Mathematical Models

A mathematical model is a mathematical description of a

real-world phenomenon.

Real-world 1 Mathematical 2 Mathematical 3 Real-world

problem model conclusions predictions
4

1. Formulate
Identify independent & dependent variables, simplify and
obtain equations (possibly guessing from measurements).
2. Solve
Apply mathematics such as calculus to derive conclusions.
3. Interpret
Interpret the model conclusions to predict the real-world.
4. Test
Compare predictions with reality (revise model if needed).
Linear Functions

A linear function is a function f that can be written in the form:

f (x) = mx + b

where m is the slope and b is the y -intercept.

The graph of a linear function is a line:

y f (x) = 3x − 1

-1 0 1 2 3 x

-1
Linear Functions: Example

When dry air moves upward it expands and cools.

I ground temperature is 20◦
I temperature in height of 1km is 10◦
Express the temperature as a linear function of the height h.
What is the temperature in 2.5km height?

Since we are looking for a linear function:

T (h) = mh + b
We know that:
T (0) = m · 0 + b = 20 =⇒ b = 20
T (1) = m · 1 + b = m · 1 + 20 = 10 =⇒ m = 10 − 20 =-10
Thus T (h) = −10m + 20, and T (2.5) = −5◦ .
Polynomials
A function P is called polynomial if
P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0
where
I n is a non-negative integer, and
I a0 , a1 , . . . , an are constants, called coefficients.
If an 6= 0 then n is the degree of the polynomial.
y y y

40

1 20
1
-1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x 0 1 x
-1
-1 -20

x3 − x + 1 x 4 − 3x 2 + x 3x 5 − 25x 3 + 60x
Polynomials of Degree 1: Linear Functions
A polynomial of degree 1 is a linear function:
f (x) = mx + b
y g

2 h

1 f

-1 0 1 2 3 x

-1

Find equations for the functions f , g and h:

I for f : f (x) = 12 x − 1
I for g: f (x) = 2x + 1
I for h: f (x) = − 14 x + 3
Polynomials of Degree 2: Quadratic Functions

A polynomial of degree 2 is a quadratic function:

f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c

y y

3 3

2 2

1 1

-1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x

-1 -1

x2 + x + 1 −2x 2 + 3x + 1

The graph of is always a shifting of the parabola ax 2 . It open

upwards if a > 0, and downwards if a < 0.
Polynomials of Degree 3: Cubic Functions

A polynomial of degree 3 is a cubic function:

f (x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d

-1 0 1 x

-1

x3 − x + 1
Power Functions
A function of the form
f (x) = x a
where a is a constant, is called a power function.

y y y

1 1

x1 x2 1 x3
-1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x

-1 x -1
-1 0 1

-1

y y

1
1
1
x 3 x −1
-1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x
-1
-1
Power Functions: Special Cases

We consider x n with n a positive integer.

y y y

1 1 1

x1 x3 x5
-1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x

-1 -1 -1

y y y

x2 1 x4 1 x6 1

-1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x

-1 -1 -1
Power Functions: Special Cases

We consider x n with n a positive integer.

I For even n the graph similar to the parabola x 2 .
I For odd n the graph looks similar to x 3 .

y y

1 (1, 1)

1 (1, 1)
-1 0 1 x

(−1, −1) -1 x
-1 0 1

-1

x3 x5 x9 x2 x4 x6

If n increases, then the graph of x n becomes flatter near 0, and

steeper for |x| ≥ 1.
Power Functions: Special Cases
1
We consider x n where n is a positive integer:
1 √
I f (x) = x n = n x is a root function (square root for n = 2)

y y

1 (1, 1) 1 (1, 1)

-1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x
(−1, −1)
-1 -1

1 1 1 1 1 1
x2 x4 x6 x3 x5 x7
√
I For even n the domain is [0, ∞), the graph is similar to x.
√
I For odd n the domain is R, the graph is similar to 3 x.
Power Functions: Special Cases
1
The power function f (x) = x −1 = x is the reciprocal function.

y V

1 (1, 1)

-1 0 1 x

(−1, −1) -1

0 P

This function arises in physics and chemistry. E.g. Boyle’s law

says that, when the temperature is constant, then the volume V
of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure P:
C
V = where C is a constant
P
Power Function: Applications

Power functions are used for modeling:

I the illumination as a function of the distance from a light
source
I the period of the revolution of a planet as a function of the
distance from the sun
Rational Functions
A rational function f is ratio of two polynomials:
P(x)
f (x) = where P and Q are polynomials
Q(x)

P(x)
I the domain of Q(x) is { x | Q(x) 6= 0 }

y
y

1
-1 0 1 x
-1 0 1 x
-1
-1

1 2x 4 −x 2 +1
f (x) = x
f (x) = 10x 2 −40
Algebraic Functions

A function f is called algebraic function if it can be constructed

using algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and taking roots) starting with polynomials.

p x 2 − 16x 2 √
3
f (x) = x2 + 1 g(x) = √ + (x − 2) x + 1
x+ x

y y y

1
2
1
-1 0 1 x 1
-1 -1 0 1 x
-5 0 5 x
-1
√ √ 2
x x +3
4
x2 − 25 x 3 (x − 2)2
Algebraic Functions: Real-wold Example
The following algebraic function occurs in the theory of
relativity. The mass of an object with velocity v is:
m0
m = f (v ) = q
2
1 − vc 2
where
I m0 is the rest mass of the object
I c ≈ 3.0 · 105 km
h is the speed of light (in vacuum)

2m0

m0

0 1 2 v
3c 3c c
Angles
Angles can be measured in degrees (◦ ) or in radians (rad):
I 180◦ = π rad
I 360◦ = 2π rad is a full revolution
90◦ =
120◦ = 2π/3 rad π/2 rad 60◦ = π/3 rad
135◦ = 3π/4 rad 45◦ = π/4 rad
150◦ = 5π/6 rad 30◦ = π/6 rad
α
180◦ = π rad 0◦ = 0 rad

270◦ = 3π/2 rad

From 180◦ = π rad we conclude

π x ·π
1◦ = rad and x◦ = rad
180 180
   
180 ◦ x · 180 ◦
1 rad= and x rad=
π π
Angles: Radian
In Calculus, the default measurement for angles is radian.

Historical note on radians:

I consider a circle with radius 1, and
I an sector of this circle with angle α (radians)

arc has length α

α

radius 1

Then the arc of the sector has length α (equal to the angle).
Trigonometric Functions
cos α
Properties of sin and cos:
α sin α I domain = ?
radius 1 I range = ?

y
1

sin x π
−π − π2 0 π
2
3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2

-1

y
1

cos x π
−π − π2 0 π
2
3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2

-1
Trigonometric Functions
cos α
Properties of sin and cos:
α sin α I domain = (−∞, ∞)
radius 1 I range = [−1, 1]

y
1

sin x π
−π − π2 0 π
2
3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2

-1

y
1

cos x π
−π − π2 0 π
2
3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2

-1
Trigonometric Functions: Identities
cos α y
1

sin x −π − π2 0 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2 2

-1

α sin α
y
radius 1 1

cos x −π − π2 0 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2 2

-1

Important identities:
Trigonometric Functions: Identities
cos α y
1

sin x −π − π2 0 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2 2

-1

α sin α
−α y
1

cos x −π − π2 0 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2 2

-1

Important identities:
I sin(−α) = − sin α and cos(−α) = cos α
Trigonometric Functions: Identities
cos α y
1

sin x −π − π2 0 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2 2

-1

α sin α
y
radius 1 1

cos x −π − π2 0 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2 2

-1

Important identities:
I sin(−α) = − sin α and cos(−α) = cos α
I sin(α + 2π) = sin α and cos(α + 2π) = cos α
I cos α = sin(α ± ?)
Trigonometric Functions: Identities
cos α y
1

sin x −π − π2 0 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2 2

-1

α sin α
y
radius 1 1

cos x −π − π2 0 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2 2

-1

Important identities:
I sin(−α) = − sin α and cos(−α) = cos α
I sin(α + 2π) = sin α and cos(α + 2π) = cos α
I cos α = sin(α + π )
2
I sin2 α + cos2 α = 1 (follows form the Pythagorean theorem)
π π π π 2π 3π 5π 3π
α 0 6 4 √3 2 √3 4 6 π 2 2π
1 √1 3 3 √1 1
sin α 0 1 0 −1 0
√2 2 2 2 2 2√
3 √1 1
cos α 1 2 2 0 − 12 − √1 − 2
3
−1 0 1
2 2
Trigonometric Functions: Tangent and Cotangent
The tangent and cotangent are defined as:
sin α cos α
tan α = cot α =
cos α sin α
y y

1 1

− 3π −π − π2 0 π π 3π x − 3π −π − π2 0 π π 3π x
2 2 2 2 2 2

-1 -1

I range = (−∞, ∞)
I domain of tan = {x | cos x 6= 0} = R \ {π/2 + zπ | z ∈ Z}
I domain of cot = {x | sin x 6= 0} = R \ {zπ | z ∈ Z}
Exponential Functions
An exponential function is a function of the form
f (x) = ax
where the base a is positive real number (a > 0).

y y

1 1

-1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x

f (x) = 2x f (x) = 0.5x

These functions are called exponential since the variable x is in

the exponent. Do not confuse them with power functions x a !
Exponential Functions

How is ax defined for x ∈ R?

For x = 0 we have a0 = 1.

For positive integers x = n ∈ N we have

an = a
| · a {z
· · · · · a}
n-times
For negative integers x = −n we have
1
a−n =
an
p
For rational numbers x = with p, q integers we have
q
p√ √
ax = a = ap = ( q a)p
q
q

3 √
2
4 2 = ( 4)3 = 23 = 8
Exponential Functions: Irrational Numbers
√
But what about irrational numbers? What is 2 3 or 5π ?

Roughly, one can imagine the situation like in this figure:

y

-1 0 1 x

We have have defined the function for all rational points, and
now want to close the gaps.
Clearly, the result should be an increasing function. . .
Exponential Functions: Irrational Numbers
√
But what about irrational numbers? What is 2 3 or 5π ?

By increasingness we know:
√ √
1.73 < 3 < 1.74 =⇒ 21.73 < 2 3 < 21.74
√ √
1.732 < 3 < 1.733 =⇒ 21.732 < 2 3 < 21.733
√ √
1.7320 < 3 < 1.7321 =⇒ 21.7320 < 2 3 < 21.7321
√ √
1.73205 < 3 < 1.73206 =⇒ 21.73205 < 2 3 < 21.73206
..
.
There is exactly one number that fulfills all conditions on the right.
√
E.g., 21.73205 < 2 3 < 21.73206 determines the first 6 digits:
√
3
2 ≈ 3.321997
Exponential Functions: Examples

1 x 1 x



2 4
y 4x 2x
1.5x

1x

-1 0 1 x

Properties:
I All exponential functions pass through (0, 1) (since a0 = 1)
I Larger base a yields more rapid growth for x > 0.
Exponential Functions: Three Types

y y

1 1

0 x 0 x

f (x) = ax with 0 < a < 1 f (x) = ax with a > 1

I constant for a = 1
I increasing for a > 1
1 1x I decreasing for 0 < a < 1
0 x
I domain = (−∞, ∞)
I range = (0, ∞) if a 6= 1
f (x) = 1x
Laws of Exponents

Laws of Exponents
If a and b are positive real numbers, then:
1. ax+y = ax · ay
ax
2. ax−y = ay
3. (ax )y = axy
4. (ab)x = ax bx

1. a3+4 = a · a · a · a · a · a · a = (a · a · a) · (a · a · a · a) = a3 · a4
(a·a·a)·(a·a) a5
2. a5−2 = a · a · a = a·a = a2

3. (a2 )3 = (a · a)3 = (a · a) · (a · a) · (a · a) = a6 = a2·3

4. (ab)3 = (ab) · (ab) · (ab) = (a · a · a) · (b · b · b) = a3 b3
Exponential Functions vs. Power Functions

Which functions grows quicker when x is large:

f (x) = x 2 g(x) = 2x

y 2x y 2x
x2

30 300

20 200

10 x2
100

0 5 x 0 2 4 6 8 x

For large x, the function 2x grows much much faster than x 2 .

Exponential Functions vs. Power Functions
Which functions grows quicker when x is large:
f (x) = 10 · x 5 g(x) = 1.1x

10 ∗ x 5 10 ∗ x 5 1.1x
y y

30 300

20 200

10 100
1.1x
0 5 x 0 50 x
Exponential Functions vs. Power Functions
Which functions grows quicker when x is large:
f (x) = 10 · x 5 g(x) = 1.1x

y 1.1x

3 · 1015

2 · 1015

1 · 1015
10 ∗ x 5

0 100 200 300 400 x

For any 1 < a, the exponential function f (x) = ax grows for

large x much faster than any polynomial.
Exponential Functions: Applications

We consider a population of bacteria:

I suppose the population doubles every hour
I we write p(t) for the population after t hours
I initial population is p(0) = 1000
We have:
p(1) = 2 · p(0) = 2 · 1000
p(2) = 2 · p(1) = 22 · 1000
p(3) = 2 · p(2) = 23 · 1000
..
.
Thus in general
p(t) = 1000 · 2t

Under ideal conditions such rapid growth occurs in nature.

Exponential Functions: The Number e
The number
e ≈ 2.71828 . . .
is a very special base for exponential functions.

y y

1 1

-1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x

tangent has slope 1 = e0 tangent has slope e = e1

The slope of the function ex at point (x, ex ) is ex .

One-To-One Functions

A one-to-one function is a function that never takes the same

value twice, that is:
f (x) 6= f (y ) whenever x 6= y

a a
a a
b b
b c b c
z d z d
f g
D E D E

Which of these function is one-to-one? The function g.

One-To-One Functions

How can we see from a graph if the function is one-to-one?

y y

0 x 0 x

not one-to-one one-to-one

Horizontal Line Test

A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line
intersects its graph more than once.
One-To-One Functions: Examples

Which of the following functions is one-to-one?

I x3 ? Yes
I x2 ? No
I 4x ? Yes
I x − x3 ? No
I x + 4x ? Yes
I −x − x 3 ? Yes
Inverse Functions

A function g is the inverse of a function f if

g(f (x)) = x for all x in the domain of f
(and the domain of g is the range of f ).

a a
a a
b b
b c b c
z d z d
f f −1

A function f has an inverse if and only if f is one-to-one.

Inverse Functions
The inverse of a one-to-one function can be defined as follows.
Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B.
Then its inverse function f −1 is defined by:
f −1 (y ) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y
and has domain B and range A.

1
The inverse function of f (x) = x 3 is f −1 (y ) = y 3 :
1
f −1 (f (x)) = f −1 (x 3 ) = (x 3 ) 3 = x

We have the following cancellation equations:

f −1 (f (x)) = x for all x ∈ A
f (f −1 (y )) = y for all y ∈ B
Inverse Functions

To find the inverse function of f :

I solve the equation y = f (x) for x in terms of y

Find the inverse function of f (x) = x 3 + 2.

y = x3 + 2
=⇒ x 3 = y − 2
p
=⇒ x = 3 y − 2
p
Therefore the inverse function of f is f −1 (y ) = 3
y −2
Inverse Functions: Graphs
We have f (x) = y ⇐⇒ f −1 (y ) = x and hence

point (x, y ) in the graph of f

⇐⇒
point (y , x) in the graph of f −1

y (x, y ) f

d
y

th
ng
le

d
f −1
th
90◦ ng
le

(y , x)
0 x 0 x

reflected about the line y = x

Logarithmic Functions

The logarithmic functions

f (x) = loga x
where a > 0 and a 6= 1.

The function loga x is the inverse of the exponential function ax :

loga y = x ⇐⇒ ax = y

The logarithm loga b gives us the exponent for a to get b.

For example: log10 0.001 = −3 since 10−3 = 0.001.

The logarithmic functions loga x have:

I domain = (0, ∞)
I range = R
Logarithmic Functions

We have the following cancellation equations:

loga (ax ) = x for every x ∈ R

aloga x = x for every x > 0

log10 (1023 ) = 23

5log5 7 = 7
Logarithmic Functions

y 2x y
log2 x
log2 x log3 x
log10 x

0 x 0 x

For a > 1, f (x) = ax grows very fast.

As a consequence:

For a > 1, f (x) = loga x grows very slow.

Logarithmic Functions: Laws of Logarithm
If x, y > 0, then
1. loga (xy ) = loga (x) + loga (y )
2. loga ( yx ) = loga (x) − loga (y )
3. loga (x r ) = r loga x

80
log2 80 − log2 5 = log2 ( ) = log2 16 = 4
5

We can proof the laws from the laws for exponents.

1. loga (xy ) = z ⇐⇒ az = xy
and aloga (x)+loga (y ) = aloga (x) · aloga (y ) = xy
3. loga (x r ) = z ⇐⇒ az = x r
and ar loga (x) = (aloga (x) )r = x r
Logarithmic Functions: Base Conversion

If we want to compute loga x but have only logb then we can:

Base Conversion
logb x
loga x =
logb a

Compute log4 16 using log2 .

log2 16 4
log4 16 = = =2
log2 4 2
Natural Logarithm

The natural logarithm ln is a special logarithm with base e:

ln x = loge x

Solve the equation e5−3x = 10.

ln(e5−3x ) = ln 10 apply natural logarithm on both sides
5 − 3x = ln 10
3x = 5 − ln 10
5 − ln 10
x=
3

1
Express ln a + 2 ln b in a single logarithm.
1 1 √ √
ln a + ln b = ln a + ln b 2 = ln a + ln b = ln(a b)
2
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
We are interested in inverse functions of:
y
1

sin x π
−π − π2 0 π
2
3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2

-1

y
1

cos x π
−π − π2 0 π
2
3π 2π 5π 3π x
2 2

-1

Problem: these functions are not one-to-one!

Solution: we restrict their domain
I for sin we restrict the domain to [− π , π ]
2 2
I for cos we restrict the domain to [0, π]
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

y y
1 1

− π2 0 π x 0 π π x
2 2

-1 -1

sin x restricted to [− π2 , π2 ] cos x restricted to [0, π]

From f −1 (y ) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y we get:

π π
sin−1 (y ) = x ⇐⇒ sin(x) = y and − ≤x ≤
2 2
cos−1 (y ) = x ⇐⇒ cos(x) = y and 0 ≤ x ≤ π

The inverse sine function sin−1 is also denoted by arcsin.

The inverse cosine function sin−1 is denoted by arccos.
Inverse Trigonometric

y
yπ
2
π

π
2
-1 0 1 x
− π2
-1 0 1x
arcsin x
arccos x

The domain of arcsin and arccos is [−1, 1].

The range of arcsin is [− π2 , π2 ] and of arccos is [0, π].
Inverse Trigonometric: Cancellation Equations

The cancellation equations are:

π π
arcsin(sin x) = x for − ≤x ≤
2 2
sin(arcsin x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

arccos(cos x) = x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π
cos(arccos x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
Inverse Trigonometric: Examples
π π π π 2π 3π 5π 3π
α 0 6 4 √3 2 √3 4 6 π 2 2π
1 √1 3 3 √1 1
sin α 0 1 0 −1 0
√2 2 2 2 2 2√
3 √1 1
cos α 1 2 2 0 − 12 − √1 − 23 −1 0 1
2 2
π π
sin−1 (y ) = x ⇐⇒ sin(x) = y and − ≤x ≤
2 2
cos−1 (y ) = x ⇐⇒ cos(x) = y and 0 ≤ x ≤ π
Evaluate the following:
I sin−1 ( 21 ) = π
6
sin(arcsin( 31 )) 1
I tan(arcsin( 13 )) = cos(arcsin( 13 ))
= 2
3
√ = 1
3 · 3
2 · √1 = 1
√
3
2 2 2 2

cos α Let α = arcsin( 13 ), then

1 sin α = 1
sin α 3
α
radius 1 α
q q √
cos α = 1 − ( 13 )2 = 89 = 23 2
Trigonometric Functions: Inverse Tangent

yπ
1 2

− π2 0 π
2
x -1 0 1 x

-1 − π2

tan−1 x or arctan x

tan x restricted to (− π2 , π2 )

π π
tan−1 y = x ⇐⇒ tan x = y and − <x <
2 2
The function arctan has domain (−∞, ∞) and range (− π2 , π2 ).
Trigonometric Functions: Inverse Cotangent

y
1 π

π
π πx 2
0 2

-1 -1 0 1 x

cot−1 x

cot x restricted to (0, π)

cot−1 y = x ⇐⇒ cot x = y and 0 < x < π

The function cot−1 has domain (−∞, ∞) and range (0, π).
Exercises

Classify the following functions as one of the types that we

have discussed:
1. f (x) = 5x is an exponential function
2. g(x) = x5 is a power function, a polynomial of degree 5,
a rational function and an algebraic function.
1+x
3. h(x) = √
1− x
is an algebraic function.
4. u(t) = 1 − t + 5t 4 is a polynomial of degree 4, a rational
function and an algebraic function.
5. v (x) = x −3 is a power function, a rational function and
an algebraic function.
1
6. p(x) = x − 3 is a power function, and an algebraic
function.
1+x
7. z(x) = 3+x 2
is a rational function, and algebraic function.
Exercises

Assume that a ball is dropped, and we have the following

measurements:
I height at time 0s is 490m
I height at time 2s is 472m
I height at time 4s is 414m
Find a quadratic function for the height of the ball after time t.
When does the ball hit the ground?
We look for a function of the form:
h(t) = at 2 + bt + c
We know
h(0) = c = 490
h(2) = 22 a + 2b + 490 = 472
h(4) = 42 a + 4b + 490 = 414
Exercises
We know c = 490 and
(1) h(2) = 22 a + 2b + 490 = 472
(2) h(4) = 42 a + 4b + 490 = 414

We simplify
(1) 4a + 2b + 18 = 0
(2) 16a + 4b + 76 = 0

We solve by taking (2) − 2 · (1):

h(2) = 8a + 40 = 0 =⇒ 8a = −40 =⇒ a = −5

We get b by plugging a = −5 in (1):

4 · (−5) + 2b + 18 = 0 =⇒ 2b = 2 =⇒ b = 1

Thus h(t) = −5t 2 + t + 490.

Exercises
Formula for the height:

h(t) = −5t 2 + t + 490

When does the ball hit the ground? When the height is 0:
t
− 5t 2 + t + 490 = 0 =⇒ t 2 − − 98 = 0
5
Solving the quadratic formula:
r r √
1 1 2 1 1 9800 1 9801
t= ± ( ) + 98 = ± + = ±
10 10 10 100 100 10 10
We know 2 2 2
√ 100 = 10000 and (100 − n) = 10000 − 200n + n .
Thus 9801 = 99.
1 99 98
t= ± =⇒ t = 10 or t = −
10 10 10
Thus the ball hits the ground after 10 seconds.