SMA1108: Algebra

Lecture Notes 3

Indices/Powers
In an expression an , a is called the base and n is called the index (or power or exponent).

Multiplication/Division of Powers

a3 × a4 = (a × a × a) × (a × a × a × a) = a7
This illustrates:
Rule 1: ap × aq = ap+q

a×a×a×a×a
Also: a5 ÷ a4 = =a
a×a×a×a
Rule 2: ap ÷ aq = ap−q

Consequences of Rule 2:

a a1 a
= 1 = a1−1 = a0 . But also = 1
a a a

so a0 = 1

a0
Also 1
ap = ap = a0−p = a−p

1
so = a−p
ap

Powers of powers
Examples:

(a3 )2 = a3 × a3 = a6
(a2 )5 = a2 × a2 × a2 × a2 × a2 = a10

Rule 3: (ap )q = apq

q q
Note: The brackets are important here! ap is a(p ) but not (ap )q (therefore, to reduce
q
the chance of confusion, never use ap . Always use the variant with brackets!). E.g.,
2 2
103 = 10(3 ) = 109 (a billion), but (103 )2 = 103×2 = 106 (a million).
The numbers p, q in Rule 3 do not have to be integers, so
 1 n
an = a1 = a.

This shows:
√ 1
Rule 4: n
a = an

Note: If in an expression ap the number p is not an integer, then a has to be positive.

Examples
2
(i) Evaluate 4 3 .
2 Rule 3
1 1
43 = 42 3 = 16 3
Rule 4 √
3
√ √
3
= 16 = 3 8 × 2 = 2 2.
3
(ii) Evaluate 4 2 .
1 3
3
 
Rule 3
42 = 42
√ 3
Rule 4
= 4 = 23 = 8.

1
(iii) Evaluate (43 ) 2 .

1 Rule 3 3 see (ii)
43 2
= 42 = 8.

2 × 23
(iv) Simplify .
42
2 × 23 Rule 1 24 4=22 24 Rule 3 24 Rule 2
= = = = 24−4 = 20 = 1
42 42 (22 )2 24

Logarithms

Examples: (a) What is the power that 10 must be raised to, to give answer 100?
Answer: Since 102 = 100, answer is 2.
(b) What power must 2 be raised to, to give 16?
Answer: 4

We can express these results using logarithms:

(a) says log10 100 = 2
(b) says log2 16 = 4
In general:
b = ac is equivalent to loga b = c.
In words: “The logarithm of b to the base a is c.”

Example: What is log4 64?

Since 43 = 64, one has log4 64 = 3.

Manipulating logarithms

How can we simplify expressions like loga (bc)? The rule is:

Rule 1: loga (bc) = loga b + loga c

Where does this rule come from?

Suppose x = loga b and y = loga c. This means ax = b and ay = c.

So, from Rule 1 for indices (recall ap × aq = ap+q ) we have b × c = ax × ay = ax+y . We
can write this another way as loga (bc) = x + y, and therefore obtain loga (bc) = x + y =
loga b + loga c.
So we have proved Rule 1.

Similarly, one can show (using Rule 2 for indices, i.e., ap /aq = ap−q ):

 
b
Rule 2: loga = loga b − loga c
c

and (using Rule 3 for indices, namely (ap )q = apq )

Rule 3: loga (bd ) = d loga b

Note: Since log is the inverse operation to taking powers, the rules for manipulating
logarithms can be deduced from the rules for manipulating indices here.
 
p
Example: Express loga √ in terms of loga p and loga q.
q
 
p Rule 1
 1
Rule 3 1
loga √ = loga p − loga q 2 = loga p − loga q.
q 2
END: PART1 OF LECTURE 3
In this chapter we have looked at expressions of the type ap = b. Note that the following
cases may emerge:
√
• You know p and b. Then a is given by a = p b.

• You know a and p. Then b is given by b = ap .

• You know a and b. Then p is given by p = loga b.

We summarise the rules for manipulating surds, indices and logarithms here:

• Surds:
√ √ √
◦ n ab = n a × n b
√ √
◦ n ab = n a ÷ n b
p

• Indices:

◦ Rule 1: ap × aq = ap+q
◦ Rule 2: ap ÷ aq = ap−q
◦ Rule 3: (ap )q = apq
1 √
◦ Rule 4: a n = n a
◦ a0 = 1 and a−p = 1
ap .

• Logarithms:

◦ Rule 1: loga (bc) = loga b + loga c

b
◦ Rule 2: loga c = loga b − loga c
◦ Rule 3: loga bd = d × log ab

Further observations (for logarithms):

(a) Since x0 = 1, this can be rewritten as logx 1 = 0 (for any x 6= 0).

Think about the condition x 6= 0: What would “log0 a” mean, and for which numbers a is this meaningful?

   
1 Rule 2 1
(b) Also loga = loga 1 − loga c, so loga = − loga c
c c

Example
Write − loga p + 3 loga q as a single logarithm.

q3
   
Rule 3 1 Rule 1
+ loga q 3


− loga p + 3 loga q = loga = loga
p p
Natural logarithm
There is a special irrational number that plays an important role as base in calculations
involving logarithms and powers (especially, for integration and differentiation of func-
tions, something we will about later in this course): Euler’s number e = 2.71828 . . ..

Powers to this base e are written as ex = y, while logarithms – which should read
loge y = x – are written ln y = x (ln is the abbreviation of the Latin “logarithmus
naturalis”).

The natural logarithm ln and the logarithm to base 10, which is abbreviated log (written
without any base!), can be found on a (scientific) calculator. This notation for logarithms
is also used in applied sciences.

Warning: In (pure) mathematics, however, log usually denotes the natural logarithm
(log10 plays no special role there!).
In this course, log = log10 always!

Calculating logarithms
Look at the following table:

x 1 2 5 10
log x 0 0.301 (3 d.p.) 0.699 (3 d.p.) 1

If one remembers log 2 ≈ 0.3, many logarithms can be estimated closely.

Examples: log 4 = log(2 × 2) = log 2 + log 2 ≈ 0.3 + 0.3 = 0.6

(in fact, log 4 = 0.602 (3 d.p.))
log 5 = log 10
2 = log 10 − log 2 ≈ 1 − 0.3 = 0.7 (in fact, log 5 = 0.699 (3 d.p.))
3
log 8 = log 2 = 3 log 2 ≈ 3 × 0.3 = 0.9 (in fact, log 8 = 0.903 (3 d.p.))

More examples on logarithms

(a) If 10x = 5, find x.
x = log10 (5) = 0.699 (3 d.p.) (see above or use your calculator).

(b) If (0.1)x = 5, find x.

The easy solution would be x = log0.1 5, but then, how do we calculate logarithms
1
to base 0.1? Note that 0.1 = 10 = 10−1 , therefore

x
5 = (0.1)x = 10−1 = 10−x ,

so −x = log 5 and hence x = − log 5 = −0.699 (3 d.p.).

Change of base
In more general terms, the last example (b) asks the following question: Given ap and a
number b, can one find the index q such that ap = bq ?
Write a = bx , then x = logb a, i.e., a = blogb a (this is actually the definition of the
logarithm!). But then  p
ap = blogb a = bp logb a ,

i.e., ap = bp logb a (~).

On the calculator, only ln and log can be found. How can we calculate log2 5, log3 7 etc.?
~
Again, p = loga c means c = ap = bp logb a , hence logb c = p logb a. So, we have two
equations for p, namely p = loga c and p = logb c/ logb a, and therefore obtain
logb c
loga c =
logb a

This is the formula if we want to change the base in logarithms (the “old” base a appears
in the logarithm in the denominator on the right-hand side!)

log 5
Example: log2 5 = log 2 = 2.322 (3 d.p.)
7
With log 2 ≈ 0.3 and log 5 ≈ 0.7, we estimate log 5 ÷ log 2 ≈ 0.7/0.3 = 3
= 3.3.

More examples and a warning (not lectured)

Examples:
(a) If 3x = 5, find x.
log 5
x = log3 5 = = 1.465 (3 d.p.).
log 3
(b) Write log8 32 in terms of logs to base 2, hence find log8 32 exactly.
log2 32 5
log8 32 = =
log2 8 3

logb c c
Warning: logb a 6= logb a (e.g., log 10/ log 2 = 1/ log 2 = 3.322 (3 d.p.), while
10
log 2 = log 5 = 0.699 (3 d.p.))
Expression where two logarithms are multiplied or divided cannot be sim-
plified, at least not in an “easy way”!
For the “not-so-easy” way, study the following example:
Rule 3 for log
 
(log2 100) × (log 2) = log 2log2 100 = log 100 = 2.

END: PART2 OF LECTURE 3:

MORE ON SURDS TO
FOLLOW
MORE ON: SURDS, INDICES & LOGARITHMS

§3 Surds, Indices & Logarithms

Square roots √ √
√ b = a × a, then we say that a is the square root of b, written a = b, e.g., 2 = 4.
If
b always means
√ the postive square√root of b.
Example 49 = 7 and −7 = − 49

General roots
Examples:
√
4
16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 so 2 = 16 (“the fourth root”)
√
5
√
10
1024 = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 so 4 = 1024 Also 2 = 1024 .
√
n
| ×a×
If b = a {z· · · × a}, then a = b.
n times

Surds √
Some roots are irrational, e.g., 2. Such numbers are called surds and are manipulated
as symbols.

√
Irrationality of 2 (not given in lecture, not examinable)

This is an example in mathematical reasoning.

One easily verifies the following two statements:
n
(a) If a fraction m is in lowest terms, the numerator n and the denominator m cannot
be both even numbers (if they were, we could cancel a common factor of 2).

(b) The square of an even number is even, the square of an odd number is odd.
 √ √ n
Now assume that 2 is rational, i.e., there are integers n and m such that 2 = m .
n
Let m be in lowest terms (so, according to (a) above, at least one of the two numbers is
√ n n2 2 2
odd). Taking the square of 2 = m on both sides yields 2 = m2 and hence 2m = n .
2
But this shows, that n contains a factor of 2 and is therefore even. Using (b) above, we
therefore conclude that n itself is even;
√ consequently, m is odd.
n
So far, we have: If we assume that 2 = m is rational, then the numerator n is even
and the denominator m is odd.
However, since n is even, there is another integer k such that n = 2k (k is half of n and
√ n 4k2
an integer since n is even). Then 2 = m = 2k
m and squaring this yields 2 = m2 and
hence m2 = 2k 2 . But then, m2 (being twice some integer) is even and therefore (using
(b)) also m!
√ √ n
Result: From the assumption that 2 is rational, 2 = m , we have concluded that the
denominator m is both even and odd. This is absurd, √ since an integer is either even or
odd, therefore the assumption has to be wrong. So, 2 is not rational.

Addition/Subtraction
√ √ √
Example: 2 + 3 2 = 4 2.
√ √
We cannot simplify 2 − 5 3.

Multiplication
√ √ √
The rule is: n ab = n a × n b
Examples:
√ √ √ √ √
8= 4×2= 4× 2=2 2
√
3
√ √3
√3
√
3
24 = 3 8 × 3 = 8 × 3 = 2 3

Division r √
n
a a
The rule is : n
= √
n
b b
q √
9 √9 3
Example: 25 = 25
= 5

Examples
√ √ √
(a) Simplify 12 − 3 + 5.
Reducing to smallest possible surds, answer is
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
12 − 3+ 5 = 2 3 − 3 + 5 = 3 + 5.
 √ √
(b) Simplify: (2 + 3)(3 + 5).
√ √ √ √ √ √
(2 + 3)(3 + 5) = 2 × 3 + 2 5 + 3 3 + 3 × 5
√ √ √
= 6 + 2 5 + 3 3 + 15.
√ √
(c) Simplify: 7(4 − 7).
√ √ √ √ √ √
7(4 − 7) = 4 7 − 7 7 = 4 7 − 7.

When simplifying fractions we are required to make sure that the denominator is rational.

Example: √ √
3 3 5 3 5
√ = √ √ =
5 5 5 5
↑ ↑
irrational denom. rational denom.

2 √
For fractions such as √ , multiplying numerator and denominator by 4 + 3 will
4− 3
rationalise the denominator (remember the formula for the difference of two squares:
(a − b)(a + b) = a2 − b2 ):
√ √ √
2 2(4 + 3) 8+2 3 8+2 3
√ = √ √ = = .
4− 3 (4 − 3)(4 + 3) 16 − 3 13

Examples:
√
(a) Simplify √ 5 .
3 7−2
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
5 5(3 7 + 2) 3 5 7+2 5 3 35 + 2 5 3 35 + 2 5
√ = √ √ = √ = =
3 7−2 (3 7 − 2)(3 7 + 2) 9( 7)2 − 4 63 − 4 59
√
(b) Simplify √ 5 .
5−1
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
5 5( 5 + 1) ( 5)2 + 5 5+ 5 5+ 5
√ = √ √ = √ = =
5−1 ( 5 − 1)( 5 + 1) ( 5)2 − 1 5−1 4

END OF LECTURE 3