Dr Syed hussain

Department of a Computer Science and Engineering (AI and ML), TKR college of engineering
and technology, Meerpet, Balapur, Saroornagar, Hyderabad - 500097, Telangana, India.

drhussainbinkhalid@gmail.com
 INTERNET OF THINGS

UNIT - I

Introduction To Internet of Things: Introduction, physical design of IoT, logical

design of IoT functional blocks, communicational models, communication APIs, IoT

enabling technologies, IOT levels & deployment templates, Characteristics of IoT,

Applications of IoT, IoT Enablers and Connectivity Layers, Baseline Technologies,,

Sensors, Actuators, IoT Components and Implementation, Challenges of IoT.

INTERNET OF THINGS Definition :

it is the network of the physical object that contain embedded technology to

communicate, sense or interact with their internal state or external environment.

1.1 Introduction

The Internet of Things (IoT) represents the whole process from collecting data,

processing it, taking an action corresponding to the significance of this data, to storing

everything in the cloud. All this is made possible by the internet.

The Internet of Things has become a widely spread concept in recent years. The main

reason for this is the need to computerize and control most of the surrounding objects

and have access to real-time data.

Real-time Examples:

 Smart Parking Sensors: These sensors detect available parking spots and

transmit the information to a mobile application, helping drivers find parking

easily.

 Smartphones with Weather Apps: Mobile phones can access real-time

weather data and predict environmental conditions.

 Smart Traffic Lights: These adjust their signals based on real-time traffic

conditions to reduce congestion and improve vehicle flow.

 Wearable Fitness Trackers: Devices like Fitbit monitor heart rate, steps, and

sleep patterns in real time and sync the data to a mobile app.

1.1.1 Definition & Characteristics of IoT

Definition: A dynamic global network infrastructure with self-configuring capabilities

based on standard and interoperable communication protocols where physical and

virtual "things" have identities, physical attributes, and virtual personalities. These

devices use intelligent interfaces and are seamlessly integrated into information

networks, often communicating data associated with users and their environments.

Characteristics of IoT: i) Dynamic & Self-Adapting: IoT devices and systems can

dynamically adapt to changing contexts and take actions based on their operating

conditions, user context, or sensed environment.

  Example: A surveillance system comprising multiple cameras can automatically

switch modes between day and night vision based on the time of day, adapting

itself to changing conditions.

ii) Self-Configuring: IoT devices have self-configuring capabilities, allowing a large

number of devices to work together seamlessly. These devices can set up networking,

fetch software updates, and reconfigure themselves with minimal manual intervention.

 Example: Smart home assistants like Alexa and Google Home automatically

update their firmware and sync with new smart devices.

iii) Interoperable Communication Protocols: IoT devices support multiple

interoperable communication protocols, enabling seamless interaction with other

devices and infrastructure.

 Example: Smart watches use Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and LTE (Long-Term

Evolution) to communicate with smartphones and cloud services.

iv) Unique Identity: Each IoT device has a unique identity, such as an IP address,

ensuring seamless integration and tracking.

 Example: Every smart bulb in a home automation system has a unique IP

address for remote control and automation.

v) Integrated into Information Network: IoT devices are integrated into information

networks, allowing them to communicate and exchange data with other devices and

systems.
  Example: Smart thermostats like Nest learn user preferences and adjust

temperature settings by communicating with cloud servers and mobile

applications.

By incorporating these characteristics, IoT enables smarter decision-making and

improved efficiency across industries.

Applications of IoT:

 Home

 Cities

 Environment

 Energy

 Retail

 Logistics

 Agriculture

 Industry

 Health & Life Style

1.2 Physical Design of IoT

The physical design of IoT refers to the actual devices and technologies used to

implement IoT solutions. These devices include sensors, actuators, embedded systems,

and communication interfaces that enable data collection, transmission, and processing.
Real-time Example:

Smart Home Devices: IoT-enabled lights, thermostats, and security systems that

operate based on user preferences and environmental conditions.

1.2.1 Things in IoT

The "things" in IoT refer to IoT devices that have unique identities and perform remote

sensing, actuating, and monitoring capabilities. These devices exchange data with other

connected devices and applications. They collect data from other devices and process it

either locally or remotely.

An IoT device may consist of several interfaces for communication with other devices,

both wired and wireless. These include:

i) I/O interfaces for sensors

ii) Interfaces for internet connectivity

iii) Memory and storage interfaces

iv) Audio/video interfaces

Real-time Example:

Smart Wearables: Devices like smartwatches and fitness bands use sensors to track

activities and sync data to cloud applications for analysis.

Physical Design of IoT

1. I/O Interfaces (for Sensors, Actuators, etc.):

o Sensors and actuators will be connected to IoT devices through various interfaces.
o Common communication protocols for I/O interfaces include:
 UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver & Transmitter): Used for
serial communication.
 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): Suitable for short-distance
communication.
 I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit): Primarily used for communication with
video devices.
 CAN (Controller Area Network): Used for communication within
networks of independent controllers.
2. Audio/Video Interfaces:
o Audio Connectors: Used for audio frequencies in both analog and digital
formats.
o HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface): For high-quality audio and
video transmission.
o 3.5mm Audio Jack: Typically used for headphone connections.
o RCA Video: Used for composite video signals, following the Radio Corporation
of America standard.
3. Storage Interfaces:
o SD (Secure Digital): A memory card used to store data, commonly found in
smartphones.
o MMC (Multimedia Card): Another form of memory card.
o SDIO (Secure Digital Input Output): Used for input-output devices, enabling
communication with peripherals.
4. Graphics:
o Graphics involve displaying images on screens, such as bar charts, pie charts,
flowcharts, etc.
o GPU (Graphics Processing Unit): A hardware component responsible for
processing and rendering images.
o Memory for Graphics:
 Volatile Memory & Cache: Temporary memory used for fast data access.
 Non-Volatile Memory: Used for permanent storage of data.
 Static RAM (SRAM): A type of memory that does not need to be
refreshed.
 ROM (Read-Only Memory): A type of non-volatile memory that stores
firmware.
 HDD (Hard Disk Drive): A storage device for long-term data storage.
 NAND Flash: A type of memory found in memory cards and used in
smartphones and USB devices.
 NOR Flash: Another type of memory used for booting up devices.
5. Memory Technologies:
o DDR (Double Data Rate): A type of memory that allows for double the data
transmission rate, improving overall performance.
 The "things" in IoT usually refer to IoT devices which have unique identities and can perform
remote sensing, actuating, and monitoring capabilities.

 IoT devices can:

 Exchange data with other connected devices and applications (directly or indirectly).
 Collect data from other devices and process the data locally, or
 Send the data to centralized servers or cloud-based application backends for processing
the data, or
 Perform some tasks locally and other tasks within the IoT infrastructure, based on
temporal and space constraints.

 An IoT device may consist of several interfaces for connections to other devices, both
wired and wireless:

 I/O interfaces for sensors

 Interfaces for Internet connectivity
 Memory and storage interfaces
 Audio/video interfaces
IOT devices can also be of varied types for example wearable sensors, smart watches,

LED lights, automobile and industrial machines. The following diagram shows different

types of IOT devices.

1.2.2 IoT Protocols.

The protocol consists of Link Layer, Network Layer, Transport Layer and Application

Layer.

The following diagram shows the IoT protocol structure.

A) Link Layer

Protocols determine how data is physically sent over the network„s physical layer or

medium. Local network connect to which host is attached. Hosts on the same link

exchange data packets over the link layer using link layer protocols. Link layer

determines how packets are coded and signaled by the h/w device over the medium to

which the host is attached.

Protocols:

 802.3-Ethernet: IEEE802.3 is collection of wired Ethernet standards for the link

layer. Eg: 802.3 uses co-axial cable; 802.3i uses copper twisted pair connection;

802.3j uses fiber optic connection; 802.3ae uses Ethernet overfiber.

 802.11-WiFi: IEEE802.11 is a collection of wireless LAN(WLAN) communication

standards including extensive description of link layer. Eg: 802.11a operates in

5GHz band, 802.11b and 802.11g operates in 2.4GHz band, 802.11n operates in
 2.4/5GHz band, 802.11ac operates in 5GHz band, 802.11ad operates in

60Ghzband.

 802.16 - WiMax: IEEE802.16 is a collection of wireless broadband standards

including exclusive description of link layer. WiMax provide data rates from

 1.5 Mb/s to 1Gb/s.

 802.15.4-LR-WPAN: IEEE802.15.4 is a collection of standards for low rate

wireless personal area network(LR-WPAN). Basis for high level communication

protocols such as ZigBee. Provides data rate from 40kb/s to250kb/s.

 2G/3G/4G-Mobile Communication: Data rates from 9.6kb/s(2G) to up

to100Mb/s(4G).

B) Network/Internet Layer

Responsible for sending IP datagrams from source n/w to destination n/w. Performs the

host addressing and packet routing. Datagrams contains source and destination

address.

Protocols:

 IPv4: Internet Protocol version4 is used to identify the devices on a n/w using a

hierarchical addressing scheme. 32 bit address. Allows total of 2**32addresses.

 IPv6: Internet Protocol version6 uses 128 bit address scheme and allows 2**128

addresses.

 6LOWPAN:(IPv6overLowpowerWirelessPersonalAreaNetwork)operates in
  2.4 GHz frequency range and data transfer 250 kb/s.

C) Transport Layer

Provides end-to-end message transfer capability independent of the underlying n/w. Set

up on connection with ACK as in TCP and without ACK as in UDP. Provides functions

such as error control, segmentation, flow control and congestion control. Protocols:

 TCP: Transmission Control Protocol used by web browsers(along with HTTP and

HTTPS), email(along with SMTP, FTP). Connection oriented and stateless

protocol. IP Protocol deals with sending packets, TCP ensures reliable

transmission of protocols in order. Avoids n/w congestion and congestion

collapse.

 UDP: User Datagram Protocol is connectionless protocol. Useful in time sensitive

applications, very small data units to exchange. Transaction oriented and

stateless protocol. Does not provide guaranteed delivery.

 D) Application Layer: Defines how the applications interface with lower layer

protocols to send data over the n/w. Enables process-to-process communication

using ports.

 Protocols:

 HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol that forms foundation of WWW. Follow

request- response model Stateless protocol.

 CoAP: Constrained Application Protocol for machine-to-machine(M2M)

applications with constrained devices, constrained environment and constrained

n/w. Uses client- server architecture.

  WebSocket: allows full duplex communication over a single socket connection.

 MQTT: Message Queue Telemetry Transport is light weight messaging protocol

based on publish-subscribe model. Uses client server architecture. Well suited

for constrained environment.

 XMPP: Extensible Message and Presence Protocol for real time communication

and streaming XML data between network entities. Support client-server and

server-server communication.

 DDS: Data Distribution Service is data centric middleware standards for device-

to-device or machine-to-machine communication. Uses publish-subscribe model.

 AMQP: Advanced Message Queuing Protocol is open application layer protocol

for business messaging. Supports both point-to-point and publish-subscribe

model

1.3Logical Design of IoT

The logical design of IoT refers to an abstract represent of entities and processes

without going into the low level specifies of implementation.

i) IoT Functional Blocks ii) IoT Communication Models iii) IoT Comm. APIs

1.3.1 IoT Functional blocks

Provide the system the capabilities for identification, sensing, actuation, communication

and management.
 Device: An IoT system comprises of devices that provide sensing, actuation,

monitoring and control functions.

Communication: handles the communication for IoT system.

Services: for device monitoring, device control services, data publishing services and

services for device discovery.

Management: Provides various functions to govern the IoT system.

Security: Secures IoT system and priority functions such as authentication,

authorization, message and context integrity and data security.

Application: IoT application provide an interface that the users can use to control

and monitor various aspects of IoT system.

1.3.2 IoT Communication Models

i) Request-Response ii) Publish-Subscribe iii)Push-Pull iv) Exclusive Pair

i) Request-Response Model:

In which the client sends request to the server and the server replies to requests. Is a

stateless communication model and each request-response pair is independent of

others.

ii) Publish-Subscribe Model:

Involves publishers, brokers and consumers. Publishers are source of data. Publishers

send data to the topics which are managed by the broker. Publishers are not aware of

the consumers. Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker.

When the broker receives data for a topic from the publisher, it sends the data to all the
subscribed consumers.

iii) Push-Pull Model:

In which data producers push data to queues and consumers pull data from the queues.

Producers do not need to aware of the consumers. Queues help in decoupling the

message between the producers and consumers.

iv)Exclusive Pair:
It is bi-directional, fully duplex communication model that uses a persistent connection

between the client and server. Once connection is set up it remains open until the client

send a request to close the connection. Is a stateful communication model and server is

aware of all the open connections.

1.3.3 IoT Communication APIs.

SENSORS
Definition:

A sensor is a device that detects physical changes (like temperature, pressure, motion) and
converts them into electrical signals for a system to process.

Example:
A thermometer detects temperature and converts it into an electrical signal.

Characteristics of Sensors:

1. Range: The minimum and maximum values a sensor can measure.

o Example: An RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) measures from -200°C to
800°C.
 2. Span: The difference between maximum and minimum values.
o Example: RTD span = 800 - (-200) = 1000°C.
3. Accuracy: The difference between the measured and actual value.
4. Precision: The closeness of repeated measurements to each other.
5. Linearity: How closely the sensor follows an ideal straight-line response.
6. Hysteresis: The difference in sensor output when input values increase vs. decrease.
7. Resolution: The smallest detectable change in input.
8. Reproducibility: Ability to give the same output for the same input repeatedly.
9. Repeatability: Consistency of results under the same conditions (same operator, same
environment).
10. Response Time: Time taken for the sensor to reach 95% of the final output after input
change.

Classification of Sensors

1. Based on Power Requirement:

 Active Sensors: Generate their own signal; no external power needed.

o Example: Thermocouple, Photodiode, Piezoelectric sensor
 Passive Sensors: Require external power to function.
o Example: Strain gauge

2. Based on Output Type:

 Analog Sensors: Provide a continuous output (e.g., voltage).

o Example: Thermocouple, Pressure sensor
 Digital Sensors: Give discrete (ON/OFF) output in binary form.
o Example: Proximity sensor, Digital thermometer

3. Based on Data Measured:

 Scalar Sensors: Measure only the magnitude of a quantity.

o Example: Temperature, Color, Pressure sensors
 Vector Sensors: Measure magnitude, direction, and orientation.
o Example: Accelerometer (measures movement in x, y, z directions)

ACTUATORS
Definition:
An actuator is a device that converts electrical signals into physical actions (motion, heat,
force, etc.). It takes input from a system and produces an output that affects the environment.

Example:

 A motor converts electrical energy into motion.

 A heater converts electrical energy into heat.

Types of Actuators:

1. Hydraulic Actuators
o Use fluid pressure to create motion.
o Mostly produce linear movement (back-and-forth motion).
o Found in car lifts, heavy machinery, and exercise machines (steppers).
2. Pneumatic Actuators
o Use compressed air or gas to generate mechanical movement.
o Known for precise motion control (useful for start-stop actions).
o Found in bus brakes, pressure sensors, and industrial automation.
3. Electric Actuators
o Operate using electricity.
o Offer high precision and efficiency.
o Used in electric cars, robots, and factory machinery.
4. Thermal & Magnetic Actuators
o Use heat or magnetic fields to create motion.
o Operate using the Joule effect or Lorentz force (magnetic field motion).
o Found in automated systems, smart materials, and industrial tools.
5. Mechanical Actuators
o Work using gears, pulleys, or levers.
o Convert manual force into mechanical movement.
o Examples: Rack-and-pinion steering, pulleys, screw jacks.
6. Soft Actuators
o Made of flexible materials (e.g., polymers).
o Used in delicate operations like fruit harvesting and biomedical applications.
o Mimic natural movements, making them useful for robotics.
 UNIT II

IoT and M2M

INTRODUCTION
Machine-to-machine (M2M) is a technology that uses a device attached to a machine to
capture an event which is relayed through a mobile phone or fixed line network to an
application that translates the event into meaningful information. The Internet of Things
(IoT) is the next generation of the Internet based on the Internet Protocol (IP).
• Term which is often synonymous with IoT is Machine-to-Machine (M2M).
• IoT and M2M are often used interchangeably.

M2M
Machine-to-Machine (M2M) refers to networking of machines (or devices) for the
purpose of remote monitoring and control and data exchange.
M2M System Architecture :
The following diagram shows the end-to-end architecture of M2M systems comprises of
M2M area networks, communication networks and application domain.
An M2M area network comprises of machines ( or M2M nodes) which have embedded
hardware modules for sensing, actuation and communication.

Various communication protocols can be used for M2M LAN such as ZigBee,
Bluetooth, M-bus, Wireless M-Bus, Powerline communication(PLC), 6LoWPAN, IEEE
802.15.4 etc.., These protocols provide connectivity between M2M nodes within an
M2M area network.

The communication network provides connectivity to remote M2M area networks.The

communication network can use either wired or wireless network . While the M2M are
networks use either proprietary or non-IP based communication protocols, the
communication network uses IP-based network. Since non-IP based protocols are used
within M2M area network, the M2M nodes within one network cannot communicate with
nodes in an external network.

To enable the communication between remote M2M are network, M2M gateways are
used.

Block diagram of an M2M gateway:

The below diagram shows a block diagram of an M2M gateway.

M2M Nodes and Gateway Communication:

 Devices (M2M nodes) in a network use their own unique communication

protocols (e.g., ZigBee, Bluetooth).

 The M2M gateway helps these devices connect to external networks by

converting their protocols into IP-based formats (like Wi-Fi or MQTT).

Role of M2M Gateway:

 Acts as a translator between local device communication and the Internet.

 Works as a proxy, making all devices in the local network appear as virtualized
(standardized) nodes to external systems.

Where is M2M Data Used?

 Collected data is sent to various applications, such as:

o Enterprise applications (business solutions)

o Service management systems (e.g., maintenance tracking)

o Remote monitoring applications (e.g., smart home control, industrial

automation)

Common M2M Applications:

 Smart metering (electricity, water usage tracking)

 Home automation (smart locks, lights)

 Industrial automation (factory machines)

 Smart grids (efficient energy distribution)

Custom M2M Solutions:

 The way M2M systems collect, store, and analyze data is customized for different
use cases.
3.2 Difference between IoT and M2M
i)Communication Protocols:
 M2M and IoT can differ in how the communication between the machines or
devices happens.
 Commonly uses M2M protocols include ZigBee, Bluetooth, ModBus, M-Bus,
WirelessM-Bustec.,
 In IoT uses HTTP, CoAP, WebSocket, MQTT,XMPP,DDS,AMQPetc.,
 M2M uses either proprietary or non-IP based communication
 The focus of communication in M2M is usually on the protocols below the
network layer.
 The focus of communication in IoT is usually on the protocols above the network
layer.

ii)Machines in M2M Vs Things inIoT:

The “Things” in IoT refers to physical objects have unique identifier and can sense and
communicate with

Machines in M2M vs. Things in IoT (Simplified)

1. What are "Things" in IoT?

o Physical objects (e.g., smart devices) that can sense, communicate, and
interact with their environment.
 o Each thing has a unique identifier like an IP address or MAC address.
o Equipped with software to process and store sensor data or control
devices (actuators).
2. Difference Between M2M and IoT:
o M2M Machines → Mostly similar (homogeneous) devices communicating
with each other.
o IoT Things → Different (heterogeneous) devices like smart home systems,
fire alarms, and lighting controls.
3. Key Difference:
o M2M networks usually have similar machines in a specific area (e.g.,
factory machines).
o IoT connects varied smart devices across different environments.

M2M vs. IoT: Key Differences in Hardware, Data, and Applications

1. Hardware vs. Software Focus

 M2M (Machine-to-Machine): Focuses more on hardware with embedded

modules for communication.
 IoT (Internet of Things): Focuses more on software, handling sensor data
collection, analysis, and cloud-based communication.

2. Data Collection & Analysis

 M2M:
o Data is stored locally in on-premises storage (e.g., company servers).
o Used in specific point solutions like diagnostics or service management.
 IoT:
o Data is stored in the cloud (public, private, or hybrid).
o The system analyzes data in real-time and stores results in cloud
databases.
o Cloud applications visualize the data and send control commands to
connected devices.
3. Applications

 M2M Applications:
o Data is used by local (on-premises) applications like diagnostic tools,
service management, and enterprise software.
 IoT Applications:
o Data is used by cloud-based applications, including analytics, enterprise
management, and remote monitoring.
o IoT handles massive amounts of data, using real-time and batch
processing for advanced insights.

3.3 SIMPLE NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL (SNMP)

 SNMP is a well-known and widely used network management protocol that

allows monitoring and configuring network devices such as routers, switches,
servers, printers, etc. • SNMP component include
 • Network Management Station (NMS)
 • Managed Device
 • Management Information Base (MIB)
 • SNMP Agent that runs on the device

3.6.1 Limitations of SNMP

SNMP is stateless in nature and each SNMP request contains all the information to
process the request. The application needs to be intelligent to manage the device. •
SNMP is a connectionless protocol which uses UDP as the transport protocol, making it
unreliable as there was no support for acknowledgement of requests.
• MIBs often lack writable objects without which device configuration is not
possible using SNMP.
• It is difficult to differentiate between configuration and state data in MIBs.
• Retrieving the current configuration from a device can be difficult with
SNMP.
 • Earlier versions of SNMP did not have strong security features.

3.7 Network Operator Requirements -

Ease of Use

1. Separation of Data Types – Keep configuration and state data distinct.

2. Fetching Data – Ability to retrieve configuration and state data separately.
3. Network-wide Configuration – Configure the entire network as a whole.
4. Cross-Device Transactions – Apply configuration changes across multiple devices
simultaneously.
5. Configuration Deltas – Track small changes instead of full configurations.
6. Dump & Restore – Save and restore configurations when needed.
7. Configuration Validation – Ensure configurations are correct before applying them.
8. Database Schemas – Use structured configuration databases for better organization.
9. Comparison of Configurations – Compare different versions of configurations easily.
10. Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) – Restrict access based on user roles.
11. Access Control List (ACL) Consistency – Maintain uniform access rules across the
network.
12. Multiple Configuration Sets – Support for using and switching between different
configuration sets.
13. Support for Data-Oriented Approach – Ensure compatibility with both data-driven
models and configurations.

These requirements help network operators efficiently manage, configure, and secure their
networks. �

3.3 SOFTWARE DEFINED NETWORKING FOR IOT

• Software Defined Networking(SDN) is a networking architecture that separates the

control plane from the data plane and centralizes the network controller.

• Software-based SDN controllers maintain a unified view of the network and make
configuration, management and provisioning simpler.
• The underlying infrastructure in SDN uses simple packet forwarding hardware as
opposed to specialized hardware in conventional networks.

• Control plane is the part of the network that carries the payload data traffic.

Limitations of Conventional Network:

i) Complex Network Devices:

Conventional Network are getting increasingly complex with more and more protocols
being implemented. To improve link speeds and reliability. Interoperability is limited due
to the lack of standard and open interfaces . Network devices use proprietary hardware
and software and have slow product life cycles limiting innovation. The conventional
network were well suited for static traffic patterns and had large number of protocols
designed for specific applications

ii) Management Overhead:

Conventional network involves significant management overhead. Network manager

find it increasingly difficult to manage multiple network devices and interfaces from
multiple vendors. Upgradation of network requires configuration changes in multiple
devices (switches, routers, firewalls etc.,)

iii) Limited Scalability:

The virtualization technology used in cloud computing environment has increase the
number of virtual host requiring network access. IoT applications hosted in the cloud are
distributed across multiple virtual machines that require exchange of traffic. The
analytics components of IoT applications run distributed algorithms on a large number
of virtual machines and require huge amount of data exchange between virtual
machines

SDN Architecture
Figure shows the SDN Architecture and SDN Layers in which the control and data planes are
decoupled and the network controller is centralized
Key elements of SDN:

• Centralized Network Controller

With decoupled control and data planes and centralized network controller, the network
administrators can rapidly configure the network. SDN applications can be deployed
through programmable open APIs. This speeds up innovation as the network
administrator no longer need to wait for the device vendors to embed new features in
their proprietary hardware
• Programmable OpenAPIs

SDN architecture supports programmable open APIs for interface between the SDN
application and control layers (Northbound interface). With these open APIs various
network services can be implemented, such as routing, quality of service (QOS) access
control etc.,

• Standard Communication Interface(OpenFlow)

SDN architecture uses a standard communication interface between the control and
infrastructure layers (Southbound interface). OpenFlow, which is defined by the Open
Networking Foundation (ONF) is the broadly accepted SDN protocol for the Southbound
interface. With openflow, the forwarding plane of the network devices can be directly
access and manipulated. Openflow uses the concept of flows to identify network traffic
based on predefined match rules.

Figure 1: the components of an Open flow switch comprising of one or more flow
table and group table
Figure 2 shows the example of Openflow table

3.4 NETWORK FUNCTION VIRTUALIZATION FOR IOT

• Network Function Virtualization (NFV) is a technology that leverages virtualization to consolidate
the heterogeneous network.
• devices onto industry standard high volume servers, switches and storage.
• NFV is complementary to SDN as NFV can provide the infrastructure on which SDN can run
• NFV and SDN are mutually beneficial to each other but not dependent.
• Network functions can be virtualized without SDN similarly SDN can run without NFV

Key elements of NFV

• Virtualized Network Function (VNF):

VNF is a software implementation of a network function which is capable of running
over the NFV Infrastructure (NFVI).

• NFV Infrastructure (NFVI):

NFVI includes compute, network and storage resources that are virtualized.

• NFV Management and Orchestration:

NFV Management and Orchestration focuses on all virtualization-specific management

tasks and covers the orchestration and life-cycle management of physical and/or
software resources that support the infrastructure virtualization, and the life-cycle
management of VNFs.

NFV Use Case

Home Gateway.
3.5 NEED FOR IOT SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT

Automating Configuration

Monitoring Operational & Statistical Data

Improved Reliability

System Wide Configurations

Multiple System Configurations

Retrieving & Reusing Configurations

Why IoT Systems Need Management?

IoT systems involve multiple devices (sensors, actuators, software, and networks) that
collect data or perform actions. Managing them effectively is crucial for smooth
operation.

Key Aspects of IoT System Management:

1. Automating Configuration

o Helps in setting up system configurations automatically.

o Ensures all devices have the same settings, avoiding manual errors.

2. Monitoring Data (Operational & Statistical)

o Operational Data → Shows real-time system performance.

o Statistical Data → Tracks system efficiency (e.g., CPU/memory usage).

o Helps in detecting faults early.

3. Improving Reliability

o Validating system settings before applying them prevents failures.

4. System-Wide Configuration
 o Ensures all devices update at the same time.

o Prevents errors caused by some devices using old settings while others
use new ones.

o Uses an "all or nothing" method → If one update fails, the whole update is
rolled back.

5. Multiple System Configurations

o Some systems need different settings at different times.

6. Retrieving & Reusing Configurations

o Saves system settings to apply them again when needed.

3.8 NETCONF

Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) is a session-based network management

protocol. NETCONF allows retrieving state or configuration data and manipulating
configuration data on

network devices

• NETCONF works on SSH transport protocol.

Transport layer provides end-to-end connectivity and ensure reliable delivery of
messages.

• NETCONF uses XML-encoded Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs) for framing request
and

response messages.

• The RPC layer provides mechanism for encoding of RPC calls and notifications.

• NETCONF provides various operations to retrieve and edit configuration data from

network devices.

• The Content Layer consists of configuration and state data which is XML-encoded.

• The schema of the configuration and state data is defined in a data modeling language

called YANG.

• NETCONF provides a clear separation of the configuration and state data.

• The configuration data resides within a NETCONF configuration datastore on the

server.

3.9 YANG

YANG is a data modeling language used to model configuration and state data
manipulated by the NETCONF protocol

• YANG modules contain the definitions of the configuration data, state data, RPC calls
that

can be issued and the format of the notifications.

• YANG modules defines the data exchanged between the NETCONF client and server.
• A module comprises of a number of 'leaf' nodes which are organized into a
hierarchical

tree structure.

YANG Module Example

• The 'leaf' nodes are specified using the 'leaf' or 'leaf-list' constructs.

• Leaf nodes are organized using 'container' or 'list' constructs.

• A YANG module can import definitions from other modules.

• Constraints can be defined on the data nodes, e.g. allowed values.

• YANG can model both configuration data and state data using the 'config' statement.

This YANG module is a YANG version of the toaster MIB

• The toaster YANG module begins with the header information followed by identity
declarations which define various bread types.

• The leaf nodes („toasterManufacturer‟ „toasterModelNumber‟ and oasterStatus‟) are

defined in the „toaster‟ container.

• Each leaf node definition has a type and optionally a description and default value.

• The module has two RPC definitions („make-toast‟ and „cancel-toast‟).

3.10 IoT Systems Management with NETCONF – YANG.

• Management System

• Management API

• Transaction Manager

• Rollback Manager

• Data Model Manager

• Configuration Validator

• Configuration Database

• Configuration API

• Data Provider API

 UNIT III

Connectivity Terminology in IoT and Networking

Connectivity refers to the technologies, protocols, and methods that enable communication
between devices, applications, and networks. These technologies are essential for IoT
(Internet of Things), cloud computing, and modern networking.
 ⃣ Network Types

� WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network)

 A short-range wireless network connecting personal devices.

 Example: Bluetooth, Zigbee, NFC.

� WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

 A wireless network covering a home, office, or building.

 Example: Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11).

� WWAN (Wireless Wide Area Network)

 A large-area network that uses cellular technologies.

 Example: 3G, 4G, 5G, NB-IoT.

� LPWAN (Low-Power Wide-Area Network)

 A low-energy network for long-range communication between IoT devices.

 Example: LoRaWAN, Sigfox.

⃣ Communication Technologies

� Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

 A high-speed wireless communication standard for internet access.

 Example: Home and office networks.

� Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1)

 A short-range technology for wireless communication between devices.

 Example: Wireless headphones, smartwatches.

� Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4)

 A low-power wireless technology used in smart homes and industrial automation.

 Example: Smart lighting, IoT sensors.

� 6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks)

 Allows IoT devices to connect to the internet using IPv6.

 Example: Smart city applications.
� NFC (Near Field Communication)

 A very short-range wireless technology for secure data transfer.

 Example: Contactless payments, keyless entry.

� LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network)

 A low-power, long-range communication network for IoT.

 Example: Smart agriculture, industrial monitoring.

� RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)

 Uses radio waves to identify and track objects.

 Example: Contactless ID cards, warehouse tracking.

� Z-Wave

 A low-energy wireless protocol for smart home automation.

 Example: Smart locks, thermostats.

⃣ Networking & Protocols

� IP (Internet Protocol)

 Assigns unique addresses (IPv4, IPv6) to devices for network communication.

� MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport)

 A lightweight messaging protocol used in IoT and real-time applications.

� CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)

 A low-power network protocol designed for IoT devices.

� HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)

 Used for web communication and cloud connectivity.

� SDN (Software-Defined Networking)

 A technology that separates network control from hardware devices.

� NFV (Network Function Virtualization)

  Replaces physical network devices with virtualized software functions.

� NETCONF & YANG

 Used for automating and managing network configurations.

Summary Table of Connectivity Terminologies

Category Technology Example Use Case

Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, 5G,
Network Types WPAN, WLAN, WWAN, LPWAN
LoRaWAN
Wireless Zigbee, 6LoWPAN, NFC, Smart homes, IoT, security
Communication LoRaWAN systems
IoT Connectivity RFID, Z-Wave Inventory tracking, smart locks
Networking & Protocols MQTT, CoAP, HTTP, SDN, NFV IoT messaging, cloud services

Conclusion

� Connectivity technologies enable seamless communication in IoT, smart cities, cloud

computing, and modern networks. Choosing the right technology depends on factors like
range, power consumption, and security needs.

Important questions
1. _______of the IoT architecture is responsible for collecting data directly from the
environment.

2. ____is a common application of IoT technology.

3. _____ provides link between IoT devices.
4. Reducing latency by processing data closer to the source is ______

5. _______ is an example of an IoT middleware platform.

6. ______ is a key challenge in IoT security.

7. ______ is responsible for collecting data from the physical environment in IoT.

8. The two main types of IoT design are ______ and ______.
9. ________is responsible for forwarding packets based on rules defined by the controller.

10. ______technologies is commonly used for implementing rule-based automation in IoT.

11. SNMP manager is also known as _______

12. YANG full form _______

13. The main difference between IoT and M2M is ______.

14. _____ is an approach used for software-defined networking.

15. ______ is a protocol used for IoT system management.

16. ______ allows centralized control of network traffic in SDN.

17. ______is a cellular IoT connectivity option.

18. _____ is technique that allows an IoT device to connect multiple networks.

19. ______ refers to the technology used for connecting IoT devices.

20. ______ is a short-range wireless technology used for IoT applications.

Multiple choice

1. Which statement is true about the publish/subscribe model in IoT communication?

A) it requires devices to communicate with each other.
B) it is not scalable
c) it is primarily used for one-to-one communication
d) it allows messages to send and receive messages based on topics.

2. Which of the following best describes a "Digital Twin"?

a) A virtual representation of physical objects
b) A clone of digital devices
c) A new version of IoT softwares
d) A type of IoT sensors.

3. RFID stands for

a) radio frequency information
b) radio frequency indentification
c) radio frequency inform
d) radio frequency indentify.

4. Base line technologies are

a) WAN b) RFID c) CPS d) MQTT

5. What is the primary characteristic of IoT?

A) Connectivity
B) Automation
C) Intelligence
D) All of the above

6. The main function of an IoT actuator is:

A) Sensing data
B) Storing data
C) Performing actions based on data
D) None of the above

7. Which layer is responsible for data communication in IoT?

A) Perception
B) Network
C) Application
D) Physical

8. IoT communication models include:

A) Request-Response
B) Publish-Subscribe
C) Push-Pull
D) All of the above

9. In IoT networks, which of the following is NOT typically an LPWAN (Low Power Wide
Area Network) technology?

A) NB-IoT B) LoRaWAN C) Bluetooth D) Sigfox

10. Which of the following is a key component of SDN architecture?

A) Data Plane, Control Plane, and Management Plane

B) TCP/IP Model
C) Client-Server Model
D) OSI Model

11. To analyze big data requires

a) munging
b) controller services
c) web services
d) analysis component

12. Cloud platforms are

a) azure IoT
b)TLS
c) IEEE 802.11

13. YANG is used for:

A) Data modeling in IoT
B) Wireless communication
C) Sensor node management
D) None of the above

14. NFV is used for:

A) Virtualization of network functions
B) Hardware-based network management
C) Cloud storage
D) None of the above

15. Which of the following best describes M2M?

A) Machine-to-Machine communication
B) Mobile-to-Mobile communication
C) Micro-to-Macro communication
D) None of the above

16. SDN stands for:

A) Software-Defined Networking
B) Smart Data Networks
C) Sensor-Driven Networks
D) None of the above

17. Which protocol is widely used for lightweight messaging in IoT applications?
A) FTP
B) MQTT
C) HTTP
D) SMTP

18._______ is responsible for the integration of LoWPAN devices with internet leveraging.
A) ieftnfc
b) ieft 6lowpan
c) ieft/nfc
d) rfid/nfc
19. Which of the following is an IoT connectivity technology?
A) ZigBee
B) Ethernet
C) DNS
D) DHCP

20.The key benefit of IEEE 802.15.4 in IoT is:

A) High speed
B) Low power consumption
C) Large data transfer
D) None of the above

Questions:

1. Explain about logical design of IoT.

2. Discuss about the IoT levels and development templates.
3. Explain about Baseline technologies
4. Discuss about the IoTenabling technologies
5. Discuss about Iot components and implementation.
6. Explain about Physical design of IoT
7. Differentiate between Sensors and Actuators.
8. Discuss about Applications and challenges of IoT.
9. Write the difference between IoT and M2M.
10. Discuss about Simple network management protocol
11. Write the difference between SDN and NFV.
12. Describe the IoT system management with NETCONF-YANG.
13. Write the about SDN architecture with a neat sketch.
14. What is rule replacement in IoT.
15. Write about SNMP in detail.
16. Discuss about the needs for IoT system and network operation requirements.
17. Discuss about connectivity terminologies.
18. Discuss about multihoming.
19. How IoT impact of mobility on addressing..
20. Explain about IoT identification and data protocols.
21. Discuss about connectivity terminologies.
22. Define the following connectivity technologies:
a) HART and wireless Hart b) NFC c) Bluetooth d) Z-Wave
23. Define the following connectivity technologies:
a) IEEE 80.15.4 c) 6LoWPAN d) RFID
24. Define the following connectivity technologies:
a) IEEE 80.15.4 b) Zigbee c) 6LoWPAN d) RFID
e) HART and wireless Hart f) NFC g) Bluetooth h) Z-Wave