COMPUTER NETWORKS

Lecture I
Overview of Data Communications
and Networking
➢Data Communication
➢ Networks & Internet
➢ Protocols & Standards
➢ Layered Tasks
➢ Internet Model
➢ OSI Model

Text Book: Data Communications and Networking , Behrouz A. Forouzan

Data Communication
◼ Sharing of information is “Data Communication”
◼ Sharing can be local (face to face)

◼ Remote (over a distance)

◼ “Data” refers to facts, concepts and / or instructions

◼ In the context of computers, data represented in the form

of 0’s and 1’s

◼ “Data Communication” is “Exchange of data between
two/more devices via a transmission medium.
Characteristics of Data Communication
• Communication system made up of a combination of hardware
and software. Effectiveness of data communication system
depends on:
◼ Delivery: System must deliver data to correct destination. Data
received by the intended user only.
◼ Accuracy: Accurate data should be delivered(no change)
◼ Timeliness: The system must deliver data in timely manner
◼ Data arrived late are useless
◼In the same order (video and audio) & without delay (Real time
transmission)
◼ Jitter: Variation in the packet arrival time (uneven quality in the video
is the result)
Components of Data Communication

1. Message: It is the Information (data) to be communicated (shared)

with others
• Consists of text, numbers, pictures, audio and video
2. Sender: The device that sends the message
• Computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, …
3. Receiver: The device that receives the message
1. Computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, …
 Components of Data Communication

4. Medium: The physical path by which a message travels from

sender to receiver
– twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber-optic, radio waves
 Components of Data Communication
5. Protocol: a set of rules that govern data communications
– An agreement between the communicating devices
– Devices may be connected but not communicating (no
protocol)
– Arabic speaker with Japanese speaker
Data Flow
⚫ Communication between two devices can be:
 Simplex
 Half-Duplex
 Full-Duplex
Data Flow

⚫Simplex (one way street)

 The communication is unidirectional
 Only one device on a link can transmit; the other can
only receive
 Use the entire capacity of the channel to send data
 Example: Keyboards, Monitors

Data
Data Flow

⚫Half-Duplex (one-lane with two-directional traffic)

 Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time
 When one device is sending, the other can only receive,
and vice versa
 The entire capacity of a channel is taken over by the
transmitting device
 Example: Walkie-talkies
Data

Data
Data Flow

⚫Full-Duplex (Duplex) (two-way street)

 Both stations can transmit and receive at same time
 Signals going in either direction sharing the capacity of the
link
 Sharing can occur in two ways:
⚫Link has two physically separate transmission paths
•One for sending and the other for receiving

⚫The capacity of the channel is divided between signals travelling in

both directions
 Example: Telephone network
Data

Data
Networks & Distributed processing
◼ Interconnection of ‘Intelligent devices’ is called a ‘computer network’
◼ In ‘Distributed processing’ a task is divided and submitted among
multiple computers using network
◼ Network Criteria: to design an effective and efficient network the
most important criteria are
◼ Performance can be measured in many ways

1. Transmit time
2. Response time
◼ Performance’ depends on
◼No of users: large no of users may slow down the ‘response time’ due to
heavy traffic
◼Type of transmission medium: defines the speed at which the data can travel

(speed of light is the upper bound)

◼Hardware: A high-speed computer with greater storage provides better

performance
◼Software: efficient mechanisms to transform raw data into transmittable

signal, to route the signals, to ensure error-free delivery etc.

Network Criteria
◼ Reliability depends on
◼Frequency of failure: all networks fail occasionally

◼Recovery time: how long does it takes to restore the service

◼Catastrophe: networks should be protected from fire,

earthquake, theft, etc.

◼ Security depends on
◼Unauthorized access should be prevented

◼Should be protected from viruses, spywares, adwares, malwares

etc.
Physical Structure
◼ It refers to the way two or more devices are
attached to a link
◼ Point-to-Point: provides a dedicated
link between two devices. i.e. entire
capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two
devices
◼ Multi-point: In this configuration more
than two devices share the same link
◼ If several devices can use the link

simultaneously then called ‘spatially

shared connection’

◼ If devices take turns then it is a time-shared connection

(temporally)
Topology
◼ Topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the links and nodes of a
physical network.

ETC.
Mesh Topology
◼ Every device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other device
◼ A fully connected mesh network has n(n-
1)/2 links ( nC2 )
◼ Every device required to have at least n-1
I/O ports
◼ Eliminates traffic problem as links are not
shared
◼ It is robust as breaking one link couldn't defunct the network
completely
◼ Privacy/security is maintained

◼ Installation and reconfiguration is difficult due to complicated

connections
◼ Expensive in terms of cost and space

◼ Very Difficult to add/remove a device

Star Topology
◼ Each computer has a point-point
link only to a central controller
called the HUB
◼ HUB acts as an exchange to send
data from one device to another
◼ Less expensive than mesh
◼ It is robust as one link failure causes that device to go out of
the network and it does not affect others
◼ Easy fault finding

◼ when one device sending data to another device, all other

devices have to be idle
◼ however, a switch in place of hub can eliminate this problem
Bus Topology
◼ Multi-point
◼ One long cable acts as a
backbone to link all the
devices
◼ There is a limit on the no of
drop lines (tapes) as in each
tape some energy is lost
◼ Installation is easy

◼ It uses less cabling than star or mesh

◼ difficult reconnection and fault finding

◼ Adding new device may require modification/replacement of the

backbone otherwise the performance will be degraded
◼ Fault in bus stops all transmission, the damaged area reflects
signal back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both
directions
Ring Topology
◼ Point-to-point
◼ Each device is linked only
to its immediate
neighbours
◼ To add or remove a
device requires moving
two connections only
◼ Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater to regenerate a
signal before passing to neighbour.
◼ Easy to install and reconfiguration

◼ Maximum ring length and no of devices are fixed

◼ failure of one device causes network failure if not bypassed

◼ unidirectional data traffic

Protocol !!!
◼ What is a Protocol?
◼ What does a protocol do?
◼ How would you recognize a protocol if you
met one?
A Human Analogy
➢ What you do when you want to ask some one
for the time of day?
A Network Protocol
◼ Visiting a Web site
◼ Type in the URL in Web
browser
◼ First your computer will
send a connection request
message to the Web Server
◼ Web Server will respond by
returning a connection reply
message
◼ Your computer then sends
the name of the web page
◼ Finally the server returns
the page to you.
Defining A Protocol

A Protocol defines the format and the order

of messages exchanged between two or
more communicating entities, as well as the
actions taken on the transmission and/or
receipt of a message of other event.
. . . J. F. Kurose
Protocols contd.
◼ A protocol defines what is communicated, How
it is communicated, when it is communicated
◼ The key elements of a protocol are
◼ Syntax: refers to structure or format of data, i.e. the
order in which they are presented
day month Year
Example: a date
8 8 16
◼ Semantics: refers to structure meaning of each
section
◼ Timing: refers to two characteristics. i. When data
should be sent. ii. How fast they can be sent
◼ Depends on link availability, and speed of receiver
Standards
◼ The standard provides a model for development that
makes it possible for a product to work regardless of
the individual manufacturer
◼ Example: A steering wheel of a car from one make may not
feet into other make
◼ Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an
open and competitive market and guarantees
international inter-operability
◼ Two categories of standards
◼ De Facto: that have just happened without any formal plan
◼ De Jure: are formal, legal standards adopted by some
authorized or officially recognized body
Standards Organizations
◼ Standards Creation Committees
◼ International Standards Organization (ISO)
◼ International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication standards (ITU-T)
◼ American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
◼ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
◼ Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
◼ Forums
◼ The forums work with universities and users to test, evaluate and the conclusion is
presented to standard bodies to standardize new technologies
◼ Regulatory Agencies
◼ Govt. agencies responsible for protecting the public interest.
◼ Internet Standards
◼ Internet draft is a working document with no official status and a 6 month life
time.
◼ If recommended by IETF then a draft may be published as a Request for
Comment (RFC)
Layered Tasks
◼ The service that we expect from a Computer Network are much
more complex than just sending a signal from one device to
another.
◼ To solve a complex problem we apply the strategy “Divide and
Rule”. i.e. the main problem is divided into some small tasks/
levels of reduced complexity and then handled individually.
◼ In other words Each level is responsible to solve a more focused
problem of the original problem is a called layer in network
terminology.
◼ Each layer observes a different level of abstraction and performs
some well defined functions.
◼ Each layer uses the service of the layer below it and each layer
provides service to its upper layer.
◼ There exists an interface between each pair of adjacent layers
that defines the information and services a layer must provide to
the adjacent layer.
◼ The responsibility of each layer is well defined and focused
◼ Each end user device engaged in communication must have
these layers in it (in form of HW or SW)
◼ An intermediate device may not have all the layers but at least
first two/three layers
◼ Layer x on one device communicates with layer x of other
device.
◼ The processes on each machine that communicate at a given
layer are called peer-to-peer processes.
 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO)

is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

1. Layered Architecture
2. Peer-to-Peer Processes
3. Encapsulation
2.30
Seven layers of the OSI model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
 Physical layer
◼ The responsibility of physical layer is to coordinate the functions
required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium
◼ The duties are
◼ Defines the characteristics of the interface between devices and
transmission medium
◼ Type of transmission medium, topology, etc…
◼ Representation of bits
◼ Encoding, voltage level, duration etc…
◼ Data rate
◼ Synchronization of bits
◼ Sender’s and receiver’s clock synchronization
 Data link layer

◼ is responsible for transmitting frames from

one node to the next
◼ The duties are
◼ Framing

◼ Stream of bits received from upper layer is divided into manageable

data units called frame
◼ Physical addressing
◼Adds the address of sender and receiver in the header

◼ Flow control
◼This mechanism helps to prevents overflow at receiving side

◼ Error control
◼Mechanism to detect/correct errors in transmission

◼ Access Control
◼Which device has the control over the link at a given time
Datalink layer contd.
◼ Physical addressing and hop-hop delivery can
be done in one network only

◼ If the message is to be passed across the

network then network layer functionality is
required.
Network Layer
◼ The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets
from the original source to the final destination possibly
across multiple networks.
◼ The Duties are
◼ Logical addressing
◼ It adds logical addresses into the packet header
◼ Routing
◼ Forwarding the packet towards the destination
Source-to-Destination
 An Example
sending from a node with network
address A and physical address 10 to a
node with a network address P and
physical address 95
Because the two devices are located on
different networks, we cannot use
physical addresses only;as the physical
addresses only have local jurisdiction.
What we need here are universal
addresses that can pass through the LAN
boundaries. The network (logical)
addresses have this characteristic.
 Transport layer
◼ The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message
from one process to another.
◼ The Duties
◼ Port addressing
◼Actual transmission occurs from a specific process on one device to a process
of another.
◼Port address (an integer) defines the process/application in a device

◼ Segmentation and reassembly

◼Message received from application layer is divided in to transmittable
segments containing sequence nos
Transport layer contd.
◼ Connection control
◼ Two types of connection service is allowed
◼Connection oriented: establish the connection, use the connection, release the
connection. (guarantee of delivery)
◼ Example: telephone
◼Connection less: each message carries the destination address and routed
through the system
◼ Example: postal service
◼ Flow Control
◼ Responsible for end-to-end flow control as well as
intermediate flow control (congestion)
◼ Error Control
◼ End-to-end error control
 Session Layer
◼ Session Layer is the network dialog controller, It
establishes maintains and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating systems
◼ Duties are
◼ Dialog control
◼ Synchronization at data level
Session layer
 Presentation Layer

◼Presentation layer is concerned with syntax and

semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems
◼Duties are

◼Translation: converting to bit streams

◼Encryption: to ensure privacy

◼Compression: increases virtual BW

Presentation layer
 Application layer

◼ The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

◼It provides user interfaces and support services such as email,
remote file transfer, remote logins etc…
◼Duties are

◼ Mail Services: Provides the basis for email forwarding and storage.

◼ Directory Services: Provides access for global information about

various services
◼ File Transfer, access and management: It is a standard mechanism
to access file stored in a remote host and manages it locally.
Summary of layers
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
•TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
•Developed prior to the OSI model.
•The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
•The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
•The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first
four layers of the OSI model
•The three top most layers of OSI model are represented in TCP/IP
model by a single layer called the application layer.
•TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and
each of them provides specific functionality.
•Used in the Internet
•Ability to connect multiple networks in a seamless was one of the
major design goals which led to development of TCP//IP
Network Layer
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
•It refers to collection of data communication protocol

•The name is misleading because TCP and IP are only two of the many
protocols that compose the suite.

•It has its origin in the work done by the US Department of Defense.
• TCP / IP defines 3 transport layer protocol:
•Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
•User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
•Stream Control Transmission Protocol(SCTP)
•TCP / IP defines 1 main network layer protocol:
•IP (Internetworking Protocol)
•OSI model specifies function belong to each of its layers.
•The layers of TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent
protocols.
 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.51
 Physical Address

2.52
 IP address

2.53
 Lecture II
The Physical Layer

• Signals
• Digital Transmission
• Analog Transmission
• Multiplexing
• Transmission Media
Position of the physical layer
 DATA

• Data can be Analog or Digital

• Analog data refers to information that is continuous
• Digital refers to information that has discrete state
• Analog data takes continuous values
Signals
◼ Information is transmitted in the form of
electromagnetic signals
◼ Signals are of two types
◼ Analog Signal is a continuous signal in which the signal
intensity varies smoothly over time
◼ Digital Signal is a discrete signal in which the signal intensity
maintains a constant level for some period and then changes
to another constant level.
◼ Analog Data: human voice, Digital data: data stored in a
computer
 Periodic / Aperiodic Signals

Periodic Signal: A signal completes a pattern within a measurable time

frame (period)
The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle. The period is
constant for any given periodic signal
Aperiodic Signal: Changes without exhibiting a pattern
In data communication, we commonly use periodic and analog signals
and aperiodic digital signals

Aperiodic Signal
Periodic Signal
Note

Data can be analog or digital.

Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and take
discrete values.
 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A

simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed
into simpler signals. A composite periodic analog signal is composed
of multiple sine waves.
 Analog Signals
◼ The sine wave is the most fundamental form of
a periodic signal
◼ Represented as s(t)=Asin(2ft+)
◼ Characteristics
◼ Amplitude: intensity of signal at any given time
◼ Frequency: no of cycles/periods in one second,
measured in Hz
◼ Frequency = 1/Period
◼ Phase: describes the position of the waveform
relative to time zero
◼ A complete cycle is 360o = 2
Note

Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite number
of values in a range; digital signals can
have only a limited
number of values.
Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different amplitudes
Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.
Figure Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies
Units of period and frequency
 Example

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. The

period of this sine wave can be determined as follows:
 Example

Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalents of 1 ms (1 ms is 10−3 s) and 1
s (1 s is 106 μs). We make the following substitutions:.

100 ms = 100 × 10 -3 sec = 0.1 sec = 0.1 × 10 6 µsec = 105 µsec

 Example

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz?
Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the
frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3 kHz).

Principle: when we use formulas, we always need to use

the standard units.
Note

Phase describes the position of the relative

to time 0.
Figure Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

π/2 rad

π rad

Phase unit: degree (360o) or radians (2 rad)

Amplitude Period and frequency
 Example

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

3.75
Note

A complete sine wave in the time domain

can be represented by one single spike in
the frequency domain.
Time and frequency domains

A signal can also be represented in frequency domain

 Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.

3.78
Composite signals
◼ A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in
data communications; we need to change one
or more of its characteristics to make it useful.
◼ When we change one or more characteristics
of a single frequency signal, it becomes a
composite signal made of many frequencies.
◼ A composite signal is composed of multiple
sine waves called harmonics
Three harmonics
 Figure The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we

are dealing with more than one sine wave. Fne waves, each
with different amplitude and frequency. All can be represented
by three spikes in the frequency domain.
Note

A single-frequency sine wave is not useful

in data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.
 Frequency spectrum

The Signal using the

frequency domain and
containing all its
components is called the
frequency spectrum of
that signal
▪ The range of frequencies that a medium can pass is called its Bandwidth

▪The bandwidth is a property of a medium: It is the difference between

the highest and the lowest frequencies that the medium can satisfactorily
pass.
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with
frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its
bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then
B = fh – fl = 900 -100 = 800 Hz

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz).

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the
lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the same
amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then

B = fh – fl ⇨ 20 = 60 - fl ⇨ fl = 60 -20 = 40 Hz

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies.

Example
A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between 1000 and
2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000 Hz). A medium can pass
frequencies from 3000 to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of 1000 Hz).
Can this signal faithfully pass through this medium?

Solution
The answer is definitely no. Although the signal can have the
same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the range does not overlap. The
medium can only pass the frequencies between 3000 and 4000
Hz; the signal is totally lost.
 DIGITAL SIGNALS

In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information

can also be represented by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can be
encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital
signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send
more than 1 bit for each level.
Digital Signals
◼ Digital signals can be better described by two terms
◼ Bit interval: time required to send a single bit
◼ Bit rate: number of bit intervals in one second
◼ A digital signal is a composite signal having an infinite
number of frequencies i.e. infinite bandwidth
◼ The digital BW is bits per sec (bps)
Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other with four signal levels
 Example

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are

needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula

Number of bits per level = log2 (8) = 3

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

Bit Rate: number of bits sent in 1 second.

bps: bit per second
 Example

Assume we need to download text documents at the rate

of 100 pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of
the channel? (assuming each page is an average of 24
lines with 80 characters in each line, and one character
requires 8 bits)

Solution
the bit rate is:
100 × 24 × 80 × 8 bits /min = 100 × 24 × 80 × 8 / 60 bits /sec = 25600
bps = 25.6 kbps
 Analog vs Digital
• Channels or links are of two types
• low-pass: lower limit is zero and upper
limit is any frequency ()
•band-pass: has a band width with
frequencies f1and f2

▪ A digital signal theoretically needs a BW between o and 

▪ if the upper limit will be relaxed than digital transmission can use a low-pass
channel

▪ An analog signal has a narrower BW with frequencies f1and f2

▪ Also BW of analog signal can be shifted, i.e. f1and f2 can be shifted to f3 and
f4
▪ Analog signal can use a band-pass channel
 Channel capacity
The channel capacity is a very important consideration in data
communications that is how fast we can send data, in bits per
second, over a channel.
DATA RATE LIMITS
The maximum data rate limit over a medium is decided
by following factors:

1.Bandwidth of channel.
2.Signal levels
3.Channel quality (level of noise)

•Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate

the data rate: one by Nyquist for a noiseless channel,
another by Shannon for a noisy channel.
1.For noiseless channel- Nyquist bit rate
2.For noisy channel- Shannon capacity.
Data rate limits
◼ Nyquist Bit rate: noise less channel
◼ Theoretical maximum Bit rate= 2  BW  log L

◼ For a noise less channel the nyquist bit rate defines the theoretical

maximum bit rate

◼ BW: band width of channel,

◼ L: no of signal levels used to represent data

◼ Unit : bps(bits per second)

◼ Data rate cannot arbitrarily increased by increasing signal level

◼ In reality, this is not true because noise will limit signal level for
 Example

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz

transmitting a signal with two signal levels. Calculate maximum bit
rate.

ANS:

Nyquist Bit rate = 2 * B * log2 (L) = 2 * 3000 * log2 (2) = 2 *

3000 * 1 = 6000 bps
 Example

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four

signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits). The maximum bit rate
can be calculated as

Ans:

Nyquist Bit rate = 2 * B * log2 (L) = 2 * 3000 * log2 (4) = 2 *

3000 * 2 = 12000 bps = 12 kbps
 Example
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need? (hint:
signal level needs to be 2l)
Solution: We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
Given B = 20 kHz = 20000Hz
Nyquist bit rate = 265 kbps = 265000 bps
265000 = 2 . B . log 2 (L) = 2 . 20000 . log 2 (L)
=> log 2 (L) = 256000 / 40,000 = 6.625
=> L = 2 6.625 = 98.7
2L > 98.7, l = 7
Final Signal level 128(2 7)

Since this result is not a power of 2 we need to either increase the number of
levels or reduce the bit rate If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps If we
have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

• Max bit-Rate (Capacity )= B log2 (1+SNR)

• B : bandwidth (Hz)
• SNR: signal-to-noise ratio
• The signal-to-noise ratio is the statistical ratio of power of the
signal to the power of the noise
 Decibel

The decibel (dB) measures the relative strength of two

signals or one signal at two different points.
The decibel is positive if signal is strengthened & it is
negative when signal attenuates.
It is calculated as
db = 10 log10(P2/P1)
Variables P1& P2 are the power of signal at two points.
 Example

Calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone

line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000Hz. The
signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. Calculate the theoretical
highest bit rate of a regular telephone line.

Ans: Given B = 3000 Hz, SNR = 3162

Channel capacity = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 3000 × log2 (1 + 3162) I
= 3000 × log2 (3163) = 3000 × 11.62 = 34860 bpse bandwidth of
the line or improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
 Example

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that

SNRdB = 36 dB and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. Calculate
theoretical channel capacity .
Given SNRdB = 36 dB, B = 2 MHZ = 2 . 106 Hz
⇨ SNRdB = 10 log10 (SNR)
⇨ SNR = 10(36/10 ) = 3981
C = B . Log2 (1 + SNR) = 2 . 106 . Log2 (3982) = = 2 . 106 . 12 = 24 . 106 bps = 24 Mbps

Calculation of SNR from SNR dB

SNRdb= 10 log10SNR

Assume that SNRdB =45 and the channel bandwidth is 10

MHz Calculate the theoretical channel capacity?
Calculate the maximum bit rate for a channel having bandwidth 3100Hz
and SNR ratio 20 Db.

We have to use formula (SNRdb= 10 log10SNR)

Given
Given BW =3100Hz & SNR ratio =20 Db
i.e. 20 Db =10log10(SNR), SNR = 102 = 100
Maximum bit rate for noisy channel is given by
C=BW × Log2(1+S/N)
= 3100 × Log2(1+100)
= 20,640 bits/sec
 Example

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the

signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so
strong that the signal is faint. For this channel the capacity C is
calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth. In other
words, we cannot receive any data through this channel.
 Example

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this

channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?

Solution: First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps

For better performance something lower, 4Mbps(power of 2)

4 Mbps = 2  1 MHz  log2 L ➔ L = 4

The Shannon capacity gives the upper limit; the Nyquist formula gives us how many signal
level we need.
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.

The imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the
signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the
signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is
received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion,
and noise.
Causes of impairment
Transmission Impairment
◼ In practice the signal sent at sending end using a
transmission medium is not exactly same at receiving
end due to some impairments
◼ Attenuation: loss of energy

◼ Decibel: is the unit to measure the relative strength

of two signals
◼ dB = 10 log10 (P2/P1)
◼ It is negative if attenuated and +ve if amplified
 Example

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its

power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1.
Calculate signal power in dB

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

 Example

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10

times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this case, the amplification
(gain of power) can be calculated as
 Example

Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power in milliwatts. In this

case, it is referred to as dBm and is calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where Pm is
the power in milliwatts. Calculate the power of a signal with -30dBm.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as

dbm = 10 log10 (pm ) = -30

log10 (pm ) = -3
Pm = 10 mw
 Example

The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer

(dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a cable with −0.3 dB/km
has a power of 2 mW, what is the power of the signal at 5 km ?
Solution:

The loss in the cable in decibels is 5× - 0.3 = -1.5 dB We can

calculate the power as
 Distortion
◼ Signal changes its forms at the receiving end
◼ It is normally happens in case of composite signals
◼ As each signal component has its own frequency,
phase and amplitude, thus received out of phase
 Noise
◼ Several types of noise such as
◼thermal noise: random motion of electrons in a wire

◼induced noise: sources such as motors and electrical

appliances
◼cross talk: effect of one wire over the other

◼impulse noise: is a spike may corrupt the original signal that

comes from power lines and lightning
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
 Example

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW;

what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?
Solution:
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

SNR = 10 mw / 1 μW = 10 x 10-3 w / 1x 10-6 w = 104 w

SNR dB = 10 log10 SNR = 10 log10 (104) = 40dB
 Example 3.32

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

 PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the performance of the

network—how good is it?

▪ Bandwidth - capacity of the system

▪ Throughput - number of bits that can be transmitted through a channel
▪ Latency (Delay) - delay incurred by a bit from start to finish
▪ Bandwidth-Delay Product
 In networking, we use the term bandwidth in
two contexts.

▪The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies

in a composite signal or the range of frequencies that a channel
can pass.

▪The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed

of bit transmission in a channel or link. Often referred to as
Capacity.
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of
12,000 frames per minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000
bits. What is the throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth (1/5) of the bandwidth in this case.

Propagation & Transmission delay

◼ Propagation speed - speed at which a bit

travels though the medium from source to
destination.
◼ Transmission speed - the speed at which all
the bits in a message arrive at the destination.
(difference in arrival time of first and last bit)
Propagation and Transmission Delay

◼ Propagation Time = Distance/Propagation speed

◼ Transmission Time = Message size/bandwidth bps

◼ Latency = Propagation Time + Transmission Time +

Queueing time + Processing time
 Example

What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is
12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as
 Example

What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte
message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume
that the distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
 Example

What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a
5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth of the network is
1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the sender and the
receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution

Note that in this case, because the message is very long and the bandwidth is not very high, the
dominant factor is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The propagation time can be
ignored.
Bandwidth Delay Product

• The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can

fill the link.
• In data communications, the bandwidth-delay product is
the product of a data link's capacity (in bits per second) and its
delay time (in seconds).
• The result, an amount of data measured in bits (or bytes), is
equivalent to the maximum amount of data on the network circuit
at any given time.
BW = 1bps
 BW = 5bps

At each second there are 4bits in one line.

Duration of the bit = 0.25 sec
Concept of bandwidth-delay product
Digital Transmission
• We can represent digital data using digital signal.
• Convert digital data to digital signal
• The conversion involves 3 techniques
1. Line coding
2. Block Coding
3. Scrambling
• Line coding is always needed; block coding and
scrambling may or may not be needed.
 What is Line Coding
• Converts sequence of bits to digital signal

signal
Data and signal elements

1. Data elements are what we need to send

2. Signal Elements are what we can send
3. Data elements are being carried
4. Signal elements are the carriers
Signal element versus data element
Data rate/Bit rate

• Date Rate: Number of data elements(bits) sent in 1 second

• Unit : bps
Baud rate/Pulse rate/modulation rate
• Number of Signal elements per second
• Unit baud
• S = c * N * 1/r
•Where
• S = Number of signal elements
• N = bit rate
• c = case factor(best case/worst case/average case)
• r = data element and signal element ratio
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is
encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is 100
kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is
between 0 and 1?

Solution
We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud
rate is then
 DC Component
◼ When there is no transition between +ve voltage & -ve voltage for
long periods of time in a signal , the frequency of the signal become
zero. which is known as the direct-current (DC) component.
◼ A component having zero frequency
◼ Can’t be passed through some components of a communication
system like transformer
◼ Energy consumed is useless
Self Synchronization
◼ No Synchronization: if receivers clock is faster

◼ A Signal that includes timing information along

with data is called a self-synchronizing signal
◼ i.e. transitions in the signal alerts the receiver to reset
the clock
Example

In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent

faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per second
does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1 Kbps? How many
if the data rate is 1 Mbps?

Solution
At 1 Kbps:
1000 bits sent ➔1001 bits received➔1 extra bps
At 1 Mbps:
1,000,000 bits sent ➔1,001,000 bits received➔1000 extra bps
Line coding schemes
Unipolar scheme
In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time
axis, either above or below
NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero): positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero
voltage defines bit 0
◼ One is coded as +ve voltage

◼ Zero is coded as 0 voltage

Polar scheme
• In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of
the time axis. There are two types of NRZ polar scheme
1. NRZ-L (NRZ-Level): level of voltage determines value of
the bits
1. 0 is encoded as +ve voltage(+5v)
2. 1 is encoded as –ve voltage(-5v)
2. NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert): The change or lack of change in the
level of the voltage determines, the value of the bit. If
there is no change in signal level, the bit is 0, if there is a
change in signal level, the bit is 1.
NRZ Encoding

◼ Loss of synchronization in case of continuous

ones or zeros
RZ(Return to zero) Encoding

Note:

RZ uses three values i.e. +ve, zero & -ve

It requires two signal changes to encode a
bit
Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from +ve to 0 or from –ve to 0
 RZ Encoding

◼ A transition from +ve to 0 voltage means 1 and a

transition from –ve to 0 voltage means 0.
◼ But signal returns to zero at mid of the bit interval
RZ Encoding
Note:

RZ is a good encoded digital signal that contain

a provision for synchronization.
But it requires two signal changes to encode 1 bit
 more bandwidth!
Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

✓In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition

at the middle of the bit is used for synchronization.

✓The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2 times

that of NRZ.
Bipolar Encoding
Note:

In bipolar encoding, we use three levels:

positive, zero,
and negative.

Bipolar schemes:
1) AMI
2) Pseudoternary
Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

AMI: Bit 0 is zero level and 1 bit alternate +ve and –ve voltage

Pseudoternary: Bit 1 is zero level and 0 bit alternate +ve and –ve level
 Multilevel scheme :mBnL
• In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a
pattern of n signal elements in which 2m ≤ Ln.
Where
m: length of the binary pattern,
B: Binary data
n: Length of the signal pattern.
L: Number of levels in the signaling.

A letter is often used in place of L: B (binary) for L =2, T (ternary) for L = 3,

and Q (quaternary) for L =4. Note that the first two letters define the data
pattern, and the second two define the signal pattern.
Example: Multilevel: 2B1Q(2 Binary 1 Quaatanery) scheme

◼ Each pulse represents 2 bits

Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme

1. If the next bit is 0, there is no transition.

2. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0, the next level is 0.
3. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0, the next level is the
opposite of the last nonzero level.
• Signal rate is same as NRZ-I
• But because of the resulting bit pattern, we have a periodic
signal for worst case bit pattern: 1111
Summary of line coding schemes
 Block Coding
• Block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n bits, where n is
larger than m
• Extra bits(redundancy) added to ensure synchronization and to provide
error detecting.

Steps of block coding:

✓Division
✓Substitution
✓Combining
✓Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB coding.
✓it replaces each m-bit group with an
n-bit group.
Block coding concepts
Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding cheme
4B/5B mapping codes
Figure 4.16 Substitution in 4B/5B block coding

4.160
 Redundancy
• A 4 bit data word can have 24 combinations.
• A 5 bit word can have 25=32 combinations.
• We therefore have 32 - 16 = 16 extra words.
• As a result, the 5-bit patterns can always have two '1's
in them even if the data is all '0's a translation.
• Some of the extra words are used for control/signalling
purposes.
Scrambling
• Long sequence of 0s present in the data creates synchronization
problem. For example in AMI long sequence of 0s represented as 0
voltage level can create synchronization problem.
• Scrambling can be used to avoid long sequence of 0s in the original
stream.
Two schemes available for scrambling
✓ B8ZS(Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution)
✓ HDB3(High-density bipolar 3-zero)
B8ZS(Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution)
▪Eight consecutive zero-level voltages are replaced by the sequence
000VB0VB.
V→ Same polarity of previous Non-zero pulse(violates line
coding rule)
B→ Bipolar(opposite of previous Non-zero pulse) (According
to line coding rule)
 HDB3(High-Density Bipolar 3-Zero)

• The encoding rules follow AMI, except that a sequence of four

consecutive 0's are encoded.
• Four consecutive zero-level voltages are replaced with a sequence of
000V or B00V.
• B means bipolar and V means violation of AMI rule

Rules:
1. If the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution is odd, the
substitution pattern will be 000V, which makes the total number of
nonzero pulses even.
2. If the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution is even, the
substitution pattern will be B00V, which makes the total number of
nonzero pulses even.
Example
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

A digital signal is superior to an analog signal because it is more

robust to noise and can easily be recovered, corrected and
amplified. For this reason, the tendency today is to change an
analog signal to digital data.

Techniques

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Delta Modulation (DM)
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Fig: Components of PCM encoder

Steps of PCM:
◼ Sampling: Collect the sample data at instantaneous points of message signal at
regular interval. It is also known pulse amplitude modulation(PAM)
◼ Quantizing: Reduces the redundant bits and compresses the value.
◼ Encoding: It designates each quantized level by a binary code.
Sampling
• Analog signal is sampled every TS secs.
• Sampling is measuring amplitude in equal intervals
• Ts is referred to as the sampling interval.
• fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.
• There are 3 sampling methods:
• Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant
• Natural - a pulse of short width with varying amplitude
• Flattop - sample and hold, like natural but with single
amplitude value
• The process is referred to as pulse amplitude modulation
(PAM) and the outcome is a signal with analog (non
integer) values
Figure 4.22 Three different sampling methods for PCM

Pulse width is τ.
τ = zero Pulse width = τ

Pulse width = τ
Sampling rate/ sampling frequency
• Accuracy of reproduction of the original signal depend on the
no of samples taken
• The analog signal is sampled every Ts second, where Ts is the
sample interval or period.
• The inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling rate
or sampling frequency

Note

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.
Figure Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates
Figure 4.23 Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals
Question
A complex low pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum
sampling rate for this signal ?

Solution: The bandwidth of a lowpass signal between 0

and f, where f is the maximum frequency in the signal
fmax = 200 kHz = 200,000Hz
Minimum sampling rate = 2 * 200000 = 400000
The sampling rate 400,000 samples per second
 Question
A complex band pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling
rate for this signal ?

We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this case

because we do not know where the bandwidth starts or ends.
W do not know the maximum frequency in the signal.
Question

What sampling rate is needed for a signal with a bandwidth of

10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz)?
Solution
The sampling rate must be twice the highest frequency in the
signal:

Sampling rate = 2 x (11,000) = 22,000 samples/s

Quantization
 Quantization Levels

• The midpoint of each zone is assigned a value from 0 to L-1

(resulting in L values)
• Each sample falling in a zone is then approximated to the
value of the midpoint.
Quantization Zones
• Assume we have a voltage signal with amplitudes
Vmin=-20V and Vmax=+20V.
• We want to use L=8 quantization levels.
• Zone width  = (20 - -20)/8 = 5
• The 8 zones are: -20 to -15, -15 to -10, -10 to -5, -5
to 0, 0 to +5, +5 to +10, +10 to +15, +15 to +20
• The midpoints are: -17.5, -12.5, -7.5, -2.5, 2.5, 7.5,
12.5, 17.5
 Assigning Codes to Zones
• Each zone is then assigned a binary code.
• The number of bits required to encode the zones, or the
number of bits per sample is obtained as follows:
nb = log2 L
• Given our example, nb = 3
• The 8 zone (or level) codes are therefore: 000, 001, 010, 011,
100, 101, 110, and 111
• Assigning codes to zones:
• 000 will refer to zone -20 to -15
• 001 to zone -15 to -10
• 001 to zone -15 to -10
• 010 to zone -10 to -5
• 011 to zone -5 to 0 , etc.
Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
 Quantization Error
• When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error - the
coded signal is an approximation of the actual amplitude
value.
• The difference between actual and coded value
(midpoint) is referred to as the quantization error.
• The more zones, the smaller  which results in smaller
errors.
• BUT, the more zones the more bits required to encode
the samples -> higher bit rate
Bit rate and bandwidth requirements of PCM

• The bit rate of a PCM signal can be calculated form the

number of bits per sample x sampling rate
Bit rate = number of bits per sample x sampling rate = nb x fs
• The bandwidth required to transmit this signal depends on
the type of line encoding used.
• A digitized signal will always need more bandwidth than
the original analog signal. Price we pay for robustness and
other features of digital transmission.
 Example

We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,

assuming 8 bits per sample?

Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz.
So the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as follows:

Sampling rate = 4000 * 2 = 8000 samples/ second

Bitrate = 8000 * 8 = 64, 000 bps = 64 kbps
PCM Decoder
• To recover an analog signal from a digitized signal
the following steps are used :
• A hold circuit is used that holds the amplitude value of
a pulse till the next pulse arrives.
• This signal is passed through a low pass filter with a
cutoff frequency that is equal to the highest frequency
in the pre-sampled signal.
• The higher the value of L, the less distorted a
signal is recovered.
Components of a PCM decoder
4-3 TRANSMISSION MODES

• The transmission of binary data across a link can be

accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.
• In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick.
In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
• While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are
three subclasses of serial transmission: asynchronous,
synchronous, and isochronous.

▪ Parallel Transmission
▪ Serial Transmission
Transmission mode
Parallel Transmission
◼ Information is organized into group of bits
◼ All bits of one group are transmitted with each clock tick
from one device to other

◼ More speed
◼ Cost is high(uses n wires for transmission of n bits)
restricted to short distance
Serial Transmission
◼ One bit follows another using same line. We need
only 1 communication link or channel

◼ Reduced cost (by a factor n)

◼ Parallel/serial converter required
◼ May used for large distance
Asynchronous Transmission
◼ Serial transmission occurs in one of the two
ways
◼ Timing of signal is unimportant

Note:
In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start
bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits
(1s) at the end of each byte. There may be a gap
between each byte.
Asynchronous Transmission
◼ Insertion of extra bits & a gap makes it slower
◼ But cheap and effective

◼ Suitable for low speed communication like KB to

computer. i.e. typing is done one character at a time
and unpredictable gap between characters.
Asynchronous Transmission
◼ When receiver detects a start bit, it starts a timer and
begins counting
◼ After receiving a stop bit it ignores all pulses till next
start bit arrives and resets the timer
Note:

Asynchronous here means “asynchronous

at the byte level,” but the bits are still
synchronized; their durations are the same.
Synchronous Transmission

Note:

In synchronous transmission,
we send bits one after another without
start/stop bits or gaps.
It is the responsibility of the receiver to
group the bits.
Synchronous Transmission

◼ More speed
◼ Synchronization is necessary
◼ In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another without
start or stop bits or gaps. The bits are usually sent as bytes and many
bytes are grouped into a frame. A frame is identified with a start and
an end byte.
◼ Accuracy is completely dependent on the ability of the receiving
device to keep an accurate count of the bits as they come in
◼ Byte synchronization is done in datalink layer
 Analog Transmission
Modulation of Digital Data
1. Converting digital data to band pass analog signal is known as Digital to Analog
conversion
2. Converting low pass analog signal to a band pass analog signal is known as analog
to analog conversion

Digital-to-Analog Conversion: It is the process of changing one of

the characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in
digital data.

1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
4. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
Digital to analog Conversion
It is Needed if the transmission line is analog but the data
produced is binary.
Example: sending data from a computer via a public access
telephone line
 Digital to Analog Conversion
• Digital data needs to be carried on an analog signal.
• A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the function of
transporting the digital data in an analog waveform.
• The analog carrier signal is manipulated to uniquely
identify the digital data being carried.
Bit rate / Baud rate
Note:

Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud

rate is the number of signal units per second.
Baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.

The sending device produces a signal that acts as a basis of

information signal called carrier signal or carrier frequency
The digital information is then modulates the carrier signal by
modifying one or more of its characteristics.
In the analog transmission of digital data, the signal or baud rate is less
than or equal to the bit rate.
S=Nx1/r bauds
Where r is the number of data bits per signal element.
 Example

An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000

signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate and the bit
rate
Solution
Baud rate(S) = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)
In this case r =4
Bit rate(N) = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps
Example

The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit carries 6

bits, what is the baud rate?
Solution
Bit rate (N) = 3000, and r = 6
Baud rate = 3000 / 6 = 500 baud/sec
 An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of
1000 baud. How many data elements are carried by each
signal element? How many signal elements do we need?

Solution :
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are unknown.
We find first the value of r and then the value of L.
S = N * 1/r → r = N / S = 8000 bits / 1000 baud = 8 bits/baud
r = log 2 (L ) → L = 2r = 28 = 256
 Amplitude Shift Keying
• The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary one or zero
•ASK is highly susceptible to noise interference, i.e. a zero may be changed
to 1 or vice versa

•If one of the bit values is represented by no voltage then it is called on/off
keying (OOK). It results in reduction of energy transmitted.
• Bandwidth of the ASK is proportional to the signal rate S.
is given by B=(1+d) S
• Where S is the baud rate and d is a factor depends on modulation and
filtering . The value of d lies between 0 and 1
The required bandwidth has a minimum value of S and a maximum value
•
of 2S
• The middle of the bandwidth is where fc ,the carrier frequency is located.
Implementation of binary ASK
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which
spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using ASK with d = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz.
That is fc = 250 kHz.
We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate
(with d = 1 and r = 1).
Example
Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz), draw the full-
duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find the carriers and the bandwidths
in each direction. Assume there is no gap between the bands in the two
directions.
Solution

For full-duplex ASK, the bandwidth for each direction is

BW = 10000 / 2 = 5000 Hz
The carrier frequencies can be chosen at the middle of each band
fc (forward) = 1000 + 5000/2 = 3500 Hz
fc (backward) = 11000 – 5000/2 = 8500 Hz
Frequency Shift Keying
◼ In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is
varied to represent data.
◼ Frequency of carrier signal varies to represent a binary 1 or 0
◼ The digital data stream changes the frequency of the carrier signal fc
◼ For example, a “1” could be represented by f1=fc +f, and a “0” could
be represented by f2=fc-f.
◼ Effect of noise is less, receiving device ignores spikes but more
Bandwidth is required
◼ Although there are two carrier frequencies, the process of
modulation produces a composite signal
The middle of one bandwidth is f1 and the middle of the other is f2
Both f1 and f2 are ∆f apart from the midpoint of two band
The difference between two frequency is 2∆f
 Bandwidth of FSK

If the difference between the two frequencies (f1 and f2) is 2f,
then the required BW B will be:
B = (1+d) x S + 2f
The minimum value of 2f should be at least S
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from
200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the
bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1?

Solution
The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50 kHz;
this means
 Phase Shift Keying
• The phase shift of the carrier signal is varied to
represent digital data.
• The bandwidth requirement, B is:
B = (1+d)xS
• PSK is much more robust than ASK as it is not that
vulnerable to noise, which changes amplitude of the
signal.
• BW = same as of ASK
• Avoids problems of noise and bandwidth
• Can be represented in a constellation diagram or
phase-state diagram
• More variations in phase may be added to represent
more than one bit
 BPSK

◼ Phase of carrier signal varies to represent a binary 1 (180o)or 0 (0o)

also called 2-PSK or binary PSK
Implementation of BPSK
• Noise can change the amplitude easier than it can change the
phase. In other words PSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK.
• PSK do not need two carrier signals compared to FSK
• PSK need more sophisticated hardware to able to distinguish
between two phase.
Other variations of PSK: 4:PSK(QPSK)
4-PSK / Q-PSK, 2 bits per baud

i. To increase the bit rate we can code 2 or more bits onto a one signal
element
ii. The bit rate increases as compared to baud rate
iii. But needs sophisticated devices to distinguish small difference in
phase
• It uses two BPSK
• In QPSK, the bit stream is parallelized(serial to parallel
conversion) so that every two incoming bits are split up and
sends one bit to one modulator and the next bit to other
modulator.
• One carrier frequency is phase shifted 90o from the other - in
quadrature.
• Two composite signals created by the multiplier with same
frequency with different phases
• The two PSKed signals are then added to produce one of 4
signal elements. L = 4 here.
• There are 4 possible phases 450 , -450 , 1350 , -1350
 Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12
Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0.

Solution:
For QPSK, 2 bits is carried by one signal element. This means that r
= 2.
So the signal rate (baud rate) is S = N × (1/r) = 6 Mbaud. With a
value of d = 0, we have B = S = 6 MHz.
Three constellation diagrams
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Note:

QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK

Constellation Diagram

a. 4 different signal element using a unipolar NRZ signal

b. Using polar NRZ same as QPSK
c. Used a signal with two +ve level to modulate each of the carrier
d. 16-QAM using a signal with 8 levels, 4 +ve and 4 –ve.
 Modulation of Analog Signals
• Analog to Analog conversion is the representation of
analog information by an analog signal
• i.e. shifting the center frequency of baseband signal up to

the radio carrier

•Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature

or if only a bandpass channel is available to us. Example :

radio
• It is needed because
•helps in frequency division multiplexing
• To support medium characteristics

Methods:
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
Amplitude modulation
• The carrier signal is modulated so that
its amplitude varies with the changing
amplitude of modulating signal
•Phase and frequency of the carrier
signal remains the same
•The modulating signal becomes an
envelope of the carrier
•The bandwidth of an AM signal is twice
the bandwidth of the modulating signal
• BWt = 2  BWm
• BWt is total bandwidth
• BWm is bandwidth of modulating signal
AM band allocation
Frequency modulation
• The frequency of the carrier signal
is modulated so that its frequency
varies with the changing amplitude
of modulating signal
•Phase and peak amplitude remains
the same
•The bandwidth of an FM signal is
ten times the bandwidth of the
modulating signal
• BWt = 10  BWm (approximately)
• BWt is total bandwidth
•BWm is bandwidth of modulating
signal
Frequency modulation

The total bandwidth required for FM can be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B. Where  is usually 4.
 Phase Modulation (PM)
• The phase of the carrier signal is modulated to
follow the changing voltage level of the
modulating signal.
Phase modulation
Note
The total bandwidth required for PM can be determined from the
bandwidth
and maximum amplitude of the modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + β)B.
Where  = 2 most often.

5.231
 The Physical Layer contd.
• Multiplexing
• Transmission Media
• Switching
MULTIPLEXING
• Bandwidth is limited
• Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth
to achieve specific goals.
• Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing; i.e., sharing of the
bandwidth between multiple users.
• Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is
greater than the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can
be shared.
• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
(simultaneous) transmission of multiple signals across a single
data link.
Categories of multiplexing
Multiplexing
◼ Combine several channels into one
◼ It is not practical to have a separate line for each other device we want to
communicate
◼ Therefore, it is better to share communication medium
◼ The technique used to share a link by more than one device is called multiplexing
◼ Multiplexing needs that the BW of the link should be greater than the total
individual BW of the devices connected.
◼ In a multiplexed system one link may contain more than one channel

Dividing a link into channels

Frequency Division Multiplexing
◼ FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines
Analog signals
◼ Uses concept of modulation
◼ Signals generated by each sending device modulate
different carrier frequencies
◼ These modulated signals are combined to form a composite
signal that can be transported by the link.
◼ Demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the
signal into its component signals
FDM process
xFDM demultiplexing example
 FDM
f

•Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient BW to

accommodate modulated signal
These BW ranges are channels through which the various
•

signal travel
•Channels must be separated by strips of unused BWs
(called Guard Bands) to prevent signals from overlapping
•Carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original
signals
 Example 1
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 KHz. We need to
combine three voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 KHz,
from 20 to 32 KHz. Show the configuration using the frequency domain
without the use of guard bands.

Solution
Shift (modulate)
each of the three
voice channels to
a different
bandwidth, as
shown in Figure
 Example

Five channels, each with a 100-KHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed

together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for
a guard band of 10 KHz between the channels to prevent interference?

Solution

For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the
required bandwidth is at least

5 x 100 + 4 x 10
= 540 KHz
as shown in Figure
Wave Division Multiplexing
◼ Very narrow bands of light
from different sources are
combined to make a wider
band of light

◼ A prism is used to bend a beam of light based on the angle of

incidence and frequency and acts like a multiplexer
◼ Another prism may be used to reverse the process and acts like
a demultiplexer
Time division Multiplexing
◼ It a digital multiplexing technique that allows connections or
channels to share high bw of the link
◼ Each shared connection occupies a portion of time but uses full
BW
◼ Instead of sharing portion of bw as in FDM, time is shared

t
 Synchronous Time division
Multiplexing
❑ The data flow of each connection is divided into units, where each
unit occupies one input time slot
❑ A unit can be 1 bit, one character or one block of data
❑ Each i/p unit becomes one o/p unit and occupies 1 timeslot
❑ Duration of an o/p time slot is n times shorter than duration of an
i/p time slot (Toutput = Tinput / n) where n is the no of connections or
channels
❑ For n input connections, a frame is organized into n time slots
❑ Each slot carrying one unit from each section
❑ The data rate of link is n time faster, and unit duration is n times
shorter
Synchronous time-division multiplexing
Time division Multiplexing contd.
◼ If the data rate of a link is 3 times the data rate of a
connection
◼ then the duration of a unit on a connection will be 3
times that of a time slot
 Example
Four 1-Kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit is 1 bit. Find
(1) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing, (2) the transmission rate of
the link, (3) the duration of a time slot, and (4) the duration of a frame?

Solution
1. The duration of 1 bit is 1/1 Kbps, or 0.001 s (1 ms).
2. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of connection, i.e. 4
Kbps.
3. The duration of each time slot is 1/4 th of the bit duration
before multiplexing i.e. 1/4 ms or 250 s.
or inverse of data rate i.e. 1/4 Kbps = 250 s.
4. The duration of a frame is same as duration of each unit,
i.e. 1 ms.
or 4 times the bit duration i.e. 4 * 250 ms = 1ms
 Example 6.5

the data rate for each one of the 3 input connection is 1 kbps. If 1
bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a)
each input slot, (b) each output slot, and (c) each frame?

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means that
the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The duration of the input
time slot is 1 ms (same as bit duration).
b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the input
time slot. This means that the duration of the output time slot is
1/3 ms.
c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the duration of a
frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms.
Note: The duration of a frame is the same as the duration of an
input unit.
 Example 6.6

The Figure given below shows synchronous TDM with 4 1Mbps data
stream inputs and one data stream for the output. The unit of data
is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b) the output bit duration, (c)
the output bit rate, and (d) the output frame rate.
Solution
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.
b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit duration, or
¼ μs.
c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit duration or
1/(4μs) or 4 Mbps. so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps = 4 Mbps.
d. the frame rate is always the same as input rate. So the frame
rate is 1,000,000 frames per second. Because we are sending 4
bits in each frame, verify the result by multiplying frame rate
with number of bits per frame.
Interleaving

• The process of taking a group of bits from each input

line for multiplexing is called interleaving.
• We interleave bits (1 - n) from each input onto one
output.
Interleaving
 Example 6.8

Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel sends

100 bytes /s and we multiplex 1 byte per channel, show the frame
traveling on the link, the size of the frame, the duration of a frame,
the frame rate, and the bit rate for the link.

Solution
Each frame carries 1 byte from each channel;
the size of each frame, therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits.
Because each channel is sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1
byte from each channel, the frame rate must be 100 frames per
second(frame rate is same as input rate). The bit rate is 100 × 32, or
3200 bps.
Example

A multiplexer combines four 100-Kbps channels using a time slot of 2

bits. Show the output with four arbitrary inputs. What is the frame rate?
What is the frame duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit
duration?

Solution
 Data rate matching
• Used to handle disparity in the input rates
• Multilevel Multiplexing: used when the data rate of the input
links are multiples of each other.
• Multiple slot Allocation: The higher bit rate channels are
allocated more slots per frame, and the output frame rate is a
multiple of each input link.
• Pulse Stuffing: used when there is used when bit rate of the
sources are not multiple of each other. The slowest speed link will
be brought up to the speed of the other links by dummy bit
insertion, this is called pulse stuffing.
Multilevel multiplexing
Multiple-slot multiplexing
Pulse stuffing
 Synchronization

•Synchronization between multiplexer and demultiplexer is

important otherwise a bit of one channel may be received by
other channel
•To avoid this one or more synchronization bits may be added
called Framing bits
Example Solution
We have four sources, each creating 250
characters per second. If the 1. The data rate of each source
interleaved unit is a character and 1 is 2508=2000 bps
synchronizing bit is added to each 2. The duration of a character
frame, find is 1/250 s, or 4 ms.
3. The link needs to send 250
(1) the data rate of each source, frames per second.
(2) the duration of each character in each 4. The duration of each frame
source, is 1/250 s, or 4 ms.
5. Each frame is 4 x 8 + 1 = 33
(3) the frame rate, bits.
(4) the duration of each frame, 6. The data rate of the link is
250 x 33, or 8250 bps.
(5) the number of bits in each frame, and
(6) the data rate of the link.
Inefficient use of Bandwidth

• Sometimes an input link may have no data to

transmit.
• When that happens, one or more slots on the
output link will go unused.
• That is wasteful of bandwidth.
Empty slots
TDM slot comparison