SOUND WAVES

THE NATURE OF SOUND WAVES

Sounds are generated from vibrations. Examples of objects that generate
sound are: vibrating guitar strings, vibrating air inside a trumpet, vibrating
prongs of a tuning fork, hard objects struck.
Sound requires a material medium to travel through, which means that
sound cannot travel through vacuum(empty space)
Sound can exhibit all the properties of waves which include reflection,
refraction, diffraction, interference but it does not exhibit polarization
because it is a longitudinal wave.
The displaying of sound waves can be demonstrated by the use of a
microphone and an oscilloscope.
The microphone is connected to the oscilloscope. The microphone picks up
the sound and converts it to an electrical signal.
The oscilloscope takes the this electrical signal
and displays it as a waveform. The horizontal axis of the waveform
represents time and the vertical axis represents the signal’s voltage which
corresponds to the sound’s amplitude.
A loud sound will produce a waveform with greater amplitude while a high-
pitched sound will have waves that are close together(higher frequency)
padded furniture help to reduce the magnitude
of the loudness by absorbing the energy of the sound waves.
Foam and tibre wool are also materials that can be used to reduce sound
waves loudness.

THE SPEED OF SOUND AND ECHOES

The speed of sound in air is about 330m/s.
It is key to note that the higher the temperature of air, the greater the speed
of sound. However the pressure of air does not affect the speed of sound.
The speed of sound through water is about 1400 m/s and through a
concrete, sound travels at an average speed of 5000 m/s
The speed of sound is given as follows:
Speed of sound = distance travelled/time taken.

SOUND NEEDS A MATERIAL MEDIUM

Sound is always louder at night than during the day because during the day
the ground heats up and warms the air close to it, making sound waves to
bend upwards and away from the ground while at night, the ground cools
down and the air near the ground becomes cooler than the air above it
making sound waves to bend back towards the ground allowing them to
travel further and making sounds seem louder.
ECHOES
An echo is a sound heard after the reflection of the original waves from a
plane or a hard surface. The speed of sound in echo
= distance travelled/time taken = 2 x d/t Where, t = echo time; d =
distance between the source of sound and the plane or hard
surface.
APPLICATIONS OF ECHOES
1. Echo-sounding device – used to measure the depth of water
under a boat or ship
2. Radar – used to detect the position of aircraft or ships by sending
microwaves pulses and measuring the echo time when pulses are
reflected from the ship or aircraft.
3. Parking sensor – installed in cars to set warning beeps once a car
is getting too close to an obstacle
4. Submarine detection- sonar devices are used to send sound pulses
to locate the position of under objects such as submarines
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
1. Frequency and pitch – the frequency is the number of oscillations per
second. The pitch refers to how high or low a sound is perceived. It is
determined by the frequency of the sound waves. Higher frequencies
produce higher pitches while lower frequencies produce lower pitches.
The human ear can perceive sounds of frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to
20,000 Hz
2. Octaves – An octave in sound production refers to the interval
between one musical note and another with double or half its
frequency. If a note has a frequency of 440 Hz, then another musical
note of one octave higher will have a frequency of 880 hz while a
note of one octave lower will have a frequency of 220 Hz
3. Amplitude and loudness – the loudness of
sound depends on its amplitude, which is the maximum displacement of a
wave from its rest position. A loud sound has a large amplitude and verse
versa. Loudness also depends on the intensity of sound which reaches the
human ear.
When the amplitude of a sound wave is doubled, the energy carried or

transported is quadrupled per second.

4. Quality/timbre – this is the characteristic that distinguishes a
musical note from another of the same loudness and pitch
produced by another instrument.
An overtone means a frequency greater than the basic frequency of a
sound. It may also be defined as pitches higher than the lowest pitch
within a particular sound.
ULTRA SOUND
Ultrasound in physics refers to sound waves that have frequencies higher than
the upper limit of human hearing, typically above 20 kHz.
These high-frequency sound waves can travel through various mediums and are
used in various applications, including medical imaging to visualize internal body
structures.
Ultrasound works by emitting sound waves and detecting the reflections from
tissues, allowing for the visualization of structures inside the body.
APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASOUND

1. Navigation- Measure distances underwater

2.Cleaning- Jewellery, antiques, and clockwork; Removing tartar and
plaque from teeth
3. Medical- Foetal ultrasound scans; Assess the health of internal
organs;
Treat joint pain, tumours, and kidney stones
4. Industrial
Check for defects in materials
LIGHT RAYS AND REFLECTION IN PLANE MIRRORS
Light is a form of energy or radiation that gives ability for sight. Objects that
produce light of their own are called luminous. They could be natural or
artificial. Objects that do not produce their own light but reflect the light
from light sources are called non-luminous objects. They could be natural or
artificial.
Light travels in straight lines and it is called the rectilinear nature of light.
Light travels as an electromagnetic waves and hence it can spread from its
source through empty space. Light is composed of different wavelengths as
colours ranging from the smallest wavelength – violet light to the highest
wavelength –red light.
Light of one colour or wavelength is called a monochromatic light.
Light being a wave can exhibit all the properties of waves.
Light moves as a stream of tiny energy particles called photons.
THE LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the normal at the
point of incidence all lie on the same plane.

NATURE & POSITIONS OF IMAGES

IN PLANE MIRRORS
1. The image is the same size as the object.

2. The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.

3. The image is upright

4. The image is virtual

5. The image is laterally inverted.

REFLECTION PROBLEM SOLVING
Two plane mirrors are inclined to each other as shown. A ray of light is
incident at an angle
of 30o on one of them. The ray after reflection falls on second mirror and
finally retraces its path. Calculate the angle between the mirrors.
 SOLUTION

On second mirror ray of light retraces its

path⇒ ray of light falls normally on the second
mirror
i.e., b=900 = angle ARC
a=90−r0 =600
θ=180−(b+a)
=300
Therefore, the angle between the mirrors = 0
30
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
These refers to a family of waves of which light is a member and they travel
through vacuum or empty space.
Common features of these waves are:
1. They travel at an average speed of 300,000 km/s
2. They are all transverse waves, i.e their oscillations are at right angles to
the direction of travel
3. They transfer energy as they travel:
The source radiating the waves loses energy while the material absorbing the
waves gain energy.
The entire range of these waves is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
The increasing order of their frequency is as follows: radio waves, micro-
waves, infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet rays, x-rays and Gamma rays.
The increasing order of their wavelengths is the reverse of that of the
frequency order
APPLICATIONS OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Different parts of the EM spectrum have different uses:
1. Radio waves - radio and television broadcasting.
Used in mobile phones and radar.
2. Microwaves - satellite communications and cooking food in
microwave ovens.
3. Infrared – used in remote controls; Electrical heaters, cooking food
and infrared cameras
4. Visible light – illumination; Fibre optic communications, various
optical devices
5. Ultraviolet - Energy efficient lamps, sun tanning, sterilization,
fluorescent lighting.
 6. X-rays - Medical imaging and treatments of cancer, security
scanners, studying the structure of materials.
7. Gamma rays - Medical imaging and treatments; sterilizing
medical equipment.
EFFECTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

1. Radio waves – high-intensity exposure can cause potential tissue

damage
2. microwaves – prolonged exposure can lead to burns and tissue damage

3. Infrared radiation – hig-intensity radiation can cause burns and eye

damage
4. Visible light – intense light exposure can cause eye damage
5. Ultraviolet radiation- can cause skin burns, skin cancer,
 premature aging, eye damage such as cataracts.
6. x-ray – can cause cancer when exposed to high doses of it.
7. Gamma rays – extremely penetrating and can cause severe DNA
damage leading to cancer and other health issues.
MAGNETS AND CURRENTS
Magnetic poles – these are fundamental concepts in magnetism, describing
the regions at each end of a magnet where the magnetic field is strongest.
There are two types of poles: the north pole, which is the end that points
towards the Earth’s geographical north pole when the magnet is freely
suspended while the south pole points towards the Earth’s geographical
south pole
 INDUCED MAGNETISM
This is a process whereby an unmagnetized piece
of magnetic material becomes a magnet when it
is placed near a magnet.
An induced magnet only becomes magnetic when placed within a magnetic
field, such as near a permanent magnet. The induced magnetism is temporary
and lost when removed from the magnetic field.
MAGNETIC AND NON- MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Magnetic materials are those that can be magnetized and be attracted to
magnets.
Those materials contain iron, cobalt, nickel e.t.c. These materials are called
ferromagnetic because they can easily be turned into permanent magnets.
ASSIGNMENT: Differentiate between the following: diamagnetic,
paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials.
Steel and a few alloys are used for making permanent magnets while
iron and mumetal are used for making temporary magnets.
Non-magnetic materials are those that cannot be attracted by a magnet
and they cannot be turned into magnets. Examples of these materials are:
copper, brass, zinc, tin, aluminum, etc.
THE SOURCE OF MAGNETISM
 1. Electric currents – when electric charges move through a
conductor, they create a magnetic field around the conductor.
2. Electron spin- electrons have a property called spin, which
generates a magnetic moment. When the spins of electrons are
aligned in the same direction, the material becomes magnetized.
3. Changing electric fields – according to maxwell’s equations,
when electric field is changed, it can produce a magnetic field.
MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnetic field is a region around a magnetic material or a moving electric
charge within which the force of magnetism acts.
Its symbol is B. The unit of magnetic field is Tesla (T)
The magnetic field patterns are diagrams that
show how the magnetic field lines are arranged in space. Small iron filings or
small compasses can be used to show the magnetic field patterns.
 THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
The Earth’s magnetic field also known as the geomagnetic field is generated
by electric currents due to the motion of molten iron and nickel in Earth’s
outer core.
The field resembles that of a bar magnet tilted
about 11 degrees from Earth’s rotational axis.
It has two poles which are the North and South magnetic poles.
The north magnetic pole is currently about 400 km south of the north
geographical pole, but can move to about 1000 km away.
It is worthy to note that a compass cannot function properly in polar
regions because the magnetic field lines there are vertical but the needle of
a compass is designed to move horizontally and hence the needle struggles
to align properly or may even get stuck.
THE MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
The magnetic effect of electric current is also known as electromagnetism
which centers on the fact that when an electric current is passed through a
conductor (like a wire), it generates a magnetic field around the conductor.
The direction of the magnetic field depends on the direction of the current.
And this can be shown using the right-hand thumb or grip rule
The right-hand grip rule states that if the thumb
points in the direction of the current, then the curl of the fingers point in the
direction of the
magnetic field.
Magnetic field from coils have stronger field strength than that from
a straight-current carrying conductor (a wire) because the magnetic
field produced by each loop of the coil adds together, creating a much
stronger magnetic field.
The long coil of several turns or loops is called a solenoid. The more the
number of loops, the greater the strength of the magnetic field produced.
 ELECTROMAGNETS
An electromagnet consists of a coil of wire often wound around a core
made of a ferromagnetic material (like iron) which when current is passed
through, generates a magnetic field.
The core material, usually iron, enhances the magnetic field created by
the coil and the becomes magnetized and significantly increases the
strength of the magnetic field.
Electromagnets are temporary magnets and a major advantage it has over
permanent magnets is
that their magnetic field can be easily controlled by adjusting the electric
current: when the current is turned off, the magnetic field disappears.
The following are properties of electromagnets:
1. Strength – this is a function of the amount current flow through the coil
and the number of turns of the coil.
 2. Polarity – the polarity of the magnetic field of an electromagnet
can be reversed by reversing the direction of the current. This makes
electromagnets very versatile for various applications.
3. Temporary magnetism – Unlike permanent magnets,
electromagnets only exhibit magnetism when an electric current is
flowing through the coil and this allows for precise control in many
applications.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS
1. Electric motors and generators: Electromagnets are crucial components
in electric motors where they convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy while in generators, they
convert mechanical energy into electrical
2. Transformers:
Electromagnets are used to transfer electrical energy between circuits
through electromagnetic induction.
ELECTRCIC MOTORS
The coil of an electric motor is made of insulated copper wire and it is
free to rotate
between the poles of the magnet.
The power supply source in a simple electric motor is usually a battery.
There is a magnet (temporary or permanent) which creates a magnetic
field that interacts with the current in the armature to produce motion.

The armature or Rotor is the rotating part of the electric motor, which consists
of the coils of wire that carry the current. The interaction between the
magnetic field and the current in the armature generates a force that causes
the armature to rotate. The force is explained by the Fleming's left- hand rule.
The commutator is a rotary switch that reverses the direction of current
through the armature to ensure that the torque acting on the armature is
always in the same direction allowing continuous rotation.
The carbon brushes which are always in contact with the commutator
ensures that current is conducted between the stationary wires and the
commutator .
The Axle is the shaft that the armature rotates around and its function is to
transfer the mechanical energy generated by the motor to the external load.
Electric motors have applications in fans, blender, washing machines,
pumps, electric vehicles e.t.c
The following determines the increase of the
turning effect on the coil of the armature:

1. If the amount of current flow increases.

2. The use of a stronger magnet.

3. Increasing the number of turns on the coil

4. Increasing the area of the coil in terms of its thickness and length.
GENERATOR
A.C generators known also as alternators have the following components:
1. The Alternator- This part converts the mechanical energy from the
engine into electrical energy. It consists of a rotor(which rotates) and
a stator(which remains stationary).
The interaction between the rotor and the stationary generates electricity.
2. The slip rings – These parts are fixed to the coil and they ensure that a
continuous electric connection between the rotor and the stator is provided to
allow for electrical power supply from the rotor to the external circuit.
3. The carbon brushes – These parts are connected to the slip rings and
they conduct the electrical current from the slip rings to the external
circuit.
4. The magnet – provides the magnetic field in the generator.
As the coil rotates, it cuts through the magnetic fields lines and this
generates e.m.f and hence current is induced in the coil. The current is the
supplied to the external circuit through the slip rings and the carbon brushes.
The following determines the increase of the induced e.m.f in the coil of
the generator:
1. Increasing the number of turns on the coil
2. The use of a stronger magnet.
3. If the coil rotates faster.
4. Increasing the area of the coil in terms of its thickness and
length.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
This is a phenomenon whereby an electric current is generated in a
conductor due to a changing magnetic field. This effect was discovered by
Michael Faraday in 1931.
Whether the magnetic field changes or the conductor moves through a
stationary magnetic field, the electric current will be induced in the
conductor.
The following will reverse the direction of the current induced in the
conductor:
1. Moving the wire in the opposite direction

2. Turning the magnet round so that the field direction is reversed.

There are basically two laws of electromagnetic induction:
1. Faraday’s law states that whenever there is a change in the magnetic
field lines of force, an emf is induced and its strength is proportional to the
rate at which the magnetic field lines are cut by the conductor.
2. Lenz’s law states that an induced current always flows in a direction
such that it opposes the change which produced it.
Please note that if the conductor is not moving or it is moving parallel to
the field lines, there is no induced emf or current in the conductor.
Lenz’s Law
 EDDY CURRENTS
Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within conductors by a
changing magnetic field.
When a conductor is exposed to a changing magnetic field, an e.m.f is
induced in the conductor according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. These induced currents flow in closed loops within the conductor
in planes perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Characteristics of eddy currents
1. Opposition to change – according to Lenz’s law, the direction of the eddy
currents is such that they create a magnetic field opposing the change in the
original magnetic field that induced them.
2. Energy dissipation – Eddy currents can cause energy losses in the
form of heat within the conductor. This occurs in electrical devices like
transformers and motors where it leads to inefficiency or reduction in
efficiency.
Minimizing eddy current losses
To reduce the unwanted effects of eddy currents, especially in transformers
and electric motors, the cores are often made of laminated sheets of metal:
this increases the resistance to the flow of eddy currents, thereby reducing
energy losses.
As unpleasant eddy currents could be, there are a few applications of these
currents:
1. Induction heating. 2. Magnetic braking.
3. Non- destructing testing.
COILS
What is mutual inductance in coil system? Mutual inductance is a key
concept in electromagnetism in systems involving coils.
When two coils are placed close to each other, the magnetic field generated
by the current in one coil (the primary coil) can link with the turns of the
second coil (the secondary coil).
The induced emf in any coil is given as:
E = d(nφ)/dt where n = number of turns of the coil, φ = the magnetic flux
measured in weber
(number of the magnetic field lines) while t is the
given time in seconds; nφ represents the
magnitude of the magnetic flux.
The torque which turns the coil around in the magnetic field is given as: T =
BANI sin Ɵ where Ɵ is the angle between the coil and the direction of the
magnetic field; if the angle is 900, then
T = BANI
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, a changing magnetic field in the primary coil induces an e.m.f in
the secondary coil. The induced e.m.f is proportional to the rate of change of
current in the primary coil.
The mutual inductance (M) between two coils is defined as:
M = N2 φ21/I1
Where N2 is the number of turns in the secondary
coil; φ21 is the magnetic flux through the
secondary coil due to current in the primary coil
Factors that can effect on mutual inductance:
1. Increasing the number of turns in either coil increases the mutual
inductance.
2. Core material – using a core material with high magnetic permeability
 (like iron) enhances the magnetic coupling between the coils.
3. Distance and orientation – the closer and more aligned the coils
are, the stronger the mutual inductance.
Mutual inductance has a few applications and they are as follows:
1. Transformers
2.Wireless charging
3. Inductive sensors
Assignment. How does mutual inductance have affect the efficiency of a
transformer.
TRANSFORMER
A electrical transformer is a device that transfer electrical energy between
two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction
A transformer works on the principle of mutual inductance.
A transformer works as follows:
1. Primary coil – when an alternating current (AC) flows through the
primary coil, it creates a varying magnetic field around it.
2. Magnetic core – this magnetic field is concentrated and guided by
a magnetic core,
usually made of iron, which links the primary and secondary coils.
3. Secondary coil – The varying magnetic field induces an electromagnetic
force (emf) in the secondary coil, according to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. If the secondary coil is part of a closed circuit, an
AC current will flow through it.
TRANSFORMER
 TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

1. Step-up transformer – increases the voltage from the primary to the

secondary coil. It has more turns in the secondary coil than in the
primary coil.
2. Step-down transformer – decreases the voltage from the primary to
the secondary coil. It has fewer turns in the secondary coil than in
the primary coil.
The induced emf and current and the number of turns of the coils in a
transformer are related as follows:
Es/Ep = Ns/Np = Ip/Is; where Es and Ep are the voltages at the secondary coil
and the primary coil respectively while Ns and Np are the number of windings
or turns at the secondary coil and the primary coil respectively and the Ip and
Is represent the currents in the primary coil and the current at the secondary
coil respectively.
If there is no energy wasted in a transformer, i.e,
the efficiency is 100 %, it means the power supplied by the output coil is
equal to the power supplied into the input coil as follows:
IpVp = IsVs
The efficiency of any transformer can never be 100 % due to wasted energy
as result of heating effects in the core and coil. The causes of the wasted
energy are as follows:
1. The heat loss as a result of the resistance of the coils (I2RT). The use of
thick wires or low resistance coils can reduce this loss.
2. Eddy currents – the core is a conductor and hence there is a change of
magnetic field and this induces currents called eddy currents in the core.
To reduce this, the core is laminated to break the path of flow of the eddy
currents.
3. Hysteresis loss – this is due to the reversing of the magnetization of the
core of the transformer. Using special alloys at the primary coil is key.
CALCULATIONS
1. Find the turns ratio in a transformer which delivers a voltage of 120 volts
in the secondary coil from a primary voltage of 60 volts
SOLUTION
Ns/Np = Vs/Vp
= 120/60 = 2
Therefore, the turns ratio, Ns/Np = 2
2. A transformer has 500 turns in the primary coil and 300 turns in the
secondary coil. If the primary coil is connected to a 220 v mains, what
voltage will be obtained from the secondary coil? What type of
transformer is this?
SOLUTION
Ns/Np = Vs/Vp 300/500 = Vs/220
Vs = 300 x 220/500 = 132 volts. This is a step-down
transformer.
CLASS WORK
A step-down transformer operates a 2400 volt line and supplies a current of 60
A. The turns ratio of the transformer is 1/24. Calculate the secondary voltage,
the primary current and the power output, if the transformer is 100 % efficient.
 POWER TRANSMISSION
Power transmitted over a long distance is given as: Power, P = IV. By this, the
power can be transmitted at low voltage and high current or at
low voltage but high current. Now since current
leads to heating effects, then when electrical power is supplied at high current,
it means a lot of energy will be lost as heat energy. And to this effect, it is
better to transmit power at a low current but high voltage. This transmission is
Electrical power can either be transmitted via overhead cables suspended on
tall towers called pylons or transmitted via land lines buried underground.
The land lines project could be expensive but it is better since the natural
beauty of the environment would not be distorted by the use of cables and
pylons.
 ATOMS
THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE – Atoms are the fundamental building blocks
matter and consists of three main subatomic particles:
1. protons: Positively charged particles found in the nucleus.
2. Neutrons: Neutral particles, also located in the nucleus.
3. Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus in various
energy levels or shells
 THE NUCLEUS
The nucleus is the dense central core of the atom, containing protons and
neutrons. The number of protons in the nucleus determines the atomic number
of an element, which defines the element itself. For example, carbon has six
protons, so its atomic number is 6.
A metal such as sodium has 11 protons, so its atomic number is 11.
The nucleon or mass number is the total of the protons and the neutrons in
the nucleus.
IONIZATION
Ionization is a process whereby an atom or molecule loses an electron to
become a positively charged ion (cation) or gains an electron to become
negatively charged ion (anion)
Ions are formed as follows:
1. When atoms or molecules collide with high- energy particles, such as
electrons or other ions thereby losing or gaining electrons.
2. When atoms or molecules absorb high-energy photons (like x-rays or
UV light), electrons are being ejected.
3. When a chemical reaction occurs; for instance when acids dissolve in
water, ionization occurs. For example, hydrogen chloride (HCl) in water
forms hydronium (H3O) and chloride (Cl-) ions
APPLICATI
ONS OF IONIZATION
1. Fluorescent lamps – the ionization of gases inside the lamp
produces light.
2. Radiation detectors – devices such as the Geiger-Muller
counters use ionization to detect radiation
3. Mass spectrometry – ionization helps identify the composition of
substances by measuring the mass of ions.
 THE ATOMIC MODELS
Over time, several models have been proposed to describe the structure of
the atom:
1. Dalton’s Model – John Dalton proposed that atoms are indivisible
particles, which was later found to be incorrect.
2. Thomson’s Model – J.J Thomson discovered the electron and he
proposed that electrons were embedded in a positively charged
“pudding”
3. Rutherford’s Model –Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and he
proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus like planets around the Sun.
4. Bohr’s Model – Niels’s Bohr introduced the idea of quantized electron
shells where electrons can only occupy certain energy levels.
5. Quantum mechanical Model – This model is based on quantum
mechanics, describing electrons as existing in orbitals rather than fixed
paths. ELEMENTS AND ISOTOPES
Elements are pure
substances consisting of
only one type of atom.
The protons number of any
atom identifies its
element. For example, if
an atom has two (2) protons in its nucleus, then the element of that atom is
helium (He); all atoms with 6 protons are carbon atoms.
There are 103 known elements listed in the periodic table in the order of their
atomic number in groups and periods.
Isotopes are different forms of the same element that have the same number
of protons but different numbers of neutrons, which means they have
different atomic masses.
For instance, carbon has two stable isotopes which are: carbon-12 (with 6
neutrons) and carbon-13 (with 7 neutrons). There is also a radioactive isotope,
carbon-14, which has 8 neutrons.
All these atoms of carbon exhibit the same chemical behaviour because they
have the same number of protons and electrons.
ELECTRON SHELLS
It is an established fact that electrons orbit the nucleus of its atom at certain
energy levels called shells. The electrons in the outermost shell form a
chemical bond with the electrons of other atoms and hence the electrons are
the particles of an atom that take part in chemical reaction.
Hence atoms or elements with the same electronic configuration have the
same chemical properties.
RADIOACTIVITY
This is a process by which unstable atomic nuclei release energy in form of
radiation. This phenomenon occurs because certain atomic nuclei are not
stable and seek to reach a more stable state by emitting energy.
The striking difference between radioactive substances and radiation is that
the former refers to the materials that contain unstable nuclei which can
decay over time, releasing energy in the form of radiation.
While on the latter, radiation refers to the energy that is emitted from
radioactive substances. It can take the form of particles or electromagnetic
waves.
RADIATION CONTAMINATION, IRRADIATION AND BACKGROUND RADIATION
Radiation contamination occurs when a radioactive material is deposited on
or within objects or surfaces or living organisms such as humans. It can be
radioactive particles being ingested or entering a wound.
Irradiation on its own refers to the process of being exposed to radiation from
an external source without the radiation material coming into contact with the
object or person. Examples are:
Medical x-rays, food sterilization using gamma rays e.t.c.
Background radiation refers to the low-level radiation that is naturally
present in the environment.
Examples of background radiation sources are: cosmic rays from space (some
from the sun), naturally occurring radioactive materials in the earth such as
radon gas and even some foods.
The ground also contains radioactive materials.
There are also artificial sources of radiation and most of the radiations
humans are exposed to come from medical sources such as the use of x- ray
and gamma radiations for examination of the human body and also for
destroying cancer cells.
DETECTING RADIATION
This involves identifying and measuring ionizing radiation which includes
alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays and neutrons.
Various instruments are used for this purpose and a very common one is the
Geiger-muller (G-M) counters. It has applications in the following:
1. Checking for radiation levels in the environment.
2. Monitoring radiation exposure for patients and medical staff.
3. Ensuring safety in nuclear facilities and detecting radioactive
contamination.
4. Used for research in the laboratories.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
This refers to the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by
emitting radiation.
Examples of radioactive decay are: alpha decay (two protons and two
neutrons are released), beta decay (an electron or positron is released
coming out of the nucleus), gamma decay (high energy photons are released)
The alpha particles are positively charged while the beta particles are
negatively charged but the gamma rays have no charge or neutrally charge.
The alpha particles have the same nucleus as that of helium atom. They are
more massive than beta particles and hence they travel more slowly.
Radioactive decay occurs due to a very heavy nucleus or a high number of
neutrons being
present
Factors that affect decay rate include the following:
1. Nature of the nucleus – the half life, which is the time it takes half of
the radioactive atoms to decay is a major factor.
2. Energy state – If a nucleus is an excited state, it may decay faster than one
in a lower energy state.
The following can never affect the rate of radioactive decay:
1. Temperature

2. Pressure

3. Chemical state
4. Magnetic and electric fields.
THE PENETRATION POWER OF DECAY PARTICLES/RAYS
1. Alpha particles can be absorbed by a thin sheet of paper but they
cannot penetrate the skin.
2. Beta particles can travel through air easily but they are absorbed by
aluminium of a few millimetres thickness.
3. Gamma rays have the highest penetrating power but can be
absorbed by lead or concrete of several centimeters thickness.
 IONIZATION OF EFFECTS OF ALPHA, BETA AND
GAMMA RADIATION
Alpha particles are highly ionizing due to their large mass and charge (two
protons and two neutrons). They can cause significant ionization in a short
distance. They travel at an approximate speed of 15000 to 30000 km/s
Beta particles are less ionizing than the alpha particles and they travel at an
average speed of 270000 km/s
Gamma rays have less ionizing effect when compared to alpha and beta
particles but they can produce ionization effect in the photoelectric effect.
They travel at the speed of light which is approximately 300000 km/s.
Specific safety measures are required to protect against the effects of all
these radiations and they as follows:
1. Spend less time near a radiation source. 2. Increase distance from the
source. 3. use appropriate shielding materials to reduce or block radiation.
Other safety measures involving the medical staff
going for routine checks; taking records of how long people are exposed to
radiation; storing securely radioactive sources by surrounding them with lead
to absorb most of the radiations;
Even radioactive hazards are to be properly labelled so that people
can be aware of the danger and take necessary measures.
 ./

DEFLECTING RADIATION
The three main types of radiation can be differentiated
one from another by passing them through electric and
magnetic fields.
The alpha (α) particles are positively charged and hence they are attracted
towards a negatively charged plate while the beta (β) particles are attracted
towards a positively charged plate but the gamma rays are not deflected in
an electric field because they carry no charge. The beta particles deflect more
than the gamma particles
 HALF-LIFE OF A RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCE
This refers to the time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample
to decay.
It can also be described as the time it takes for the activity of a radioactive
material to decrease by half.
The characteristics of half-life are as follows:
1. It is a fixed property. It does not depend on the amount of the
sample.
2. Different radioactive isotopes have different half- lives
RADIOACTIVE TRACING
This refers to the technique used to track the movement and distribution of
substances within a system by incorporating radioactive isotopes into the
substances.
A radioactive tracer is a chemical compound in which one or more atoms
have been replaced by a radioisotope to allow for the compound to be
tracked by monitoring its radioactive decay
 CALCULATIONS INVOLVING HALF-LIFE
1. A certain radioactive element has a half-life of 10 years. (a) How long
will it take to loose 7/8 of its atoms originally present. (b) How long will
it take until only ¼ of the atoms originally present remain unchanged
SOLUTION
For it to loose 7/8 of its original atom(N) it means 1/8 of its atoms will remain
= (1/8) N
In 10 years it will retain ½ of its original atom =N/2
After 20 years, ½ 0f (½) N remains = ¼ N
After 30 years, ½ of (¼) N remains = 1/8 N Therefore in 30 years, the
radioactive element would lose (7/8) N
In 20 years, ¼ N remains unchanged
2. A substance has a half-life of 3 mins. After 6 mins, the count rate
was observed to be 400. What was its count rate at zero time.
400 = N0 (1/2) 6/3
400 = N0 (1/4)
N0 = 400 x 4 = 1600
Therefore, the count rate zero time = 1600

CLASS WORK- Two radioactive elements P and Q have half-lives 10 and 20

minutes respectively. If they started off with the same number of atoms, what is
the ratio of the number of remaining atoms
 NUCLEAR ENERGY
This is the energy derived from the reactions that occur within atomic nuclei.
There are two primary processes through which nuclear energy is harnessed:
fission and fusion.

NUCLEAR FISSION
This is the splitting of a heavy atomic nucleus into two lighter nuclei, along with
the release of a significant amount of energy.
This process of fission typically involves isotopes like uranium-235 or
plutonium-239:
When a nucleus of these isotopes absorbs a neutron, it becomes unstable
and splits into two smaller nuclei, releasing additional neutrons and a large
amount of energy in the form of heat.
The major danger with fission is that it produces radioactive waste that can
remain hazardous for thousands of years.
The mass of product particles is slightly less than the mass of the reactant.
This mass is converted into energy which can be calculated using Albert
Einstein’s famous equation E=mc2.
Energy released equals the mass lost times the speed of light squared.
Fission reactions are done in a reactor to contain the extreme amounts of
energy produced. A nuclear bomb is the result of this reaction in an
unrestrained environment.
Fission has applications in:
1. Electricity generation – most nuclear power plants use fission to
generate electricity and also the heat produced is used to generate
steams used to drive turbines.
2. Radioisotopes produced in fission reactions are used in medical
diagnostics and treatments, such cancer radiotherapy.
3. Fissions are used in nuclear weapons.
NUCLEAR FUSION
This refers to the combining of two light atomic nuclei to form a heavier
nucleus, releasing energy in the process.
This process powers the Sun and other stars, where hydrogen nuclei fuse to
form helium under extreme temperatures and pressures. It is safer generating
energy via fusion than fission.
Fusion has applications in: generating electricity and powering spacecraft for
deep-space missions.
 EARTH IN SPACE
SUN, EARTH AND MOON – DAY AND NIGHT
The Sun is a massive, hot ball of hydrogen and helium and it is about 150
million km from Earth. The Sun’s gravity holds solar system together and
its energy is crucial for life on Earth, providing the
light and heat necessary for survival. The Sun produces energy through a
process called fusion, where hydrogen atoms are fused into helium in its core
and a tremendous amount of energy is released.
The energy produced is transported outwardly through the radiative and
convective zones before reaching the surface and being emitted as sunlight.
The Earth: day, night and seasons
The Earth rotates on its axis which is an imaginary line running from the North
pole to the South pole. This rotation takes about 24 hours to complete.
Day and Night cycle: As the Earth rotates, different parts of its surface move
into and out of light, creating day and night. When your location on Earth
faces the Sun, its daytime; when it faces away, its nighttime.
SEASONS
Tilted Axis: The Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of about 23.5 degrees relative to
its orbit around the Sun. This tilt is the primary reason we experience seasons.
As the Earth orbits the Sun over the course of a year, the tilt causes different
parts of the Earth to receive varying amounts of sunlight at different times of the
year.
SUMMER
When the North pole is tilted toward the Sun, the northern hemisphere
experiences summer because it receives more direct sunlight.
WINTER
Conversely, when the North pole is tilted away from the Sun, the Northern
hemisphere experiences winter due to less direct sunlight.

SPRING AND AUTUMN

These seasons occur during the transition periods when neither hemisphere is
tilted directly towards or away from the Sun, resulting in more balanced
daylight and temperatures.
THE MOON
The moon is Earth’s only natural satellite and plays a vital role in various
natural phenomena including tides and eclipses.
PHASES OF THE MOON
The moon goes through a cycle of phases each month, which are caused by
the changing angles of sunlight hitting the moon as it orbits Earth.
The primary phases are as follows:
1. New moon: The moon is between Earth and the Sun and its dark
side faces us.
2. Waxing crescent: A small, crescent-shaped sliver of the moon
becomes visible.
3. First quarter: Half of the moon is illuminated.
4. Waxing Gibbous: More than half of the moon is illuminated, but it is
not yet full.
5. Full moon: The entire face of the moon is illuminated.
6. Waning Gibbous: The illumination starts to
decrease.
7. Last quarter: Again, half of thr Moon is illuminated, but the opposite
side from the First quarter.
8. Waning crescent: only a small crescent is visible before it returns to the
New moon phase.
Note that it takes the same time for the rotation of the moon on its axis as its
orbit time around the Earth.
This synchronous rotation of the moon on its axis means that the same
side of the moon always faces the Earth. This phenomenon is known as
tidal locking.
The moon takes about 27.3 days to complete on orbit around Earth.
However due to the Earth’s movement around the Sun, it takes about 29.5
days to go from one new moon to the next.
 ORBITAL SPEED
Speed = distance/time = 2 π r/t Radius of the moon, r = 3.84 x
105 km
Speed = distance/time = 2 x π x 3.84 x 105 km/27.3 days
Speed = 3680km/h
The orbital speed of the moon around the Earth is 3680km/h
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
This is a fascinating and complex structure that includes the Sun, eight
planets, dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, comets and other celestial objects.
The Sun – This is a yellow huge star with the role of providing the
gravitational pull that keeps the solar system together and it also supplies
the energy necessary for life on Earth.
 PLANETS
There are eight planets divided into two categories which are: terrestrial and
gas planets.
1. Terrestrial planets – This include:
Mercury – this is the closest to the Sun. It is small and has extreme
temperature variations.
Venus – this is similar in size to Earth but with a thick and toxic atmosphere
with temperatures hot enough to melt lead.
Earth – this is the only planet known to support life, with liquid water and a
protective atmosphere.
Mars – known as the red planet, with the largest volcano and canyon in the
solar system.
.The gas planets – this include: Jupiter – the largest planet, with a strong magnetic
field and has at least 79 moons, including Ganymede, the largest moon in the
universe
Saturn – this planet is famous for its stunning ring system and it has at least 83
moons.
Uranus – this is an ice giant with a unique tilt, causing extreme seasonal
variations.
Neptune – known for its intense blue colour and strong winds. It has at least
14 moons.
DWARF PLANETS – Common among this category is pluto which was once
considered the ninth planet. Also in this category are Eris, Haumea ,
makemake e.t.c
MOONS
Earth’s moon – this is the only natural satellite of Earth, influencing tides and
stabilizing the
planet’s tilt.
Other moons – Jupiter and Saturn have the most moons.
SMALL SOLAR SYTEM BODIES
Asteroids - mostly found in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. They
vary in size and shape.
Comets – composed of ice and dust. They have highly elliptical orbits and
develop tails when they approach the Sun.
Meteoroids – these are small rocky or metallic bodies. When they enter
Earth’s atmosphere and burn up, they are called meteors but if they reach
the ground, they are called meteorites.
The Kuiper belt is a region beyond Neptune. The solar system is
located in the milky way galaxy.
LIGHT YEAR
This is a unit of distance used in astronomy to measure how far light travels
in one Earth year.
A light year is about 63, 241 astronomical unis (AU) where one AU is the
average distance from Earth to the Sun.
1 light year = 9.5 x 1012 km.
It takes an approximate value of 8 mins for the light from the Sun to reach us
on Earth.
GALAXIES
A galaxy is a massive system composed of stars, stellar remnants,
interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter, all bound together by gravity.
A galaxy can have a spiral or elliptical or irregular shape.
The components of galaxies include: stars, Nebulae, black holes and dark
matter. The milky galaxy where Earth belongs has over 100 billions stars.
Nebulae refers to clouds of gas and dust where new stars are born.
Dark matter refers to an unseen component that makes up most of the mass
in the galaxy, influencing their structure and rotation.
Galaxies were form from the gravitational collapse of gas clouds in the early
universe. They evolve through star formation, supernova explosions and
interactions with other galaxies.
The three most notable galaxies are: milky way, which is our home galaxy, a
barred spiral galaxy with a supermassive black hole at its centre; Andromeda
galaxy, which is the closest galaxy to the milky way, which may collide with
the milky way in about 4.5 billion years according to astronauts.
Galaxies are the building blocks of the universe, forming a vast cosmic web of
interconnected structures.
DETERMINATION OF THE UNIVERSE’S AGE
The universe’s age can be estimated using the Hubble constant (Ho), which
measures the rate of expansion of the universe.
Age of the universe = 1/ Ho, the unit of the Hubble constant is km/s/Mpc
(kilometre per second per megaparsec); Ho is approximately 70 km/s/Mpc.
Age of the universe = d/v where d is the distance of the galaxy from Earth and
v is the speed at which a galaxy is moving away from Earth. The universe is
about 13.8 billions years old.
 THE BIG BANG THEORY
The big bang theory is the leading explanation for how the universe began. It
describes the
universe’s expansion from an extremely hot and
dense initial state. The points are as follows:
1. The universe started about 13.8 billion years ago from a small, dense
point
2. The universe has been expanding ever since, stretching space itself
and cooling down over time.
The existence of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiations which is
the afterglow of the big bang discovered in 1965, provides a snapshot of the
early universe when it became transparent to radiation.
Also supporting the big bang theory is the redshift of galaxies which were
observed by Edwin Hubble, showing that galaxies are moving away from us,
indicating that the universe is expanding.