Unit - V Network Topologies And Network Devices

Mark - 08

Syllabus:
5.1. Network Computing Model: Peer To Peer, Client Server
5.2. Network Topologies: Introduction, Definition, Selection, Criteria, Types of Topology – i)
Bus ii) Ring iii) Star iv) Mesh v) Tree vi) Hybrid
5.3. Network connecting devices: Switch, Router, Repeater, Bridge, Gateway, Modem

5.1. Network Computing Model: Peer To Peer, Client Server

The network computing model refers to how devices, often called ‘nodes’, are structured and
internet within a network to share resources and information.
Two primary network computing models are the peer-to-peer (P2P) model and the
Client-Server model outline the roles and relationships between devices, as well as the ways
resources are accessed, shared, communicate and managed.

Need Network Computing Models:

Efficiency and Organization: Network computing models provide a systematic framework
for organizing and managing the flow of data with ensuring efficiency in data transmission.
Scalability: In a world where digital ecosystems are constantly expanding the scalability of
network models becomes crucial. Properly designed models allow networks to grow and
adapt to increasing demands without compromising performance.
Security: Security is a paramount concern in the digital age. Network computing models
establish security protocol and mechanism to safeguard data during transmission and storage.
Resource Optimization: Effective network computing models contribute to resource
optimization by managing bandwidth, minimizing latency

Peer To Peer:
●​ In a Peer-to-peer computing model, all devices/nodes(peer) have a equal status and
can act both as clients and as servers, meaning they can initiate requests and responds
to requests.
●​ In a P2P network peers can share resources such as files or processing power, directly
with one another without the need for a central server.
●​ The fig. shows the structure of peer-to-peer network.
●​ Peer networks are defined by lack of central control over network.
●​ There are no fixed division into client & server. In this individual who forms a loose
group can communicate with other in the group.
●​ Each computer is responsible for accessing & maintaining its own security
&resources.
●​ In Peer -to- Peer network every computer can function both as client &server.
●​ In this type of network user simply share disk space & resources.
Characteristics:
Decentralized Control: There is no central controller, and each computer acts as a peer or
node.
Scalability: The network can grow or shrink as nodes join or leave.
Resource sharing: Peers can share resources like storage, bandwidth, and processing power.
Fault tolerance: The network can continue to function even if some nodes go offline.
Advantages:
1.​ No extra investment in server hardware and software is required.
2.​ Easy to set up
3.​ No network administrator required.
4.​ No dedicated server required.
5.​ Less Expensive.
6.​ Easy to install and maintain.
7.​ User can control their resource sharing.
Disadvantages:
1.​ Slow in speed.
2.​ Not good for database applications.
3.​ Less reliable
4.​ Limited expandability.
5.​ Hard to backup
6.​ Additional load due to sharing of resources
7.​ Lack of central organization, which can make data hard to find.
8.​ Weak security.

Client-Server:
●​ Server based networks are defined by presence of servers on a network that provides
security & administration of network.
●​ Server-based network divide processing takes between client & servers.
●​ Client request service such as file printing & servers deliver them.
●​ Servers are more powerful than client computers.
Characteristics:
Centralized Control: A client-server network relies on a central server or group of servers to
manage resources and services.
Resource Availability: The server is responsible for providing access to data, applications,
and other resources to the clients.
Scalability: Servers can be scaled (adding more resources or servers).
Advantages:
1.​ Strong central security.
2.​ Ability to share expensive equipment’s such as printer.
3.​ Ability of server to pull available hardware & software.
4.​ Easy manageability of large user
5.​ Faster speed than P2P models.
6.​ Easier to control, monitor and secure.
7.​ High performance than P2P models.
Disadvantages:
1.​ Expensive dedicated hardware.
2.​ Expensive network operating system software and client license.
3.​ A dedicated network administrator.

Physical Structures:
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications
pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is
simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between two points. For communication to
occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There
are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.​
Point to Point:
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most
point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but
other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible. When you change
television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point
connection between the remote control and the television's control system.
E.g.: - 1) PC to modem. 2) Workstation to workstation. 3) Server or mainframe to
workstation. 4) PC to printer. 5) Microwave to microwave. 6) TV to remote control.
When a point-to-point subnet is used important interconnection topology. It should look like
in Fig

Multipoint (multi-drop):
A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a
spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Definition of Network Topology:

Network topology to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and connections in a
computing network. Physical topology describes the layout of devices and cables, and logical
topology describes the way in which data is transmitted within the network — regardless of
the physical layout. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices (called node) to each other.
There are two types of topologies
1. Physical Topology
2. Logical Topology

Physical topology:
 The complete physical structure of transmission media is called physical topology. This
refers to the layout of cabling, location of nodes and interconnection between the nodes and
cabling.

Logical Topology:
The logical topology is refers to how data is actually transferred in a network. This represents
the way that data passes through the network from one device to another.

Selection Criteria for Topologies:

●​ Size (no. of nodes) of the system.
●​ Cost of the components and service required.
●​ Management of network.
●​ Architecture of network.
●​ Cable type.
●​ Expandability of the network.
●​ The desired performance and reliability of entire system.

Types of Topologies:
1.​ Bus Topology
2.​ Ring Topology
3.​ Star Topology
4.​ Mesh Topology
5.​ Tree Topology
6.​ Hybrid Topology

1.​ Bus Topology:

 ●​ It is a multipoint.
●​ A physical bus topology network typically uses one long cable called
backbone(bus) to which all computers are connected with drop-cable and
taps.
●​ Short-cables called drop-cables are attached to backbone with the help of
taps.
●​ A tap is a connector that either slice into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing(covering) of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
●​ As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed
into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker. For this reason, there is a limit
on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between
those taps.
●​ Bus topology is often used a network installation is small, simple or
temporary.
Working of Bus Topology:
●​ On a typical bus network there are no active electronics to amplify the
signal.
●​ This makes a bus a passive topology.
●​ When one PC sends a signal up and down the wire, all PCs on network
receive the information as it is broadcasting.
●​ But only one (the one with the address that matches the one enclosed in
the message) accepts the information the rest will not respond the
message.
●​ Only one PC at a time can send a message therefor number of PC’s
attached to a bus network can significantly affects the speed of the
network.
●​ A PC must wait until the bus is free before it can transmit. Otherwise, the
bandwidth will simply get waste.
Use of Terminator
Since the bus is a passive topology the electronic signal from a transmitting
computer is free to travel the entire length of cable.
Without termination whenever the signals reach the end of the wire it bounces
back and travels back up the wire.
When a signal travels back and forth along the bus it is called ringing.
To stop the signal from terminator is attached at the both end of the segment
which absorbs the electrical energy and stop the reflections.
Cable can’t be left unterminated in a bus network.
Eg., 10 base 2 also known as thin net is an inexpensive network based on bus
topology.
Advantages:
1.​ The bus is simple, reliable in very small network, easy to use and easy to
understand.
2.​ It is easy for installation.
3.​ The bus network requires less cables and is therefore less expensive.
4.​ It is easy to extend- (by using BNC Barrel connector) two cables can be
joined into one longer cable.
5.​ A repeater can also be used to extend a bus- A repeater boosts the
signal and allows it to travel a longer distance.
6.​ If one node fails others are not affected.

Demerits of bus topology:

1.​ In case of failure of the backbone cable, the whole network will be
affected.
2.​ Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably, because only one
PC can transmit at any time resulting in wasting a lot of bandwidth as
they interrupt each other instead of communicating. The problem can
get worse when more PC’s are connected to a network.
3.​ Each barrel connector weakens the electrical signal and too many may
prevent the signal from being correctly received along the bus.
4.​ It is difficult to troubleshoot faults - as bus cable breaks or
malfunctioning computer.
5.​ A cable break or loose connection also cause reflection and bring
down the whole network and causing all the network activity to stop.
6.​ Difficult for reconfiguration-E.g.: Adding new devices may therefore
require modification or replacement of the backbone.
2.​ Ring Topology:
●​ In Ring topology each node is connected to the two nearest nodes
so the entire network forms a circle.
●​ Rings are used in high performance network.
●​ A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination.
●​ Each device in the ring works as a repeater.
●​ When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its
repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
●​ Since each PC retransmits what it receives a ring is an active
network.

Advantages of ring topology:

i.​ A ring is relatively easy to install and configure (for fix number of
devices).
ii.​ Fault isolation is simplified- generally in a ring a signal is
circulating at all time if any devices does not receive a signal
within the specified period. It can issue an alarm. Alarm the
network operator to the problem of its locations.
iii.​ To add or delete a device requires moving only two connections.
iv.​ Time to send data is known: that is package delivery time is fixed
and guaranteed because every PC is given to the token. No one PC
can monopolies network.
v.​ No data collision.
Disadvantages of ring:
i.​ A single node failure leads to the collapse of the full network.
 ii.​ Unidirectional traffic can be disadvantages in a simple ring. A break
in the ring can disable the entire network; using dual ring can solve the
weakness.
iii.​ Expansion to the network can cause network disruption.

3.​ Star Topology:

●​ Physical star topology uses a central device or controller with drop
cables extending in all direction. The devices are not directly
linked to one another.
●​ Each network device is connected via point-to-point link to central
device called ‘HUB’ multipoint repeater or concentrator.
●​ The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send
data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device.
●​ When network expansion is expected and a greater reliability is
expected then star topology is needed.
Working of star topology:
●​ Each PC on star network communicate with central hub, that
resends the message either to all the PC’s (in a broadcast star
network) or only to the destination PC (in a switched star network).
●​ An active hub regenerates the electrical signal and sends it to all
the computers connected to it. This type of hub is often called a
multipoint repeater. Active hubs and switches require electrical
power to run;
●​ A passive hub such as wiring panel or patch block merely at as a
connection point and does not amplify or regenerate the signal.
Passive hub doesn’t require electrical power to run.
●​ E.g.: - Ethernet to base t is a popular network based on star
topology.

Advantages of star topology:

There are several advantages to a star topology.
i. Addition, Moving and deletion involves only one connection between that
device and hub.
ii. When the capacity of central hub is exceeded you can replace it with one that
has larger number of ports to plug lines into new hub.
iii. The centre of the star network is a good place to diagnose network faults, intelligent
hub (the hub with microprocessor) also provides for centralize monitoring and management
of network.
iv. Single PC failures do not necessarily bring down whole star network. The hubs can detect
a network fall and isolate the defected PC or network cable and allow the rest of the network
to continue operating.
v. You can use several cable types in the same network with a hub that can accommodate
multiple cable types

Disadvantage of star topology:

1. If the central hub fails the whole network fails to operate.
2. Many star networks requires a device at the central point to rebroadcast or switched
network traffic.
3. It cost more to cable a star network because all the network cables must be pulled to one
central point requiring more cable than other networking topologies.

4.​ Mesh Topology:

●​ In a mesh topology every device has dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries only between the
two devices it connects.
●​ A fully connected mesh network has n (n-1)/2 physical connections to link
devices.
●​ To accommodate that many links every device on the network must have (n-1)
output ports because each device requires an interface for every other on the
network.
●​ Mesh topology is not usually practical.
●​ In addition, unless each station frequently sends signal to all the other stations
and excessive amount of network bandwidth is wasted.
●​ Mesh gets unmanageable beyond a very small number of devices. Most mesh
topology networks are not true mesh networks.
 Mesh installation:
Mesh topology N/w become more difficult to install as the no. of devices increases
because of the sheer quantity of connections that must be made. A true mesh topology
of seven devices would require 21 connections and six I/O ports.
Advantages:
●​ The use of dedicated links guaranties that connections can carry its own data
load. Thus, eliminating the traffic problem that can occur when links must be
shared by multiple devices.
●​ Mesh topology is Robust (strong) if one link becomes unusable. It doesn’t
incapacitate the entire n/w.
●​ Another advantage is privacy and security when every message sent travels
along a dedicated line only the intended recipients sees it. Physical boundaries
prevent other users from gaining access to message.
●​ Point to point link make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic
can be routed to avoid links with respected problems. This facility enables the
n/w manager to discover the precise location of the fault and aids it finding its
cause and solution.
●​ Extremely fault tolerant.
●​ It is more reliable compare to other topologies.
●​ In case of heavy traffic data can be routed around busy root.

Disadvantages:
●​ As it involves a lot of connection. The total no. of physical links and the no. of I/O
ports require to connect will be more and hence is prohibitively expensive.
●​ Difficult to install and reconfigure specially as no. of devices increases.
●​ Hardware required to connect each device is highly expensive.
●​ The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (walls, ceiling and
floors) can accommodate.
●​ For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion.
5.​ Tree Topology:
●​ A network can be hybrid
●​ A network which contains all type of physical structure and connected under a single
backbone channel.
●​ Tree topology is one of the most common network setups that is similar to a bus
topology and a star topology.
●​ A tree topology connects multiple star networks to other star networks.

Advantages:
●​ Scalable
●​ Easy Implementation
●​ Easy Troubleshooting
Disadvantages:
●​ More expensive than other topologies.
●​ The cabling cost is more.
●​ The maintenance becomes difficult.
●​ Failure in the central hub brings the entire network to a halt.

6.​ Hybrid Topology:

A network which contains all type of physical structure and connected under a single
backbone channel.
Hyrid, as the name suggests, is a mixture of two different things. A hybrid topology is
a combination of two or more network topologies.
The topology that combines more than one topology is called hybrid topology. 2
common examples for hybrid networks are ring network and star bus network.
1.​ A star-ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a
Multistation Access Unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.
2.​ A star-bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a nus
trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network’s backbone).
Advantages:
●​ This type of topology combines the benefits of different types of topologies in one
topology.
●​ Can be modified as per requirement.
●​ It is extremely flexible.
●​ It is very reliable.
●​ It is easily scalable as Hybrid networks are built in a fashion which enables easy
integration of new hardware components.
●​ Error detecting and troubleshooting are easy.
●​ Handles a large volume of traffic.
●​ It is used to create large networks.
●​ The speed of the topology becomes fast when two topologies are put together.

Disadvantages:
●​ It is a type of network expensive.
●​ The design of a hybrid network is very complex.
●​ There is a change in the hardware to connect one topology with another topology.
●​ Usually, hybrid architectures are larger in scale so they require a lot of cables in the
installation process.
●​ Hubs which are used to connect two distinct networks are very costly. And hubs are
different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different
architectures.
●​ Installation is a difficult process.

Draw and describe architecture for network using tree topology for an
office in 3-storeys building.
●​ A tree topology is a special type of structure in which many connected elements are
arranged like the branches of a tree
●​ Here in the diagram the main switch is connected with three separate switches.
●​ For each floor separate switch is connected with multiple terminals.
Difference between ring star mesh bus topology

Network Control Device:

To expand a single network without breaking it into new pass or connecting it through
another different network. All networks require devices to provide connectivity and
functionality.

Purpose of Using Network Devices:

●​ Allow a greater number of nodes to be connected to the network.
●​ Extend the distance over which a network can extend.
●​ Localize traffic on the network.
●​ Can merge existing networks.
●​ Isolate network problems so that they can be diagnosed more easily.
Network connecting devices:
1.​ Repeaters
2.​ Bridges
3.​ Switches
4.​ Routers
5.​ Gateway
6.​ Modem

1.​ Repeaters
●​ Signal attenuation or signal loss – signal degrades over distance
●​ Repeaters clean, amplify, and resend signals that are weakened by long cable
length.
●​ Built-in to hubs or switches
●​ A repeater operates only at the PHYSICAL layer.
●​ It connects two segments of the same network.
●​ Single port, multi-port repeaters.
 ●​ Advantages:
o​ A repeater allows us extending the physical length of a network.
o​ The repeaters allow stations to receive the true (regenerated) copy of
the frame.
o​ It connects two segments of the same network.
o​ Types of repeaters are Single port, multi-port repeaters.
o​ Repeaters are simple and install and cost effective.
o​ They can easily extend the length or the coverage area of networks.
o​ Repeaters don’t require any processing overhead.
●​ Disadvantages:
o​ The repeater does not change the functionality of the network in any
way.
o​ The repeater doesn’t have the intelligence to keep the frame from
passing to the right side when it is meant for a station on the left.
o​ Repeaters cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.

2.​ Bridge
●​ A bridge is used to join two network segments together, it allows computers
on either segment to access resources on the other.
●​ They can also be used to divide large networks into smaller segments.
●​ Bridges have all the features of repeaters, but can have more nodes, and since
the network is divided, there is fewer computers competing for resources on

each segment thus improving network performance.

●​ Operates in both the PHYSICAL and the data link layer.
●​ As a PHYSICAL layer device, it regenerates the signal it receives.
●​ As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the PHYSICAL/MAC
addresses (source and destination) contained in the frame.
●​ A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.
●​ It can check the destination address of a frame and decide if the frame
should be forwarded or dropped.
●​ For frame to be forwarding, it specify the port.
●​ Limit or filter traffic - keeps local traffic local yet allow connectivity to
other parts (segments).
●​ Characteristics of Bridge:
o​ Routing Tables
o​ Filtering
o​ Forwarding
o​ Learning Algorithm
●​ Types of Bridge:
o​ Simple Bridge: A simple bridge links two segments and contain a
table that lists the addresses of all the station included in each of them.
o​ Multiport Bridge: A multiport bridge can be used to connect more
than two LANs
o​ Transparent Bridge: It is also called learning bridge. Bridge
constructs its table of terminal addresses on its own as it implements
connecting two LANs
o​ Source Routing Bridge: In source routing, the source of each packet
defines the bridge and LANs through which the packet should go
before reaching the destination. This type of bridge is used to prevent
looping problem.
o​ Local Bridge: It is a standard type of bridge used to connect network
segments of same location. It does not modify the data in the packets.
It simply reads the addresses and pass or discard the packets.
o​ Translation Bridge: Transaction bridge is useful to connect segments
running at different speed or using different protocols such as Token
ring and Ethernet networks. It connects network segments using
different network media or different protocols.
o​ Remote Bridge: It is designed to connect two network segments at
distant locations using a WAN link such as Modem or leased line.

●​ Advantages of Bridge:
o​ Extend physical network
o​ Reduce network traffic with minor segmentation
o​ Reduce collision
o​ Connect different architecture
 ●​ Disadvantages of Bridge:
o​ Slower than repeaters due to filtering
o​ Do not filter broadcasts
o​ More expensive than repeaters.

3.​ Switches
●​ Switches are a special type of hub.
●​ Switch is used as a central device to connect different nodes in star topology.
●​ Switch is an intelligent device.
●​ When switch receives a data packet it reads destination address stored in the
packet.
●​ and send it to only that node whose destination address matches with the
address contained in the data packet.
●​ Switches operate at the data link layer of the OSI Model.

●​ Switches support following methods of switching:

●​ Store-and-Forward switching:
●​ Process: The switch receives the entire frame, stores it in memory, performs
error checking (CRC), and then forwards it to the appropriate port.
●​ Advantages: Ensures data integrity by discarding corrupted frames.
●​ Disadvantages: Introduces higher latency due to the need to wait for the entire
frame.
●​ Cut-through switching:
●​ Process: The switch starts forwarding the frame as soon as the destination
address is identified, without waiting for the entire frame to be received.
●​ Advantages: Lower latency compared to store-and-forward.
 ●​ Disadvantages: Does not perform error checking on the frame, so corrupted
frames may be forwarded.
●​ Advantages:
o​ Switches divide a network into several separate channels
o​ Reduce the possibility of collision
o​ Each channel has its own network capacity
o​ Since isolated, hence secure
o​ Data will only go to the destination, but not others
o​ Enable all ports to work at the same time
o​ can convert protocols
o​ configurable
o​ high speed
●​ Disadvantages:
o​ understand only data link layer protocols and addresses
o​ much more expensive than previous options.
o​ higher maintenance

4.​ Routers
●​ Routers are used to create larger networks by​
joining two or more network segments.
●​ A router derives its name from the fact that it can route data it receives from
one network onto another.
●​ When a router receives a packet of data, it determines the destination address.
●​ And then, it looks in its routing table to determine, how to reach the
destination.

●​ Routers work at the OSI layer 3 (network layer)

●​ Router consist of hardware and software.
o​ Hardware - physical interfaces to the various networks in the
internetwork.
o​ Software- is OS and routing protocols management software.
●​ Router use logical and physical addressing to connect two or more logically
separate networks called subnets.
●​ Each of the subnet is given a logical address.
●​ Data is grouped into packets. Each packet has physical device address and
logical network address.
●​ Types of routers:
●​ Static Routing:
●​ Manual Configuration: Routes are manually entered into the router's routing
table.
●​ Simplicity: Easy to set up and understand, especially in small, stable
networks.
●​ Limited Adaptability: Doesn't automatically adjust to network changes (e.g.,
link failures).
●​ Resource-Efficient: Requires minimal processing power and memory.
●​ Example: A simple network with a few fixed connections.
●​ Dynamic Routing:
●​ Automatic Route Discovery: Routers exchange information with each other
to learn about network topology and routes.
●​ Adaptability: Automatically adjusts to network changes, such as link failures
or new network additions.
●​ Scalability: Better suited for larger, more complex networks.
●​ Resource Intensive: Requires more processing power and memory.
●​ Examples of Dynamic Routing Protocols:
1.​ Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
2.​ Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
3.​ Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
4.​ Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
●​ Advantages of routers:
o​ Routers can connect different types of networks.
o​ Routes can choose the best path across the network.
o​ Routers reduce network traffic because they do not retransmit
network broadcast traffic.
●​ Disadvantages of routers:
o​ Routers are more expensive than bridges or repeaters.
o​ Routers are slower than bridges or switches because they must
analyze a data transmission from the Physical through the Network
layer
 5.​ Gateways
●​ Any device that translates one data format to another is called a gateway.
●​ The key point about a gateway is that only the data format is translated, not the
data itself.
●​ Gateways
●​ Combination of hardware and software
●​ Gateways are complex machines that interfaces between two or more
dissimilar networks
●​ Operates at the network layer (3) or higher layers (4-7 session,
presentation, and application layers)
●​ Forwards only those messages that need to go out
●​ Categories:
o​ E-mail gateway
o​ Internet gateway
o​ LAN gateway
o​ Voice/data gateway
o​ Wireless network

Advantages of Gateways:
Protocol Compatibility: Gateways can connect networks using different protocols, allowing
data to be exchanged between them.
Centralized Management: Gateways can provide a central point for managing network
traffic and security policies.
Enhanced Security: By acting as a boundary point, gateways can filter and control network
traffic, improving security.
Versatility: Gateways can be used in various networking scenarios, such as connecting
different types of networks or devices.
Scalability: Gateways can be scaled to handle increasing network traffic and complexity.
Network Connectivity: Gateways allow multiple devices to connect to a network and share
resources.
Efficient Data Routing: Gateways can use intelligent algorithms to determine the most
efficient path for data packets, improving performance.

Disadvantages of Gateways:
Single Point of Failure: If a gateway fails, it can disrupt network connectivity.
Potential Latency: Gateways can introduce delays as they process and forward data.
Complexity: Implementing and managing gateways can be complex.
Cost: Gateways can be expensive to purchase and maintain.
Limited Functionality: Gateways are not as feature-rich as routers or other specialized
network devices.
Security Risks: Gateways can be vulnerable to security breaches if not properly configured
and maintained.
Operational Challenges: Managing multiple gateways can be complex and
resource-intensive.
Cost of Fraud: Cybercriminals are increasingly targeting online payment gateways, leading
to potential fraud and data breaches.
Transaction Fees: Payment gateways may charge transaction fees, which can impact
merchant profitability.
Compliance Requirements: Managing multiple gateways can introduce complex
compliance requirements.

6.​ Modem
●​ A modem, short for Modulator/demodulator, is a device that converts the
digital signals generated by a computer into analog signals that can travel over
conventional phone lines.
●​ The modem at the receiving end converts the signal back into a format the
computer can understand.
●​ Allow computers to communicate over a telephone line.
●​ Modems are available as Internal or external modem.
Types of modems:
Analog Modem:
Function: Convert digital data from a computer into analog signals (tones) suitable for
transmission over traditional telephone lines.
How it works:
Modulation: The digital data is translated into a series of tones.
Transmission: These tones are sent over the telephone line.
Demodulation: At the receiving end, the tones are converted back into digital data.
Examples: Dial-up modems.

Digital Modem:
Function: Handle digital signals directly, without the need for analog-to-digital conversion.
Types:
Cable Modems: Used for internet access via cable television lines.
DSL Modems: Used for internet access via Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technology.
How it works:
Modulation: Digital data is modulated into a form suitable for transmission over the specific
cable or DSL infrastructure.
Transmission: The modulated data is transmitted over the cable or DSL line.
Demodulation: At the receiving end, the data is demodulated back into its original digital
form.

Depending on direction of data transmission, modem can be following types:

1.​ Simple modem
2.​ Half duplex model
3.​ Full duplex modem.

Advantages:
Enables Internet Connectivity: Modems are crucial for connecting devices to the internet,
allowing users to browse, communicate, and access online resources.
Direct Communication with ISP: Modems facilitate a direct connection with the Internet
Service Provider (ISP), potentially leading to faster and more efficient data transmission.
Flow Control: Modems implement flow control mechanisms to regulate data flow, preventing
data overload and ensuring smooth communication.
Smaller and Faster (Modern Modems): Modern modems are generally smaller and faster than
older models, offering improved performance.
Security Improvements: New technology in modems can provide more advanced security
protection.
Increased Data Throughput Performance: Modern modems can offer increased data
throughput performance.
Faster Speeds: Modern modems can provide faster internet speeds.

Disadvantages:
Security Vulnerabilities: Modems can be vulnerable to cyberattacks, potentially
compromising the security of data transmission.
Limited Connectivity: Only a limited number of systems can be connected to the internet
through a modem.
Cost: The cost of a modem can vary depending on the features it offers, with more features
typically leading to a higher price.
Performance Issues: Modems can slow down when connected to a hub, and they may
struggle to track traffic between the LAN and the internet.
Shared Bandwidth (Cable Modems): Cable modems, when compared to DSL, share
bandwidth with neighbours, which can lead to congestion and slower speeds, especially
during peak hours.
Outdated Technology: Older modem technologies, like dial-up, are significantly slower than
modern broadband connections.
Maintenance and Troubleshooting: Modems, like any technology, require regular
maintenance and troubleshooting.
Differentiate between HUB and Switch with respect to Layer, Port, device type,
speed.