13.6 MW

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Example : Mean monthly discharge for 12 months at a particular site of a river is

tabulated below.

Month Discharge in million Month Discharge in million

of m3 per month of m3 per month
April 500 October 2000
May 200 November 1500
June 1500 December 1500
July 2500 January 1000
August 3000 February 800
September 2400 March 600
(i) Draw the hydrograph and flow duration curve for the given discharges and find the average
monthly flow. (ii) Calculate the power available at mean flow of water, if the available head is
80 m and overall efficiency is 80%. Take 30 days in a month. (VTU: Jan 2010)

Solution:
The total flow is 17500 millions of m3 per year and the average flow is, 17500/12=1458.3
millions of m3/month. From the given monthly flow data, the hydrograph is drawn as shown in
Fig. a.

Discharge in Length of time, (c) % of time = b/12 ×

millions months 100
3
of m per month (a) (b)

200 12 100

500 11 91.7

600 10 83.33

800 9 75

1000 8 66.7

1500 7 58.3

2000 4 33.3

2400 3 25

2500 2 16.7

3000 1 8.3

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To draw the flow duration curve, compute the maximum periods for which each of the
discharges are available, and the % of time for each flow (see table above). In the table, column
(a) lists the given discharge rates, column (b) gives the maximum length of time of the discharge
availability, and column (c) computes the % of time of availability. Using this computed data of
% of time against the discharge, the flow duration curve is plotted (the thick dotted curve) as
shown in Fig. b.

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Example: the mean weekly discharge for 12 weeks of a river is given below

Week 1st 2st 3st 1st 2st 3st 7st 8st 9st 10st 11st 12st
Discharge, 100 200 300 1200 600 900 800 600 1000 600 400 200
m3/s

i) Draw the hydrograph and flow duration curve. ii) If the head available is 100 m and overall
efficiency of generation is 85%, find the power available at mean flow of water. (VTU: Jan
2009)

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Solution: From the given monthly flow data, the hydrograph is drawn as shown in Fig. a. The
total flow is 6900 m3/s, and the average flow is 575 m3/s. To draw the flow duration curve, we
have to compute the maximum periods for which each of the discharges are available, and the %
of time for each flow. This is done as shown in the table below. In the table, column (a) lists the
given discharge rates, column (b) gives the maximum length of time of the discharge
availability, and column (c) computes the % of time of availability.

Discharge, m3/s(a) (c) % of time =b/12 x

Length of time, months(b) 100

100 12 100

200 11 91.7

300 9 75

400 8 66.7

600 7 58.3

800 4 33.3

900 3 25

1000 2 16.7

1200 1 8.3

Using this computed data of % of time against the discharge, the flow duration curve is 'plotted
(the thick dotted curve) as shown in Fig. b.

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TIDAL POWER
4.2 TIDAL POWER
Tide is a periodic rise and fall of the water level of the sea. Tides occur due to the attraction of sea
water by the moon and the sun. These tides can be used to produce electrical power, and it is
termed as Tidal Power. When the water is above the mean sea level it is termed flood tide or high
tide, and when the level is below the mean sea level it is termed ebb tide or low tide.
4.2.1 Principle of Generation of Tides
As mentioned, tides are produced by the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun on sea water.
The gravitational force of the moon is a major cause of the tides (about three-fourth of the tides)
while that of the sun is minor (about one-fourth). Hence, moon contributes to a major portion of
the tidal energy. In the tide formation, the sea water at the surface is pulled out from the earth (due
to attraction from the moon), while the solid earth below the waters is pulled away from the water
on the bottom side (due to attraction from the sun). This leads to the formation of high tides in the
two opposite directions, and at the same time forming low tides at the intermediate points,
perpendicular to the direction of gravitational pull. Due to the earth's rotation, the relative.
positions of earth and moon change, and hence the position of the tides also change periodically.
This causes the formation of two tidal cycles (2 high tides and 2 low tides) during a lunar day.
Each lunar day is equal to 24 hrs and 50 minutes, which is the apparent time of revolution of the
moon about the earth. Thus, the time between a high tide and a low tide is about 6 hrs. 12 minutes.
A high tide will be experienced at that time when earth is directly under the moon. At the same
time, a diametrically opposite point on the earth's surface will also undergo a high tide due to
dynamic balancing. The rise and fall of the water level follows a sinusoidal Curve, as shown in
Fig. 4-1.

Fig. 4-1. High and low tide curve

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In the figure, point A indicates the high tide and point B indicates the low tide. The average time
for each tide to rise to its peak and fall back to the mean sea level (from point 1 to A and back to
point 2) is about 6 hrs. 12.5 minutes. Similarly, for the tide to reach its lowest point is
approximately takes the same time. From rise and fall of the tide from point 1 to A to 2 to B and to
3, completes one cycle of the tide, which takes about half a lunar day.

Fig. 4-2. Tides due to sun and moon positions

The rise and fall of the tide from its peak to its lowest point is termed the tidal range (TR in
figure). During full moon and new moon days the sun, moon and the earth fall approximately in a
straight line. This increases the gravitational forces of sun and moon on the earth, and thus
increasing the tidal range. In these periods, the tidal range is very large with high tides and low
tides on their extremes. These high tides are termed spring tides (Fig. 4-2a). During the first and
third quarters of the moon, when the sun and moon are at right angles with respect to the earth the
low tide occurs and this is termed neap tide (Fig.-4-2b). Hence, the tidal range varies from the new
moon day to full moon day. The typical mean range is about one-third of the spring range.

4.2.2 Power from Tidal Waves

The basic principle of harnessing tidal energy involves the construction of a dam in such a way
that.a basin is separated from the sea and a difference in the water level is obtained between the
basin and sea. The constructed basin is filled during high tide and emptied during low tide passing
through slices and turbine respectively. The potential energy of the water stored in the basin is
used to drive the turbine which in turn generates electricity as it is coupled directly to an
alternator. The main components of a tidal plant are:

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a) The power house

b) The barrage (dam) to form the basin
c) Sluice-ways
d) Turbine-generator
The construction and working of a tidal power plant is shown in Fig. 7-3. The barrage (or small
dam) is the basic component of a tidal plant. It is essential to form a barrier between the sea and
the basin, so that water can be collected in the basin from the sea during high tides.
Operation of tidal power plant The sluice-ways are required either to fill the basin during the high
tide or empty the basin during the low tide. These are in the form of gates and used as and when
operational requirements arise. Power house is situated adjacent to the sluice-ways. It has the
turbine-generator kept inside.
4.2.3 Classification of Tidal Plants
The different techniques for tidal energy harnessing available are:
1) Single basin - one way system
2) Single basin - two way system
3) Single basin - two way system with pumped storage
4) Double basin system
5) Double basin with pumped storage
1) Single Basin-One Way Cycle
In this a basin is allowed to fill in flood tide. There is a dam with sluice gates and power house at
the neck of the basin as shown in Fig. 7-4. During ebb-tide the basin starts emptying through
tubes, which are connected to turbines, thus running them. These turbines in turn run a generator
to produce power.

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Fig. 4-4. Single basin plant

2) Single Basin-Two Way Cycle
This is similar to one way cycle type. But power is developed during both flood-tide and ebb-tide.
During flood tide the sea water level increases and flows to the basin, while turbine is run and
power are generated. The collected water flows back from the basin to the sea during ebb-tide, and
again turbine is run and power is developed.
The main difficulty in this system is that, the same prime mover (turbine) should be
arranged and designed to run in both direction of flood and ebb-tides. In pumped type, pumps are
used to pump the water driven by the same generator.
3) Double Basin type
In this type of system, a turbine-generator is set up between two basins as shown in Fig. 7-5. One
basin is intermittently filled by the flood tide and other is intermittently drained by the ebb-tide.
Therefore a small capacity but continuous power is made available with this system.

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Fig. 4-5. Double basin plant

4) Double basin-with pumped storage
In this the water from the low basin is pumped back to the high basin during peak-off periods,
using the energy produced by the generator.
7.1.4 Site Selection for Tidal Plants
The selection of a suitable site for the construction of a tidal power plant depends on various
factors. Some major factors include:
1. Barrage: Barrage is a dam of small height (20 m) constructed to withstand water heads, between
the sea and the basin. The site selected shall be convenient and naturally suitable for the barrage
construction, preferably with a narrow junction.
2. Sea condition: The site selected should have a flat sea bottom with strong soil characteristics, so
that barrage can be constructed easily. If the sea bottom is sandy it requires piling, which makes
the construction costly
. 3. Basin location: The basin is the small reservoir which is separated by the barrage from the sea.
The basin should be naturally formed, and should have sufficient capacity to hold the water due to
high tide. Also, it should be at a convenient altitude with respect to the sea bottom.
4. plant capacity: The tidal plant capacity is proportional to product of tidal range and the volume
of water flowing from the sea to the basin, and later from the basin back to the sea. The site
selected should be optimum to meet this power capacity requirement, so that power can be
generated economically.
4.2.5 Advantages ft Disadvantages of Tidal Plants Advantages
1. Tidal power is available freely, and in abundance.
2. It is free from pollution and noise.
3. It is superior to hydro-power plants, as it is totally independent of rain, which always fluctuates
year to year. Therefore, there is certainty of power supply as the tide cycle is very definite.
4. It has a unique capacity to meet the peak power demand effectively when it works in
combination with thermal or hydroelectric system.
5. It can provide better recreational facilities to visitors and holiday makers, in addition to the
possibility of fish farming in the tidal basins.
6. It is highly economical as the initial investment and maintenance costs are minimal.
Disadvantages
1. These power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available.

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2. The sites are available on the bay, which will be always far away from the load centers, hence
the power generated must be transported to long distances. This makes the cost of production
expensive.
3. The supply of power is not continuous, as it depends upon the timing of tides.
4. The capital cost of the plant (Rs. 5000 per kW) is considerably large as compared to the
conventional power plants, such as the hydroelectric plant.
5. Sedimentation and siltation of the basins are some of the problems with the tidal power plants

4.3 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)

4.3.1 Principle of OTEC
Ocean Thermal Energy (OTE) has its main source in the oceans, which in turn is originated from
the sun. Absorption of solar energy at the surface of the ocean creates a relatively warm layer of
water (27 to 29°C) that remains above the colder (4 to 7°C), more dense water layer in the lower
depths of the ocean. Rotation of the earth causes the cold water coming from the direction of the
poles to flow slowly along the ocean base towards the tropics. In the tropical region, the cold water
density decreases. The water warmed in this manner, flows at the surface in another current toward
the Polar Regions. The cycle is repeated as the water cools and starts a return trip towards the
tropics. These broad currents of water carry great amounts of thermal energy. The temperature
difference between the two streams is of the order of 20 to 250C which is an attractive source for
the generation of electric power. This thermal energy is used for running a turbine (using open or
closed cycle) and generates electric energy.
These broad currents of water carry great amounts of thermal energy and represent potential
sources of electric power. The feasibility of converting ocean thermal energy into electrical energy
is dependent upon the existence of two broad currents of water, one warm and the other cold,
flowing in close proximity to each other. There are numerous such locations near tropical waters,
such as Caribbean sea and the Gulf stream.
The OTE power plants are generally large and expensive installation. Also they have to handle
very large volumes of warm water (the heat source) and cold water (heat sink). But there is no
investment on the fuel like in fossil fuel plants and also there is problem of environmental
pollution. However, the design of an ocean thermal energy plant requires an efficient design of the
system, construction of an economical plant and the transportation to the market from the sea.

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4.3.2 OTE Power Plant Development In 1882, D'Arsonval suggested that it is possible generate
power based on the ocean thermal energy, by utilising the energy in the warm surface water of the
ocean and rejecting heat to the colder water of the lower layer.
The first attempt to utilize the OTE was made in 1926 by G. Claude, a French scientist. He
constructed a 40 kW land-based OTEC power plant near Cuba. In his plant, a part of the warm
surface water was converted into steam in a low-pressure flash evaporator operating at a high
vacuum. In the flash evaporating process, sensible (heat) energy in the water gets converted into
latent energy. The steam produced in the evaporator was expanded in a turbine and subsequently
condensed by direct contact with the cold sea water piped from the lower layer in the ocean.
However, Claude's system to utilize the OTE for power generation was not successful, mainly due
to reasons like corrosive nature of the sea water (corrosion resistance materials were expensive),
the pressure was low as water was evaporated at low temperature, high pumping work required for
operations, requirement of very large turbine, and conveying the cold sea-water to the power plant
over a long distance.
Thus, Claude's experiment demonstrated that the OTE power plant will inherently require large
components, have a relatively low power output, and operate at a high vacuum when the working
fluid is water.
4.3.3 Problems Encountered in Harnessing OTE
1) The sea water is more corrosive, thus the life of the plant is less.
2) The water can be evaporated (in a flash evaporator) at low temperatures only, thus the
corresponding pressure is low, thus only smaller outputs are possible.
3) Much pumping work is required to remove the non- condensable gases.
4) The specific volume is more due to low pressure and temperature. This necessitates a large
turbine.
5) The plants have to be based at lands, some distance away from the OTE source. This requires
long pipelines to convey cold sea water to the power plant.
6) Due to low output and large components the cost of the OTE power plant is high.
7) The plant requires expensive and large size structures for installation and operation. 7.2.4
Advantages Et Disadvantages of OTE plants Advantages
1) OTE is available free of cost, and in large quantities.
2) OTE is non-polluting and non-depleting in nature.
Disadvantages
1) Arrangement of the plants very difficult.

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2) The power developed is not continuous.

3) Transmission costs are high.
4) Cost per unit of power generated is high.
5) Sea water corrosion problem is severe.
4.3.5 Open Cycle OTEC System
The open cycle OTEC systems, also known by the name Claude system, are a practically feasible
system to convert ocean thermal energy into useful electrical energy. It makes use of the sea water
as the working medium. It is termed open cycle, since the condensate of the working medium is
not recycled. The principle of operation of an open OTEC system is shown in Fig. 7-6.
In this the warm water at the top layer of the sea is passed through a deaerator, and flash
evaporated under partial vacuum. The vacuum pump removes the non-condensate and exhausts to
the atmosphere. The flash evaporated water is converted into a low pressure steam, which is used
to run a steam turbine. The exhaust steam is cooled in a condenser and the condensate is
discharged back to the sea. The turbine is coupled to a generator to generate electric energy. In this
fashion, ocean thermal energy is converted into electric energy in open OTEC system.

Fig. 4-6. Open cycle OTEC system

4.3.6 Closed Rankine Cycle OTEC System
In 1965, J.H. Anderson presented in considerable detail a conceptual design of an OTE power
plant encased in a submerged structure anchored in deep water of the Caribbean sea. The plant was
designed to operate with a thermal differential of 20°C between the warm surface water and the

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colder water in a layer 600 m below the surface. Approximately 14% of the gross power generated
by the plant was consumed by the plant auxiliary equipment.
The closed Rankine cycle OTEC power plant operates with a low boiling fluid like
propane as the working medium (the other low boiling fluids that can be used are ammonia, R-12,
R-22, etc.). The schematic representation of this system is shown in Fig. 7-7.
The warm sea water flows through a heat exchanger, the boiler, in which the low-boiling
point propane is evaporated. Propane vapour at a pressure of about 1035 kPa (absolute), propane
expands ill the turbine to a pressure of about 690 kPa (absolute). Condensation of the vapor is
effected in a surface condenser by transfer of heat to the cold sea water. The temperature increase
in the cooling water is about 3 to 4°C. Special attention must be given for the design of heat
exchangers, in order to reduce all secondary temperature drops, because these elements (Heat
exchangers) are very large, and to obtain highest possible drop in temperature through turbine.
Special attention must be given for the design of heat exchangers, in order to reduce all secondary
temperature drops, because these elements (Heat exchangers) are very large, and to obtain highest
possible drop in temperature through turbine.
Also, the operating pressure in the closed propane cycle is high, and hence a turbine of
reasonable size and cost is to be used. Vacuum and dearation problems are eliminated by operation
of the thermal cycle above atmospheric pressure.

Fig. 4-7. Closed Rankine cycle OTEC system

7.3 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (GTEC)

7.3.1 Utilization of Geothermal Energy (GTE)

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Geothermal energy is the thermal energy stored in under ground deposits as steam, hot water and
hot dry rock. The inner core of the earth is highly radioactive, and as a consequence a natural flow
of heat occurs from the core to the surface of earth, which can be harnessed into useful energy.
Geothermal energy is normally found in two basic forms, namely, in subterranean hot water or
hot dry rock. In some locations, the vapour phase of the hot water is predominant, hence the
geothermal energy source is described as steam. Where the hot water is entirely in the liquid
phase, the term geo-hydrotherma or geo-pressurized, is applied.
The utilization of GTE is being investigated through a number of research and development
programs. Like the solar and wind energy, GTE is quantitatively significant, but the extraction of
this energy from the ground and subsequent conversion to electrical energy is not cost free and not
without certain operating problems. But, geothermal energy generation is not subject to
interruptions that are inherent in solar and wind power generation. The Geothermal power plant is
capable of continuous operation,--provided that the generating capability properly matches the
energy supply. There are many locations in the world where geothermal steam and water (hot) are
utilized for heating buildings. Even it can be used for industrial processing.
7.3.2 Geothermal Power Plant Operation
The geothermal power plant operates on a simple, low-pressure steam power cycle. At the
Geysers, the turbines operate with inlet steam pressures of 450 and 690 kPa. Boiler and handling
equipment are not required. Also, since there is no need to conserve the condensate, a direct-
contact condenser can be used.
The geothermal steam discharged from a well contains a quantity of non-condensable gases that
can cause operating difficulties, including corrosion in the condensing system. These gases are
removed from the steam in the condenser by the vacuum pump, usually a steam jet ejector, and
expelled into the atmosphere.
Most of the wells drilled for geothermal power production discharge a mixture of steam and water.
If the hydrostatic pressure is sufficiently high at the bottom of the well, the water will flow,
unaided to the surface. Hot water rising in the well and subjected to reduced pressure, partially
flashes into vapour. At the well head the water is mechanically removed from the mixture in
cyclone separators, and the relatively dry steam is transported to the power station.
The steam and water mixture flowing from the geothermal wells contains dissolved solids that are
particularly trouble some. It ranges from 1 to 20 gm per kg of water. In addition to the dissolved
solids some wells may give out the mixture containing some acids. In general, the dissolved solids

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and acids in geothermal water cause scaling and corrosion. Scale formation can be particularly
severe in the outflow pipeline in which the discarded water is carried away from the separator.
Geothermal power production cause air and water pollution in operation. Ear splitting noise
caused by escaping steam and the escape of radioactive gases are other objectionable
characteristics that have been observed.

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