Title:

Familiarizing with the Basic DC Circuit Terms and Concepts, Introduction to Laboratory
Equipment and Simulation tool (Multisim).

Introduction:
In this experiment, we developed practical skills in constructing DC circuits and accurately
measuring current and voltage. Additionally, we explored the operation of fundamental
equipment such as resistors, a trainer board, and a multimeter. Through hands-on engagement,
we analyzed the effects of adding or removing resistors, particularly how these modifications
influenced current flow and potential differences at various points within the circuit.

Theory and Methodology:

I=Q/t

where t is the time taken for the charge to pass.

Voltage:
Voltage (V) is the electric potential difference that drives charge flow, measured in Volts. It
ranges from extra low to extra high voltage.
Resistance:

Resistance (R) opposes electric current flow and is measured in Ohms (Ω). It depends on a
material's resistivity, length, and cross-sectional area. Superconductors have zero resistance.
Ohm’s Law defines resistance as:

R=V/I

where V is voltage and I is current.

Ohm's Law:
Ohm's Law states, “The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage/ potential difference applied across the two points and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the conductor.”
Mathematically, it can be expressed as,
V=IR
Where V is the voltage (in volts), I the current (in amperes), and R is the resistance (in ohms)
of the conductor.
Meters:
Voltmeter:
Voltmeter is a device that is used to measure the voltage difference between two points
(Figure-1,2). The potential difference can be measured by simply connecting the leads of the
across the two points.

Figure-1 Figure-2

Ammeter:

An ammeter is designed to measure circuit current (as shown in Figures 3 and 4) and must be
correctly positioned within the circuit so that the electric charge flows through it. Proper
placement is essential to ensure accurate measurements. Incorrectly connecting the ammeter
in parallel with the circuit can cause a blown fuse, potentially damaging the meter and posing
a risk of injury.

Figure-3 Figure-4

Wattmeter:

Wattmeter measures the power delivered by a source and to a dissipative element (Figure-5).
 Figure-5

Multimeter:

A multimeter is an essential tool used to measure voltage, resistance, and current in electronic
and electrical systems. It is also used to check continuity between two points, helping to
identify any interruptions in a circuit or line. Multimeters are available in two main types:
analog and digital. Analog multimeters use a needle-style gauge (depicted in Figure 5), while
digital multimeters display readings on an LCD screen (shown in Figure 6). These devices
come with probes (Figure 7) for measuring voltage and resistance in various electrical testing
applications.

Figure-5 Figure-6 Figure-7

DC Voltage Sources:

DC voltage sources can be divided into three broad categories: (a) batteries (chemical action)
(Figure-8), (b) generators (electromechanical) (Figure-9), and (c) power supplies
(rectification) (Figure-10).

Figure-8 Figure-9 Figure-10

Electrical Power Supply:

A power supply, also referred to as a power supply unit or PSU, is a device or setup that
provides electrical or alternative forms of energy (Figure-10).
Breadboard:

A breadboard is a solderless and reusable device used for constructing temporary electronic
circuit prototypes and experimenting with different circuit designs (as shown in Figures 11
and 12). Unlike stripboards (veroboards) and similar prototyping printed circuit boards,
which are designed for more permanent or one-time-use circuits, breadboards allow for easy
modifications and reusability.

A breadboard consists of two main functional areas:

1. Power strips – These are arranged horizontally and provide power distribution at
points A and D.
2. Component grids – These are interconnected vertically at locations B and C,
allowing for easy placement and connection of electronic components.

Figure-11 Figure-12

Circuit Breaker and Fuses:

• Circuit breaker : A device designed to automatically interrupt an electric circuit when it detects
excessive current, preventing damage to equipment and mitigating hazards. (Figure 13)

• Fuse: A safety device containing a metallic conductor that melts when the current exceeds a
specified value, thereby breaking the circuit and protecting electrical systems from overcurrent.
(Figure 14)

Figure-13 Figure-14

Oscilloscope:

An oscilloscope is a device used to observe and measure electrical waveforms. Analog models
use a cathode ray tube (CRT), while modern digital versions have LCD screens. The screen
has focus, intensity, and beam finder controls, along with vertical and horizontal sections for
adjustments. It displays voltage (Y-axis) versus time (X-axis) in real time, allowing signal
analysis. Most oscilloscopes support two input channels for comparing waveforms.

Analog Oscilloscope Digital Oscilloscope

Figure-15

Resistance Color Coding: Resistance Color Coding is used to find the theoretical values of
different resistors. The following chart shows how to read this color code (Figure-16). If a
resistor with red, red, red and gold stripes, the nominal resistance value should be 2.2 KΩ.
The gold stripe indicates that it is a 5% tolerance resistor and can have an actual value of
2090 Ω to 2310 Ω

Figure-16

Apparatus:
1. Trainer Board
2. Voltmeter
3. Ammeter
 4. Multimeter
5. Resistors

Precautions:
1. When measuring voltage, the multimeter was connected to two points in the circuit to
obtain an accurate reading. Caution was taken to avoid touching the bare probe tips
together, as this could create a short circuit.
2. Resistance was not tested, nor was continuity checked, on an energized circuit.
3. While measuring current, the multimeter was connected in series with the circuit to
allow electrons to flow through it.
4. The multimeter had minimal resistance between its leads, ensuring electrons could pass
through with minimal obstruction. This design prevented the meter from adding
significant resistance to the circuit, which could affect the current.

Experimental Procedure:
1. The values of the resistors were theoretically calculated using the color code chart.
Subsequently, the values were measured using a Multimeter, and data table-1 was
completed.
2. The circuit shown in “Figure- ” was constructed. The total resistance (RT), total
current (I), voltage across points A and B (Vab), voltage across points C and D (Vcd),
voltage at point A (Va), and voltage at point B (Vb) were theoretically calculated.
Subsequently, the same quantities were determined using a multimeter, and the results
were recorded in Table-2.

Figure:

R1
a b

3300Ω

+
1000Ω R2
-
d

Figure : Series Circuit

Value Using Color Value Using

R2 Brown,Black,Red,Golden (950-1050)Ω 1000Ω

R3 Green,Blue,Red,Golden (5320-5880)Ω 5600Ω

R4 Brown,Green,Red,Golden (1425-1575)Ω 1500Ω

R5 Orange,White,Red,Golden (3735-4065)Ω 3900Ω

Data Table-2

Theorytical Calculation Multimeter Calculation

E
RT I Vab Vcd Va Vb RT I Vab Vcd Va Vb

4300 2.32 7.68 2.32 2.32 4300 2.36 7.69 2.32 2.32
10 10V 10V
Ω mA V V V Ω mA V V V

Experimental Calculation:
Here, RT = Rab + Rcd = (3300+1000)Ω = 4300Ω
I =V/R = 10/4300 = 2.32mA
Vab = I × Rab = 2.32×10-3 × 3300 = 7.66V
Vcd = I × Rcd = 2.32×10-3 × 1000 = 2.32V
Va = Vab + Vb ……………………(i)
Vc = Vcd + Vd
 = 2.32 + 0 [Vd = 0]
= 2.32V

Since, Vb = Vc
So, Vb = 2.32V
So from equatio (i),
Va = Vab + Vb
= 7.68 + 2.32
= 10V

Result:
RT = 4300Ω
I = 2.32mA
Vab = 7.68V
Vcd = 2.32V
Va = 10V
Vb = 2.32V

Report to Questions:
Calculation for each resistor using Color Codes from table-1 is given below:
There is no particular formula but the equation for calculating the value of resistance using
color codes is like,
R = [(numbers) × (multiplier) ± (tolerance(%))]
For R1,
Color Code Sequence = Orange,Orange,Red,Golden
Calculations = (33×102) ±5% = 3135-3465
The multimeter reading for R1 was 3300Ω
For R2,
Color Code Sequence = Brown,Black,Red,Golden
Calculations = (10×102) ±5% = 950-1050
The multimeter reading for R2 was 1000Ω
or R3,
Color Code Sequence = Green,Blue,Red,Golden
Calculations = (56×102) ±5% = 5320-5880
The multimeter reading for R3was 5600Ω
For R4,
Color Code Sequence = Brown,Green,Red,Golden
Calculations = (15×102) ±5% = 1425-1575
The multimeter reading for R4 was 1500Ω
For R5,
Color Code Sequence = Orange,White,Red,Golden
Calculations = (39×102) ±5% = 3735-4065
The multimeter reading for R5 was 3900Ω

Discussion:
1. The connection between the DC power supply and the trainer board was carefully
checked to ensure there were no loose connections before starting the experiment.
2. The resistor was placed correctly according to the provided diagram.
3. The voltage was gradually increased to avoid applying a high voltage that could
potentially damage the resistor.
4. During the experiment, an error occurred due to a fault with the voltage source. This
issue was resolved with assistance from the course instructor.
5. Finally, all the data was recorded in the data table, and the results were obtained for the
given equation.

Conclusion:
In this experiment, we explored the fundamental components of a DC circuit. We measured
various parameters, including current, voltage, and resistance, both theoretically and
practically, using a specific circuit diagram. Additionally, we learned how to determine the
resistance value using the color code system. Moreover, we utilized a simulation tool to observe
the voltage and current values, which helped verify the accuracy of our practical results. While
there was a slight discrepancy between the theoretical and practical results due to experimental
errors, the values were generally consistent.

Reference:
Robert L. Boylestad, “Introductory Circuit Analysis”, 13 th Edition, Prentice Hall, New York.