Unit 02: Transmission Media and Switching

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 16 Marks
2.1. Communication Media:
​ Guided Transmission Media: Twisted pair cable, Coaxial cable,
Fiber-optic cable
2.2. Unguided Transmission Media: Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared,
Satellite
2.3. Line-of-sight Transmission, point-to-point, Broadcast
2.4. Multiplexing: Frequency-Division Multiplexing, Time-Division
Multiplexing
2.5. Switching: Circuit-switched networks.

Introduction:
Transmission media are physical infrastructure components that carry data from
one computer to another.
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is physical path
between the transmission and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which
data is sent from one place to another.
All transmission media can be divided into two categories:
1.​ Guided Media
2.​ Unguided Media
Types of Transmission Media:
1.​ Guided Transmission Media:
a.​ Twisted Pair Cable
i.​ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTS)
ii.​ Shielded Twisted Pair (STS)
b.​ Coaxial Cable
c.​ Fiber-optic cable
2.​ Unguided Media:
a.​ Radiowaves
b.​ Microwaves
c.​ Infrared
d.​ Satellite
1.​ Guided Media:
Guided media is also referred to as wired or Bounded transmission media.
Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway
by using physical links.
Features: High speed, Secure, Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 Major types of Guided Media:
1.​ Twisted Pair Cable:
o​ There are two classes of twisted pair cables as shown in fig.

o​ It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about

each other.
o​ A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a
regular spiral pattern.
o​ Typically, a number of these pairs are bundled together into a cable
by wrapping them in a tough protective sheath.
o​ Why twist a cable?
o​ The twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk (EMI) interference
between adjacent pairs in a cable.
o​ Neighboring pairs in a bundle typically have somewhat different
twist lengths to reduce the crosstalk interference.
o​ On long-distance links, the twist length typically varies from 5 to
15
o​ There are two types of twisted pair:-
A. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
B. Shielded twisted pair (STP).
 Fig. UTP and STP cables

A. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

​ This is the most commonly used median today, because of its usage in the
telephone system. This cable can carry both voice as well as data. It consists of
two conductors usually copper. In the beginning, the wires used to be kept
parallel.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11
connector and 4 pair cable useRJ-45 connector.

There are five categories of UTPs:

Category 1: These originally used only for voice communication and can
support only low data rates.
Category 2: Suitable for Voice and Data gives speed upto 4 mbps. This can’t be
used for high-speed data communication. Older n/w’s use this category.
Category 3: It is suitable for most PC n/w’s support data rate of up to 16mbps
currently most telephone n/w uses this.
Category 4: It offers data rate up to 20mbps.
Category 5: It offers data rate of 100mbps. Can be used for fast Ethernet. It
requires more insulation and more twist per foot. It requires compatible
equipment’s.

Advantages:
●​ Installation is easy
●​ Flexible
●​ Cheap
●​ It has high speed capacity,
●​ 100-meter limit
●​ Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.
Disadvantages:
●​ Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable
●​ Provides less protection from interference (EMI).

B. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

●​ The only difference between STP and UTP is that STP cables have a
shielding in usually of aluminium or polyester material between the outer
jacket and wire.
●​ The shield makes STP less danger to EMI, because the shield is
electrically grounded.
●​ The metal mesh around the insulated wires eliminates crosstalk.
●​ Crosstalk occurs when one line picks up some of the other signals
traveling down another line.

Advantages:
●​ Easy to install
●​ Performance is adequate
 ●​ Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
●​ Increases the signalling rate
●​ Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
●​ Eliminates crosstalk
Disadvantages:
●​ Difficult to manufacture
●​ Heavy
●​ Expensive than UTP

Que. State the physical and transmission characteristics of twisted pair

cable along with its applications.

Applications:
 telephone lines
 Digital Subscriber Line
 local area networks.

2.​ Coaxial Cable:

●​ It is also called as coax.
●​ The name coaxial is because it contains two conductors that are
parallel to each other and share common axis.
●​ Inner conductor is made of copper which is surrounded by PVC
insulation.
●​ The outer conductor is metal foil, mesh or both.
●​ Outer metallic conductor is used as a shield against noise.
●​ The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath.
●​ The outermost part is the plastic cover which protects the whole
cable.
●​ Co-axial cable is much less susceptible to interference and cross
talk than the twisted pair.
 ●​ Co-axial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signal.

Advantages:
●​ Bandwidth is high
●​ Used in long distance telephone lines.
●​ Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
●​ Much higher noise immunity
●​ Data transmission without distortion.
●​ The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better
shielding when compared to twisted pair cable
Disadvantages:
●​ Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
●​ Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
●​ If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

3.​ Fiber Optic Cable:

Fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the
form of light.
A light pulse can be used to signal a one (1) bit.
The absence of a pulse signals a zero (0).
The bandwidth of an optical transmission system is potentially huge.
An optical fibers has a cylindrical shape and consists of 3 concentric
sections.
1.​ Core
It’s the inner most section is made of glass or plastic and is
surrounded by its own cladding. The core diameter is in the
range of 8 to 50 μm.

2.​ Cladding
 A glass or plastic coating that has optical properties different
from those of the core having a diameter of 125 μm. The
cladding acts as a reflector to light that would otherwise escape
the core.

3.​ Jacket
The outer most layers surrounding caddied fiber is the jacket.
Jacket is composed of plastic or other material layer to protect
against moisture, cut, crushing and other environmental
dangers.

​ Functions of Optical Cable:

1.​ Signal-mode fibers: Used to transmit one signal per fiber (used in
telephone and cable TV)
2.​ Multi-mode fibers: Used to transmit many signals per fiber (used in
computer networks, local area networks)

Transmission Characteristics of Optical Fibers

●​ Fiber attenuation
●​ Absorption – Extrinsic and Intrinsic
●​ Scattering
●​ Coupling Loss
●​ Bending
●​ Dispersion
●​ Group velocity
●​ Polarization-maintaining fibers

Applications:
●​ Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide
bandwidth is cost-effective.
●​ High speed- with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can
transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps.
●​ The SONET network provides such a backbone.
●​ Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial
cable, thus creating a hybrid network.

Advantages:
Increased capacity and bandwidth
Light weight
Less signal attenuation
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Resistance to corrosive materials
 Disadvantages:
Difficult to install and maintain
High cost
Fragile
unidirectional, i.e., will need another fibre, if we need bidirectional
communication

Characteristics of cable media:

2.Unguided Media:
●​ Unguided media, also called as wireless communication, transport
electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
●​ The signals propagate through air(or sometimes water).
●​ It is also referred to as wireless or unbounded transmission media. No
physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals.
●​ Advantages:
1. Use for long distance communication.
2. High speed data transmission.
3. Many receiver stations can receive signals from same sender station

●​ Disadvantages:
1.​ Radio waves travel through Lowest portion of atmosphere which can
have lot of noise and interfering signals
 2.​ Radio wave communication through unguided media is an insecure
communication.
3.​ Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rain,
thunder and storm etc.

●​ Features:
o​ Signal is broadcasted through air
o​ Less secure
o​ Used for larger distance
●​ There are 4 major types of Unguided media:
o​ Radiowaves
o​ Microwaves
o​ Infrared
o​ Satellite

1.​ Radiowaves:
●​ These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The
sending and receiving antennas need not be aligned.
●​ Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequency between 3 kHz and 1 GHz
are normally called radio waves.
●​ Radio waves, are omnidirectional, i.e. they are propagated in all
directions.
●​ A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna.
●​ AM(amplitude modulation) and FM(Frequency modulation) radios and
cordless phones use Radiowaves for transmission.
●​ Radio waves, particularly of low and medium frequencies, can
penetrate walls(If something or someone penetrates a physical object or
an area, they succeed in getting into it or passing through it)
●​ It is an advantage because, an AM radio can receive signals inside a
building
●​ It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to just
inside or outside a building.
Applications:

●​ The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for

multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers.
●​ AM and FM radio,
●​ Television,
●​ Maritime radio,
●​ Cordless phones and paging.

2.​ Microwaves:

●​ Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1GHz and 300 GHz

are called microwaves.
●​ Microwaves are unidirectional.
 ●​ When an antenna transmits microwav, they can be narrowly focused.
●​ This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
●​ The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage.
o​ A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another
pair of aligned antennas.
●​ Microwaves use line-of-sight transmission.
●​ This means that microwaves must be transmitted in straight line and no
obstructions, such as buildings or mountains, between microwave
stations.
●​ To avoid possible obstructions, microwave antennas often are positioned
on the tops of buildings, towers, or mountains.
●​ Microwave transmission is divided into two types:
A. Terrestrial Microwave
Used for long-distance telephone service.
Uses radio frequency spectrum, from 2 to 40 GHz.
Parabolic dish transmitter, mounted high.

Requires unobstructed line of sight between source and receiver

Curvature of the earth requires stations (repeaters) 30 miles apart

Advantages:
• Effect of noise is reduced because of repeaters.
• Maintenance is less as compared to cable.
• No interference with other transmission channels.

Disadvantages:
• Communication can be affected because of atmospheric phenomenon
and passing airplanes and rain
• Line of sight requirement
• Expensive towers and repeaters.

Application:-
• Long-distance telecommunication service
• requires fewer amplifiers or repeaters than coaxial cable Example.,
• telephone system
• TV distribution

B. Satellite Microwave

communication satellite acts like a microwave station.

It is used to link two or more ground waves microwave transmitter or receiver

known as earth stations.

The satellite receives transmission on one frequency band (down link),

amplifies or repeats the signal and transmit it on another frequency (up link).
A single orbiting satellite will operate on no. of frequency bands called
transponder channels or simply transponder.

In the fig the satellite is being used to provide a point to point link between two
distant grounds based antenna.

The signal, a beam of modulated microwaves is sent towards the satellite

called UPLINK (6 Ghz).

Then the satellite processes the signal and send it back to the receiver’s antenna
present on the earth’s surface called as DOWNLINK (4Ghz).

The satellite has to receive, process and transmit the signal.

Types of Satellite by there purpose
●​ Communication Satellite
●​ Weather satellite
●​ Remote- Sensing Satellite
●​ Scientific Satellite
 3.​ Infrared:

●​ An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for

communication over short ranges.
●​ The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
●​ It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between
two cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer
and cell phone resides in the same closed area.
●​ The remote controls used for televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use
infrared communication.
Characteristics Of Infrared:
●​ It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
●​ An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
●​ Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun
rays will interfere with the infrared waves.

Applications
●​ TV Remote control
●​ Guidance in weapon system
●​ Wireless keyboards and mouse.
 4.​ Satellite:
●​ A satellite is a physical object that travels around the Earth at a set
altitude
●​ Satellite communication is now more dependable than cable and fibre
optic technologies because it is more adaptable
●​ We can communicate with any location on the planet using satellite
communication
Que: Define guided and unguided communication media.
Guided communication media: Guided transmission media are known as the
wired communication. The electromagnetic signals travel between the
communicating devices through a physical medium/conductor.

Unguided communication media: The unguided media is also called wireless

communication. It does not require any physical medium to transmit
electromagnetic signals. In unguided media, the electromagnetic signals are
broadcasted through air to everyone.

Line-of-sight Transmission point to point:

●​ Line of sight (LOS) is the imaginary line between an observer and the
target. In communication, line of sight is the direct path from a
transmitter to the receiver and the obstructions that may fall in that path.
A clear line of sight is important to high-speed communication.
 ​

Multiplexing:
•​ Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data
streams over a single medium.
•​ The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and
hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
•​ Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX)
that combines n input lines to generate a single output line.
•​ Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output
line.

Demultiplexing:
•​ Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer
(DEMUX) available at the receiving end.
•​ DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n
outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the
one-to-many approach.
 •​ Multiplexing allows several transmission sources to share a larger
transmission capacity.
•​ A generic term for such sharing is multiplexing.
•​ A common application of multiplexing is in long-haul communications in
which media are high-capacity fiber, coaxial, or microwave links.
•​ These links can carry large numbers of voice and data transmissions
simultaneously using multiplexing.
Why Multiplexing?
•​ If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must
be divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the
available bandwidth.
•​ For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium is100
units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
•​ When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility
of collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
Advantages of Multiplexing:
•​ More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
•​ The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing:
•​ It is an analog technique.
•​ Signals of different frequencies are combined into a composite signal and
is transmitted on the single link.
•​ Bandwidth of a link should be greater than the combined bandwidths of
the various channels.
•​ Each signal is having different frequency.
•​ Channels are separated by the strips of unused bandwidth called Guard
Bands (to prevent overlapping).

•​ In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different

carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a
single composite signal that can be transported by the link.
•​ Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to
accommodate the modulated signal.
•​ These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various
signals travel.
•​ Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth—guard
bands—to prevent signals from overlapping.
 Demultiplexing Process

Time-Division Multiplexing:
•​ It is the digital multiplexing technique.
•​ Channel/Link is not divided on the basis of frequency but on the basis of
time.
•​ Total time available in the channel is divided between several users.
•​ Each user is allotted a particular time interval called time slot or slice.
•​ In TDM the data rate capacity of the transmission medium should be
greater than the data rate required by sending or receiving devices.
 •​ TDM divided into two different schemes:
1.​ Synchronous and
2.​ Statistical (Asynchronous)

Que: Compare TDM & FDM

PARAMETER TDM FDM

Definition TDM is the transmission FDM is the transmission
technique in which different technique in which different
signal are transmitted over a signal are transmitted over a
common channel and each common channel and each
signal occupies entire range of signal occupies different slot
bandwidth in the time domain. within that bandwidth of the
frequency domain.

Stands For Time-Division Multiplexing Frequency-Division

Multiplexing
Useful for TDM can be used for both FDM can be used for Analog
Analog and Digital signals. signals only.

Synchronization TDM requires not required Synchronization.

Synchronization.
Circuit circuitry is very simple to FDM circuitry is very complex.
built.
Cross Talk TDM is not sensitive for Cross FDM suffers from the cross talk
Talk (Noise Immunity) immunity due to Bandpass
Filter.
Requirement TDM requires sync pulse for FDM requires Guard bands for
its operation. its operation.

Effiecient TDM is more efficient and is FDM is less efficient compared

widely used technique in to TDM.
multiplexing.

Applications TDM is used in Pulse code FDM is used in TV and RADIO

modulation. broadcasting.
Switching:

•​ Transmission of data beyond a local area, communication is typically

achieved by transmitting data from source to destination through a network
of intermediate switching nodes.
•​ Networks are used to interconnect many devices or stations.
•​ The stations may be computers, terminals, telephones, or other
communicating devices.
•​ Long distance transmission between stations is typically done over a network
of switching nodes.
•​ Switching nodes do not concern with content of data. Their purpose is to
provide a switching facility that will move the data from node to node until
they reach their destination (the end device).
•​ In a switched communications network, data entering the network from a
station are routed to the destination by being switched from node to node.
Switching Nodes:
•​ Nodes may connect to other nodes, or to some stations.
•​ Network is usually partially connected
•​ there is not a direct link between every possible pair of nodes.
•​ However, some redundant connections are desirable for reliability.

Types of Switching:
Circuit Switching
●​ Circuit Switching is used in public telephone networks.
●​ Telephone network provides telephone service which involves the two
way, real-time transmission of voice signals across a network.
●​ The network connection allows electrical current and the associated voice
signal to flow between the two users.
●​ These networks are connection oriented because they require setting up
of a connection before the actual transfer of information can take place.
●​ The transfer mode of a network that involves setting up a dedicated end
to end connection is called Circuit Switching.
●​ Communication via circuit switching has three phases:
1.​ Circuit establishment (link by link)
▪​ Routing & resource allocation (FDM or TDM)
▪​ In this phase, a dedicated circuit is established from the
source to the destination through a number of intermediate
switching centres. The sender and receiver transmit
communication signals to request and acknowledge
establishment of circuits.
2.​ Data transfer
▪​ Once the circuit has been established, data and voice are
transferred from the source to the destination. The dedicated
connection remains as long as the end parties communicate.
3.​ Circuit disconnect(teardown)
▪​ Deallocate the dedicated resources
●​ When data transfer is complete, the connection is relinquished. The
disconnection is initiated by any one of the user. Disconnection involves
removal of all intermediate links from the sender to the receiver.
 ​

For

Example.,

●​ For example consider above figure, station A sends a request to node-4

requesting a connection to station E.
●​ Typically, the link from A to 4 is a dedicated line node 4 must find the
next route leading to E node 4 selects the link to node 5 and so on then
sends a message requesting connection to E.
●​ Thus, a dedicated path has been established from A-4-5-6-E
●​ Data can now be transmitted from A through the network to E.
●​ The path is A-4 link, internal switching through 4, 4-5 channel, internal
switching through 5, 5-6 channel, internal switching through 6, 6-E link.
Generally, the connection is full duplex.
●​ Signals must be propagated to nodes 4, 5, and 6 to deallocate the
dedicated resources.

Advantages:
 ●​ The dedicated transmission channel provides a guaranteed data rate.
●​ Because of dedicated path there is no delay in data flow.
●​ This method is suitable for long continuous transmission.
Disadvantages:

●​ Since the connection is dedicated, it cannot be used to transmit any other

data even if the channel is free.
●​ Dedicated channels require more bandwidth.
●​ It takes more time to establish connection.

Packet Switching:
●​ In Packet Switching, messages are broken up into packets, each of which
includes a header with source, destination and intermediate node address
information.
●​ Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the
advantages of message and circuit switching.
●​ There are two methods of packet switching:
o​ Datagram and
o​ virtual circuit.

●​ In packet switching methods, a message is broken into small parts, called

packets.
●​ Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination addresses.
●​ Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they can be stored in
main memory instead of disk, therefore access delay and cost are minimized.
●​ Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are optimized.
●​ With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the network on
a first-come, first-served basis.
Advantages:
●​ Better utilization of the network segments in terms of the usage of the
network path.
●​ If a certain link goes down during the transmission, the remaining packets
can be sent through another route.
●​ Since many users can share transmission resources efficiently, the cost of
intermittent data communication is reduced.

Disadvantages:
●​ Variable transmission delays caused by packet processing and packet queues
at packet switches.
●​ Some packet-switching networks support variable packet sizes; this
contributes to longer packet processing times at packet switches.
●​ Sometimes packet may not arrive at their destination in the order in which
they were originally transmitted

Message Switching
●​ With message switching there is no need to establish a dedicated path
between two stations.
●​ When a station sends a message, the destination address is appended to the
message.
●​ The message is then transmitted through the network, in its entirety, from
node to node.
●​ Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on disk, and
then transmits the message to the next node.
●​ This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
●​ A message-switching node is typically a computer.
●​ The device needs sufficient secondary-storage capacity to store the incoming
messages.
●​ A time delay is introduced using this type of scheme due to store-
and-forward time, plus the time required to find the next node in the
transmission path.

Advantages:
●​ Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit switched systems,
because more devices are sharing the channel.
●​ Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be temporarily
stored in route.
●​ Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward technique.
●​ Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of broadcast address
appended in the message.

Disadvantages
●​ Message switching is not compatible with interactive applications.
●​ Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they must have large disks
to hold potentially long messages.