Subtopic 4.

3
Aquatic Food
Production
 Syllabus-SL
4.3.1 Phytoplankton and macrophytes provide energy for freshwater and marine food webs.
4.3.2 Humans consume organisms from freshwater and marine environments.
4.3.3 Demand for foods from freshwater and marine environments is increasing due to the growth in human
population and changes in dietary preferences.
4.3.4 The increasing global demand for seafood has encouraged use of unsustainable harvesting practices
and overexploitation.
4.3.5 Overexploitation has led to the collapse of fisheries.
4.3.6 The maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is the highest possible annual catch that can be sustained over
time, so it should be used to set caps on fishing quotas.
4.3.7 Climate change and ocean acidification are having impacts on ecosystems and may cause collapse of
some populations in freshwater or marine ecosystems.
4.3.8 Unsustainable exploitation of freshwater and marine ecosystems can be mitigated through policy
legislation addressing the fishing industry and changes in consumer behaviour.
4.3.9 Marine protected areas (MPAs) can be used to support aquatic food chains and maintain sustainable
yields.
4.3.10 Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic
plants. The industry is expanding to increase food supplies and support economic development, but there are
associated environmental impacts.
 Syllabus-HL
4.3.11 Productivity, thermal stratification, nutrient mixing and nutrient loading are interconnected in water
systems.
4.3.12 Accurate assessment of fish stocks and monitoring of harvest rates are required for their conservation
and sustainable use.
4.3.13 There are risks in harvesting fish at the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) rate and these risks need to
be managed carefully.
4.3.14 Species that have been overexploited may recover with cooperation between governments, the fishing
industry, consumers and other interest groups, including NGOs, wholesale fishery markets and local
supermarkets.
4.3.15 According to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), coastal states have an exclusive
economic zone stretching 370 km out to sea, within which the state’s government can regulate fishing.
Almost 60% of the ocean is the high seas outside these coastal zones, with limited intergovernmental
regulation.
4.3.16 Harvesting of seals, whales and dolphins raises ethical issues relating to the rights of animals and of
indigenous groups of humans.
4.2.16 Water stress can arise from transboundary disputes when water sources cross regional boundaries.
4.3.1: Aquatic Food Webs
● Trophic Level 1 – Primary Producers (Phytoplankton
and algae) which generate energy through
photosynthesis
● Trophic Level 2 – Primary Consumers: Herbivores like
zooplankton and small fish that feed on primary
producers
● Trophic Level 3 – Secondary Consumers: Carnivores
and omnivores, such as larger fish, that feed on
herbivores
● Trophic Level 4 – Tertiary Consumers: Top predators
like sharks, seals, and large predatory fish
● Decomposers/Detritivores: Organisms like bacteria
and fungi that break down dead matter, recycling
nutrients back into the ecosystem

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/408209153716562807/
 4.3.1: Phytoplankton and Macrophytes
● Phytoplankton: Microscopic, photosynthetic organism in oceans, seas, freshwater
○ Plant like plankton, such as cyanobacteria, single celled algae
● Macrophytes: Visible aquatic plants that can be emergent, submerged, or floating
○ Live attached or rooted to the bottom of water body.
○ Such as seagrasses, reeds and water lilies, kelp and sea lettuce,duckweed.
ROLE:
● Phytoplankton and macrophytes are
primary producers that capture solar
energy.
● They form the base of aquatic food webs,
supporting higher trophic levels
(zooplankton, fish, etc.).
● Energy transfer through trophic levels.
 Global
Consumption
 4.3.2 Human Consumption of
Aquatic Species
Humans rely heavily on both freshwater and marine environments as vital
sources of food.
● Aquatic Fauna: Includes fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and other animals that
live in water. They are a rich source of protein, omega-3 fatty acids, and
other nutrients.
● Aquatic Flora: Includes plants such as seaweed and algae, which are
consumed for their vitamins, minerals, and other health benefit
 4.3.2 Human Consumption of
Aquatic Species
The increased
popularity of blue
foods, especially in
urban areas, means
that fishers and
traders can charge
high prices, which
further
incentivises
harvesting from
aquatic systems.

https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9df19f53-b931-4d04-acd3-58a71c6b1a5b/content/sofia/2022/consumption-of-aquatic-foods.html
4.3.2 Human Consumption of Aquatic
Species
 4.3.2 Human Consumption of
Aquatic Species
Growing awareness of overfishing is leading people to shift from aquatic animals to aquatic plants.

Why??
1. lower trophic levels
2. Marine algae (seaweeds) more
affordable dietary option
3. essential omega-3 fatty acids,
benefiting human health.

Impact:
Seaweed production
has grown rapidly →
over 50% of total
global marine
production
 4.3.3: Growing Demand for Aquatic Foods
Demand for aquatic foods increase due to global population growth increase, shifts in
dietary preferences (health benefits of seafood), growth of middle-class consumers.

PROBLEM:
● Demand for products from marine
and freshwater environments has
increased, but the growth has
slowed recently.
● This rise in demand is driven by the
growth of aquaculture, while
capture fisheries have remained
steady.
 Check your understanding
Table: Global seafood consumption trends over time

a) Discuss the trend shown from data above

b) Evaluate the role of aquaculture in addressing global demand while reducing pressure on wild
stocks
Overexploitation
 4.3.4: Unsustainable Fishing Methods
Due to higher demand on aquatic food can cause
● Increase fishing pressure on wild stocks.
● Overexploitation of marine and freshwater ecosystems.
Consequences : Loss of biodiversity and destruction of habitats.
● Disruption of marine food webs and long-term ecological damage.
Fishing Practice Description Species Affected Environmental Impact Bycatch
(%)

Bottom 40
Trawling

Ghost Fishing 30

Poisons 25

Explosives 25
 4.3.4: Bottom Trawling
A large nets are dragged behind the boat along the seafloor to catch species like cod and shrimp.

● Impact: Causes bycatch, Leads to habitat destruction for coral reefs,

crustaceans and seagrass beds. and overfishing
● Example: In the North Sea, it has reduced fish populations and destroyed large
areas of seabed.

https://transformbottomtrawling.org/faqs/
 4.3.4: Ghost Fishing
Lost or discarded fishing gear, like nets or traps, continues to capture marine life, often for years.

Impact: Traps fish, marine mammals, turtles, and seabirds, often killing them and
contributing to marine pollution
Example: Ghost nets in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch entangle animals and damage
coral reefs.

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/06/whale-fishing-net-ghost-illegal/
 4.3.4: Poisons
use chemicals like cyanide to stun fish, making capture easier, especially for the aquarium
trade and high-value species.

● Impact: Harms non-target species and damages

coral reefs, leading to coral bleaching and death.
● Example: Common in the Coral Triangle, a
biodiversity hotspot vulnerable to destructive
fishing.

https://medium.com/center-for-biological-diversity/findin
g-solutions-to-cyanide-fishing-4560d8f4622d
 4.3.4: Blast Fishing
Blast fishing uses explosives such as dynamite to kill or stun fish, making them easier to
collect.

● Impact: Kills nearby marine life and destroys

habitats, especially coral reefs, causing severe
ecosystem damage.
● Example: Common in Southeast Asia and the
Indian Ocean, where it has decimated coral reefs
and biodiversity.
 4.3.4: Unsustainable Fishing
Methods
Analyze the trends in the use
of different fishing gear types
from 1950 to 2018, and
evaluate the potential
environmental consequences
of increased reliance on
specific methods such as
bottom trawling and purse
seine fishing.
 4.3.5: Overexploitation
● FIsh is actually renewable energy, however since human caught fish faster than
they can reproduce → Overfishing
● Impact: A dramatic decrease in fish stocks. And Fish populations are unable to
recover to commercially viable levels.

Decreased fish
pop size

Increased Increased fish

fishing effort price

Increased
incentive to fish
 4.3.5: Case study - Newfoundland Cod Fishery
● Once one of the world's most productive fisheries.
● Overfishing led to collapse in the 1990s.
● Economic and ecological impacts on the region.

Outline the key factors that

led to the collapse of the
Newfoundland cod fishery.?
 4.3.5: Case study - Newfoundland Cod Fishery
Cod fisheries in Newfoundland, Canada, had the largest
cod stocks in the world. However, in the 1950s, with the
adoption of modern technology, the level of fishing effort
increased considerably.
This involved use of: Large shipping fleets,Factory fishing
boats with the capability of processing and freezing fish on
board.Huge trawl nets, More efficient detection methods to
find fish.
Catches peaked in 1968, with an estimated 800,000
tonnes of cod. Despite warnings from scientists that the
level of fishing should be reduced, the government
decided not to cut quotas in fear of losing jobs and
overfishing continued.
By 1992 the number of mature fish able to reproduce had
fallen considerably and the government decided to take
radical action. They closed the entire fishery resulting in
the loss of over 42,000 jobs. Fish stocks were expected to
recover within five to ten years but by 2003 there was still
little sign of improvements. Only in 2011 were there
indications that fish stocks were beginning to recover
although numbers were still low.
Sustainability
4.3.6: Maximum Sustainable Yield
● MSY is the largest long-term
catch that can be sustained
without depleting fish
stocks.
● It helps set fishing quotas to
maintain populations.
 4.3.6: Maximum Sustainable Yield
● Initial Yield Increase: Low fishing
pressure results in higher catch
rates.
● MSY: The optimal balance of fish
harvest and population
replenishment.
● Overfishing: Exceeding MSY leads
to population decline and reduced
yields.
4.3.6: Risks of Harvesting at MSY
● MSY is an estimate and can be inaccurate.
● Overharvesting above MSY can lead to population crashes.
4.3.6: Challenges of MSY-Based
Fishing Quotas:
● Data Gaps: Incomplete or outdated data on fish populations hinder
accurate quota setting.
● Enforcement: Poor enforcement and illegal fishing undermine
quotas.
● Economic Pressure: Short-term profit drives overfishing, risking
long-term sustainability.
● International Issues: Migratory species require global cooperation
for effective management.
 Climate Change
&
Ocean Acidification
 4.3.7: Climate Change
● Rising sea temperatures affect marine
species and ecosystems.
○ Shifts in fish migration like salmon
and trout, affecting their spawning
and survival.
○ coral bleaching
○ Altered water flow: Increases water
temperatures, alters ocean currents,
and causes more extreme weather
patterns, which can disrupt the
delicate balance of ecosystems

https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/sciencebites/chapter/1-5-warming-oceans-
cause-coral-reef-bleaching/
 4.3.7: Ocean Acidification
● Oceans absorb a proportion of atmospheric carbon dioxide
● When the gas dissolves in seawater, it forms carbonic acid,
● Increased CO2 levels lower ocean pH.
● Negative impact on shellfish, corals, and marine biodiversity.

https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-acidification
Managing Fish
Stocks
 4.3.8: Strategies to Reduce Overfishing
Unsustainable exploitation of freshwater and marine ecosystems occurs when
resources like fish, crustaceans, and other aquatic species are harvested at a rate that
exceeds their ability to replenish
 4.3.8: Actions at the International Level
International Agreements and Treaties
● UNCLOS: Establishes guidelines for sustainable
management of marine resources, including
exclusive economic zones (EEZs).
● CBD: Promotes international cooperation to
conserve biodiversity and ensure sustainable
ecosystem use.
4.3.8: Actions at the International Level
Fishing Quotas
● Set by organizations like ICCAT and NAFO to limit fish catches, maintaining
sustainable population levels.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
● Designated ocean regions with restricted human activities to protect
ecosystems. Supported by IUCN and UNEP, examples include the Great
Barrier Reef Marine Park and Ross Sea MPA.
4.3.8: Actions at the National Level
Fishing Permits: Governments control who can fish,
where, and what species, helping to reduce pressure
on vulnerable populations.
Mesh Size Regulations: Controlling net mesh size
reduces bycatch and allows juvenile fish to escape,
helping them reach maturity.
No-Take Zones: Areas where fishing is prohibited,
providing safe havens for species to recover, such as
the Great Barrier Reef.
Fishing Seasons: Seasonal restrictions protect
species during vulnerable periods, like spawning,
ensuring population recovery.
Fishing Quotas: Catch limits are set based on fish
stock assessments to allow populations to replenish,
such as Canada’s Atlantic cod quota system.
 4.3.8: Actions at the Local Level
Local Fishing Regulations and Sustainable Practices
● Community-Based Management: like in Papua New Guinea, use local systems such as
seasonal bans and closures to prevent overfishing.
● Inland Freshwater Management (Georgia, USA):
○ Fishing Permits: Required to monitor and enforce fishing regulations.
○ Bag Limits & Size Restrictions: Limits and size rules protect fish populations, e.g.,
Largemouth Bass must be over 12 inches.
○ Fishing Seasons: Seasonal restrictions protect spawning populations.
● Food Labeling: Georgia markets and stores offer certified sustainable seafood,
allowing consumers to support eco-friendly practices.
Sustainable Aquaculture
● Aquaculture: Sustainable fish farming, such as catfish farming in Georgia, helps
meet seafood demand while minimizing environmental impact through methods
like recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS).
 4.3.8: Actions at the individual Level
Consumer Choices and Sustainable Seafood
● Sustainable Seafood: choosing certified options like MSC-labeled (marine stewardship council)
products.
○ MSC is a NGO that prevent overfishing and helps to ensure sustainability of seafood
production.
● Stop eating endangered species. Check this
https://www.sustainablelivingguide.com.au/avoid-eating-endangered-fish.
● Raise awareness with your friends and family, educate the fisherman about the long-term
impacts on their own livelihoods.
4.3.9: Marine Protected Areas
MPA is designated zones where human
activity is restricted to protect
ecosystems.

(+) preserving biodiversity and

promoting fish stock recovery.
(-) Need effective enforcement to
prevent illegal activities
(-) MPAs must be large enough to
protect ecosystems and migratory
species, with well-planned no-take and
buffer zones.
(-) Need local communities to support
 4.3.9: Marine Protected Areas
Activity: Choose a well-known MPA (e.g., Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Goat
Island Marine Reserve, Ross Sea MPA, or the Galápagos Marine Reserve). Text
book page 351-352 . Research key aspects of their selected MPA, including:
● Location and size.
● Species and ecosystems it protects.
● Management strategies (e.g., no-take zones, community involvement).
● Challenges such as enforcement, illegal fishing, or climate change.
 4.3.10: Aquaculture
Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and
aquatic plants in controlled environments, including ponds, tanks, and coastal areas.

-Intensive aquaculture: involve building tanks or ponds, stocking fish at high densities,
provide high quality food and water
(+) need small area
(-) habitat destruction, water pollution, depletion of water resources
-Extensive aquavulture: use natural ponds or wtlands, with natural water flows,
fish at lower densities, feed on natural algae,plankton
(-) less productive,need more space
(+) low env impact
- Mariculture: marine aquaculture
- Use pens

image from www.bq-magazine.com

 4.3.10: Aquaculture
Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and
aquatic plants in controlled environments, including ponds, tanks, and coastal areas.

(+) Helps meet growing global food demand.

(+) reduce biodiversity loss → obtain enough nutrient from other sources instead of
eating other species
(+) Waste product from livestock can be used for fishmeal.

(-) water pollution (antibiotics and medicines)

(-), habitat loss,
(-) spread of diseases
(-) Escapees species can increase competition
with native species
(-) Some species just not suited to being
farmed
image from www.bq-magazine.com
 4.3.10: Aquaculture
Describe the global
trends in aquaculture
production from 1960 to
2021, and discuss the
factors that might explain
the rapid growth in
certain regions such as
East Asia and the Pacific -
Q42
 4.3.10: Shrimp Farming
Shrimp aquaculture in Thailand
• In Thailand shrimp aquaculture grew dramatically during the 1980s
• During the 1980s many land based farmers switched from production of rice to
shrimps. 🡪 mangrove forests were changed to accommodate shrimp ponds
• Thailand is a key exporter of shrimps to countries such as the USA and Japan

Can you think of any environmental impacts of the above statement?

HL Only
Productivity
 4.3.11: Productivity
In aquatic ecosystems, productivity—the rate at which energy is
converted into biomass—depends on several interconnected factors:
● thermal stratification,
● nutrient mixing
● nutrient loading.
 4.3.11: Productivity
Ocean chlorophyll
concentration as a proxy
for marine primary
production. Green indicates
where there are a lot of
phytoplankton, while blue
indicates where there are
few phytoplankton. – NASA
Earth Observatory 2019.
4.3.11: Thermohaline Circulation
● Thermohaline circulation is driven by temperature and salinity
differences.
● Nutrient distribution is impacted by these temperature variations.
● Deeper waters are nutrient-rich, but primary producers need
sunlight in shallower waters.
● Nutrient mixing between layers is essential for aquatic ecosystem
productivity.
4.3.11: Thermohaline Circulation
 4.3.11: Nutrient Loading
● Human activities (agriculture, deforestation, urbanization) reduce
aquatic productivity.
● Nutrient loading occurs through nutrient run-off and waste
discharge.
● Consequences include eutrophication, algal blooms, and oxygen
depletion.
● These disruptions harm the balance and productivity of aquatic
ecosystems..
 4.3.12: Assessing Fish Stocks
● The sustainable management of fish
populations is essential to prevent
overfishing and to maintain the
health of marine ecosystems.
● Accurate assessment of fish stocks
and the monitoring of harvest rates
are critical for making informed
decisions about how much fish can
be harvested without depleting
stocks
 4.3.12: Assessing Fish Stocks
● Methods: Fish stock surveys, sonar technology, and
catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE).
● Purpose: To estimate the population size and assess the sustainability of
harvest rates.
 4.3.12: Management Strategy
Evaluation (MSE)
● MSE is a tool for evaluating fisheries
management strategies.
● Helps ensure sustainable fish stocks and
preserve marine ecosystems.
● Supports the livelihoods of fishing
communities.
● Simulates outcomes of different
strategies before implementation.
● Aims to balance environmental, social, and
economic objectives.
 4.3.12: Management Strategy
Evaluation - Activity Q52
Activity:
● With reference to the Goldfish Simulation Model, capturing a random
sample of goldfish crackers. mark the captured animals and releasing
them back into their simulated habitat.
● Recapture another sample, some of which may be marked. Use the
proportion of marked to unmarked individuals in the second sample,
the total population size can be estimated using the Lincoln-Petersen
Index.
 4.3.13: MSY and the Risks
Involved
MSY as a Management Tool helps set limits to maintain fish populations,
but there are risks.
● Risks: Inaccurate data can lead to overharvesting; exceeding MSY
reduces reproductive potential.

Managing the risks of harvesting at Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)

requires a precautionary approach to prevent overfishing and stock
collapse
 4.3.13: Managing the Risks of
Harvesting at MSY
● Set Harvest Limits Below MSY: Establish conservative limits to
reduce risk and provide recovery time for fish stocks.
● Adaptive Management: Continuously monitor and adjust harvest
rates based on stock size and environmental changes.
● Precautionary Reference Points: Set thresholds below MSY to
prevent overexploitation and maintain safe fish populations.
● Ecosystem-Based Management: Consider the broader marine
environment, including species interactions and habitat protection, to
minimize risks.
 4.3.13: Positive Feedback and
Decline
● Positive Feedback: Overfishing
reduces fish stocks, leading to a
reduction in reproductive rates,
further decreasing populations.
● Population Collapse: Harvesting
beyond sustainable limits can
trigger rapid declines.
4.3.13: Calculating MSY - Activity
Q56
Activity: Use real-world data from a fishery to calculate the MSY.
Simulate different scenarios of harvesting above and below MSY,
analyzing their long-term effects on fish populations.
 4.3.14: Stakeholders in the
Fishing Industry - Q57
● Fishing Industry: Fishermen, companies, and supply chains.
● Consumers: Demand for seafood drives harvesting practices.
● NGOs: Advocate for sustainable practices and marine
conservation..
 4.3.14: Fishing Companies
Fishing companies prioritize economic viability, but may seek
short-term profits, risking overfishing.
● Concerns:
○ Economic losses from fishing restrictions.
○ Costs of sustainable technologies.
○ Ensuring market access through sustainability certifications.
● Role:
○ The industry must adopt sustainable practices to maintain fish
stocks, reduce bycatch, and ensure long-term economic
stability..
 4.3.14: Consumers
Consumers drive demand but may prioritize price over sustainability;
interest in sustainable seafood is growing.
● Concerns:
○ Lack of awareness about sustainably harvested fish.
○ Limited availability of sustainable options, particularly in some
regions or for lower-income consumers.
● Role:
○ Consumers can influence the market by choosing sustainable
seafood, supported by education campaigns and certifications
like MSC.
4.3.14: NGOs (Non-Governmental
Organizations)
NGOs prioritize conservation and biodiversity protection through
stronger regulations and sustainable fishing.
● Concerns:
○ Industry resistance to conservation efforts.
○ Challenges in enforcing regulations and combating illegal
fishing (IUU).
● Role:
○ NGOs promote sustainability, certify fisheries, lobby for policy
changes, and educate consumers on sustainable seafood
choices.
4.3.14: Wholesale Fishery Markets

Wholesale markets link fishers to retailers, balancing business needs

with the demand for sustainable seafood.
● Concerns:
○ Supply disruptions from overfishing or depleted stocks.
○ Balancing profit margins with sustainability standards.
● Role:
○ They influence sustainability by prioritizing sustainably
harvested seafood, ensuring suppliers meet certifications, and
maintaining transparency in the supply chain
 4.3.14: Local Supermarkets
Supermarkets are the primary point of contact for consumers seeking
sustainable seafood options.
● Concerns:
○ Maintaining a steady supply, especially with species
restrictions due to overfishing.
○ Balancing affordability with sustainably sourced seafood.
● Role:
○ Supermarkets educate consumers through sustainability
labeling, offer certified seafood, and collaborate with NGOs to
support sustainability initiatives.
 4.3.14: Marine Stewardship
Council
The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) is a global certification
program that promotes sustainable fishing practices.
4.3.15: UN Convention of the Law
of the Sea
● The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
is an international agreement that defines the rights and
responsibilities of nations regarding the use and management of
marine resources
● Establishes guidelines for ocean conservation and creates
Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) for coastal states to manage
resources within specific boundaries.
4.3.15: Exclusive Economic Zones
(EEZs)
● EEZs: Coastal states have exclusive rights to marine resources
within 370 km from shore.
● Rights: Nations control fishing, oil, and gas exploration in their
EEZs.
 4.3.15: The High Seas
● High Seas: Beyond EEZs, accounting for 60% of the ocean, with limited
regulation.
● Developed to manage
and conserve
resources in
international waters.
● Goal: To prevent
overexploitation and
ensure equitable
access to marine
resources.
illustration of maritime zones
Source: after Symonds et al., 1998
 4.3.15: Equity Concerns

The West African coast provides an

example of how selling access to
foreign fleets can impact local
fishers. Countries like Mauritania and
Senegal have sold fishing rights to
large European and Asian fleets.
These foreign vessels often fish in
volumes that exceed sustainable
levels
 4.3.16: Ethical Issues in Marine
Mammal Harvesting
The harvesting of seals, whales, and dolphins raises complex ethical questions,
particularly regarding animal rights and the cultural practices of indigenous
peoples

image from motherboard.vice.com

 4.3.16: Ethical Perspectives on
Animal Rights
● Animal Rights: Oppose hunting due to intelligence and ability to suffer.
● Conservation: Focus on protecting species from extinction and
preserving ecosystems.
● The International Whaling Commission (IWC): Regulates whaling to
prevent overharvesting and protect vulnerable populations.
 4.3.16: Ethical Perspectives on
Animal Rights
● Animal Rights: Oppose hunting due to intelligence and ability to suffer.
● Conservation: Focus on protecting species from extinction and
preserving ecosystems.
● The International Whaling Commission (IWC): Regulates whaling to
prevent overharvesting and protect vulnerable populations.
4.3.16: Cultural and Subsistence
Perspectives
● Cultural Importance: Indigenous groups,
like the Inuit, depend on marine mammals
for food, clothing, and cultural practices.
● Sustainability: Indigenous hunting is seen
as sustainable, taking only what is needed
for survival.
● Balancing Ethics: Indigenous communities
advocate for their rights amidst
international opposition, emphasizing
respectful, sustainable hunting practices.
4.3.16: Perspectives - Q66
 4.3.16: Ethical Issues in Marine
Mammal Harvesting - Activity Q67
Activity: Research case study, the controversial harvesting of a named species.
Consider:
● Ecological Impact:
● Cultural and Economic Significance:
● Legal and Ethical Issues:.