Sociology

It is the study of society

Society: Is a group of people living together sharing the same culture

Culture: a way of life of a particular group of people in a society/the way we live

Norms: an expected normal behaviour from a particular society or institution

Values: anything that a particular culture considers desirable and worth having e.g respect, integrity,
teamwork

Prominent Sociologists

1. August Comte

He was a French scholar who coined the word sociology in the 19 th century. Believed sociology
emerged (from the French revolution)

 He was interested in biology and thus he linked biology with sociology

 He concluded that society is like a living organism with various parts which depends on one
another for the good of the whole.
 Each part has its own function, if its operations are disturbed the organism suffers.

2. Karl Marx: He was born in a middle class Germany family and attained his PhD at the age of 23

 Having studied history, law, philosophy, and political economy

 He did not like the structure of his society
 These subjects opened up his mind
 He became a great thinker
 He observed that his society is made up of two classes; the ruling class and the working class .
 Karl Marx was against the ruling class that oppressed the working class, thus he wanted to
change the society.

3. Herbert Spencer -like Komte and Marx he was born in a middle class family in England

 Also had interest in biology, but was studying society in which he lived ,viewed societies as
living organisms
 Herbet Spencer and August Komte are functionalists while Karl Marx is Marxist.
 Spencer believed that society progresses through individual and group effort.
4. Emily Darkem -was a French sociologist like August Komte, interested in those factors that
keep society together e.g values, religion, ethics etc

 He looked at moral aspects which affects the welfare of individuals and groups
 He believed that for societies to survive there must be value co – census (agreement) on
values
 Darkem also observed that the more societies become individualistic the greater the anomy,
the degree of normlessness, where norms and values become eroded or broken down.

5. Marx Weber -born in a rich family, concerned with interpreting social actions

 He had a subjective approach that aimed at analysing meaning in human actions

 He concluded that giving a meaning to an action is subjectivity.

6. Talcot Tysons

7 .Herbert Mid

8. Robert Merton

Sociology of Education

It is a sub-discipline of sociology which;

 Explains how an individual or groups of people are socialised through formal and non-formal
education
 It looks at how culture, sub culture, attitudes, beliefs, ideologies e t c impact on the education
of an individual and vice-versa.
 It also looks at how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its
outcomes
 Also concerned with physical and social environment of learners.
 Studies the organisational structure of the school thus the totality of what goes on in the
school.
 Focuses on the relationship between discipline and learning since education aims in
producing a particular type of a person
  Studies professionalism in education.

Why study Sociology/Sociology of Education

 To understand learners’ background so that we handle them in the best possible way we can.
 To know and be well versed with learners ‘environment.
 To know the family compositions, aspirations and the culture of the society and their
influence
 To identify similarities and differences among pupils for grouping purposes.
 To determine what can be taught why, how and when.
 These two help teachers to understand the relationship between the school and the community
and how it affects tearching and learning

Task

Discuss how the knowledge of sociology and sociology of education is important for a classroom
practitioner.

Sociological perspectives

Definition

A sociological theory is a set of ideas which claim to explain how society or aspects of society work
(Harra Lambos and Hollborn (2004)

 A perspective is a view point involves interpreting data/phenomena in a certain way.

Functionalism/structural

 Explains social institutions like the family, church, school, hospitals, industries, in terms of
the functions they perform.
 These different institutions are inter related and inter dependant with each performing a
function that contributes to the survival of the society.
 Society is viewed like a living organism that has the various parts such as brains, heart, liver
etc .These parts work together to keep the organism alive
 A disturbance in one part affects the organism, similarly to understand any part of society
such as the family or school the part must be understood in relation to the society as a whole
 A change in one part of society affects other parts as well.
 If any one institution fails to fulfil its function or role this affects the function of the
institution as a whole
 A society or organisation has to exist before it can function
Social/behavioural structure

 Functionalists observe that behaviour in society is structured. Relationships in the society are
designed according to certain specific rules.
 Social structures like the family, school, the economy, and political systems are made up of
inter connected roles, values, beliefs, norms
 The roles and norms of society are founded upon certain values.

Social functions of structures/institutions

 Each social structure or institution has a function or role to play

 The social function of an institution is the contribution that institution makes to the
maintenance and survival of that system.
1) Functional pre-requisite
 Functionalists argue that certain basic needs or requirement must be met if society is to
survive.
2) Functional alternatives
 Functionalists believes that a particular function can be performed by different structures,
there by rendering no single structure essential for society e g the school can perform many
functions performed by the family or church such as discipline, skills training.
3) Functional and Dis-functional structures
 If the activities of social structure contribute to the cohesion and solidarity of a social system,
it is said to be functional, but if a social structure threatens the cohesion of a society it is said
to be dysfunctional.
4) Manifest and Latent Functions of Institutions
 A manifest function is one that is recognised and was intended when the institution was
established; where as a latent one was unintended it just came out and developed.
5) Value consensus
 0Integration of various parts of the social system is necessary for the survival of that society.
 Functionalists observed that this integration is founded upon value consensus

Example

 Economic system produces a large range of goods and is ever increasing productivity
 Education system produces skills and expertise to increase production and efficiency.
 The family form a consumption unit with its rising demands of consummates.
 The political system improves material living standards to increase productivity
6) Social order
  Functionalists observe that a certain degree of order and stability is essential for the survivalof
social systems.
 It is brought about the shared norms and values.
 It is provides co-operation since common values produce common goals.
 Those who deviate causing social disorder are brought to line by social structures designed
for corrective measures e g schools and prisons.

Task

How is functionalism related to education?

Relevance of functionalism to education

 Socialisation:
 According to functionalists , schools are in partnership with home .They take over the
socialisation of the children from the home in order to prepare child for lifetime in society
by transmitting common social traditions and customs of the society.
 Schools aim at communicating knowledge , skills and behaviour required by young people in
order to become fnctional in the society.
 Schools are institutions where students learn to appreciate what society wants them to
contribute to their advancement and development.
 Education aims at the formation of each individual in order to meet the challenges of the
family be responsible to the family society and the nation as a whole.

 Social integration: According to Robertson (1981: 379), modern society frequently contain
many different ethnic, racial, religious and other sub-cultural groups.

 Education helps in integrating the young members of these minorities into a common
culture and encouraging the development of a relative similar culture as opposed to
diverse cultures.
 The school therefore provides a common culture for the children of different cultural
backgrounds e.g. Use of the same school uniform and the same curriculum and the use of
English at schools.
  Role allocation: Functionalists maintains that the education system/ sifts / sorts and grades
individuals in terms of their talents and abilities ( Haralambos and Holbone .2004 1995:
729 ) .

 The school or education through screening selects and allocates individuals to position of
responsibilities ,education therefore functions as a mobility escalator allowing the gifted
individuals to ascend the social ladder .

 Equipping of technical skills and expertise .According to functionalists, education equips

students with technical skills and expertise preparing them to be useful in the employment
market sector/ production sector .

 This necessitates increased production and a viable economy .Functionalism therefore has
made a major contribution in many educational systems and is still the dominant sociological
theory in most modern countries and is very applicable to our own Zimbabwean situation.

Practice questions

1. Discuss the strengths and the weaknesses of functionalism as a sociological theorem.

2. Identify and discuss structures or operations in the secondary school systems that were
influenced by functionalist ideas
3. Examine the accession that functionalism as a school of thought best explains what happens
in Zimbabwe secondary school.

Marxism / Conflict Theory

The proponent of Marxism was Karl Marx, the Germany young man who attained his PHD at 23
years.

 Karl Marx observed that, the society was made up of two major classes that is; Ruling class
and working class.

 Like the functionalist, the Marxists look at the society as macro-perspective that is,
they see education as benefiting the whole society as opposed to individual.

 The Marxist are of the view that, society‘s two major groups are led by a relationship
which is exploitative in nature or conflicting .The two groups are composed of rich
and poor, the ruling and working class or the capitalists and politicians that is , those
who own and are in control of the means of production and those that are workers.
Such as lands, raw materials, factories e t c

 Whereas the working class provide their labour

  Although owners of capital and workers are dependent on each other(capitalist need
labour while workers need wages)

 Workers are exploited

 As a result, the ruling class will always dictates’ the direction of the society and their
main aim/thrust is on the capitalist system.

Characteristics of Marxism

 Capitalism promotes the existence of these two groups .They provide radical alternative to
functional view. They regard social divisions as dividing rather than an integrative structure.

 These social groups are not the means of furthering collective goals since one group of people
exploit and oppress other groups.

 The social divisions consisting of ruling class and the subjects (working class) it has the
ruling class oppressing and exploiting the subject class.

 Systems such as; legal ,economic and political are the instrument for ruling class domination
and serve to further its interests resulting in the super structural controlling the economic
system.

How does Marxist/ Conflict Theory apply toe education

 The education system promotes the interest of ruling class; the curriculum is drawn in the
culture of the dominant class. Ruling class norms and values are imparted to the learners.

 Education says that the needs of workforce as it equips people with technical skills and
expertise to go and wok for the capitalists .That’s Marxism views education as the main tool
for perpetuating classes .

 For the Marxists’ education socialises individual into accepting the norms and values of the
dominant class while functionalists view education as the tool for developing societies.

 Marxists on the other hand views education as a tool used for maintaining status and
curriculum.

 Cultural reproduction is in a way reproduced by education where the people are trained to fit
in the industrial set up.

 Education therefore according to Marxists theory, is there to produce pupils who will work
and are always hardworking and docile.
  They find content related to the area, they are teaching thus making education important;
Content must be made relevant to current economic and political situations of the country.

 Teaching should be made practical to produce entrepreneurs e g self-employed.

 Children to get all the necessities and resources at school such as; textbooks, computers. They
should also provide requirements for less privileged and give them time to pay their fees, so
that all this become measure to correct the situation in the country.

Symbolic interactionism

 Interactionism is whereby an individual makes his or her decisions without really consulting
other group.

 According to Gwarinda (1985: 35) he says interactionism is an approach in sociology which

tends to focus on an individual /small group interaction as an explanation to society.

 Haralambos and Holborn (1990: 4), they say “Interactionism as its name suggests is
concerned with the interaction which means action between members. “

 Blummer (1980), argues that, symbolic interactionism refers to the peculiar and distinguitive
of interacting people in the way they relate together in a society.

 Because interactionism focuses on individual actions as shaping society it is considered as

the micro-perspective unlike the other first 2 macro-perspective ( functionalism and
Marxism).

Proponents of interactionism

 The founders of interactionism are Marx Weber, a Germany sociologists and economists and
George Mead an American philosopher.

 They both emphasise the subjective meaning of human behaviour.

 Historically interactionism traces its roots in pragmatists philosophers like Dewey and
Cooley.

 It was later developed by sociologists such as; Blummer, Barker and Denzin.

Characteristics/tenets/ attributes of interactionism

They emphasis on interactions among people * the organisation of social life arises within the society
itself and out of the processes of interaction among members of the society.Focus is mainly on
individual’s active relationship with other members of the society.
  The use of symbols in interactionism* the use of symbols in communication which include
gestures and most importantly through written and spoken words .The use of language
enables man to show /communicate his feelings to other members of the society .

 Meaning / interpretation * every action has a meaning .Human beings act towards things on
basis of meaning they give to them.

 Haralambos and Holborn says, “the Interactionist perspectives begins from the assumption
that, action is meaningful to those involved.”An understanding of an action requires
interpretation of the meanings of actors give to their activities. To understand an act, it is
therefore necessary to discover the meaning held by actors. Interaction lists thus emphasis on
subjective meaning of the behaviour that is; you see an act in the actors’ perspective.

 Giving meaning to objects is a continuous process*Interactionist observe that, meanings are

not fixed entities but they depend on the context of interaction, they can be created/developed
within the actual process of interaction, nothing should be taken for granted similar to the
previous experiences for example a pupils entering a new class may define the situation as
threatening but this may later change as he /her makes friends.

 The construction of meaning* Interactionist also plays emphasis on how definitions and
meanings of actions and interaction processes can be constructed that is; through symbols,
gestures, signs etc. For example when get to a wedding the mood is different from that of the
people that are at the funeral.

 The definition an individual involves an investigation of a contribution of meaning in the

interaction process .A process of negotiations is engaged to established and construction of
meaning .

 Definitions and meanings are therefore, constructed in interactive situations by a process of

negotiations.

The negotiation of roles * unlike in functionalism where roles are provided by the social system .In
interactionism roles are like meanings and definitions are negotiated with individuals .They argue
that, the unclear nature , ambiguity and verbenas of roles warrens negotiations for example class
monitor negotiate roles with the classmates .

 Self-concept * is a picture of oneself e.g. what one considers what one to be .Self-concept
also depend on how other people view you. Interactionist argues that, an individual develops
a self-concept which has influence on his or her actions depending on one’s ‘self-esteem
(high or low) .In other words our actions as individuals are shared by our self-concept.
 Labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy emanate from the individuals self-concept which is also
largely a reflection of the reaction of others towards the individuals e.g. .if a child is labelled
dull or bright in class, the label speaks hence fulfilling the prophecy.

The educational implications of interactionism

 Education has to place emphasis on individual pupils.

 Each individual pupil should be given attention and understood and assistance he/she
deserves.

 Content should be structured in order to suit the individual pupils ‘level of understanding.

 Teacher should create learning conditions which are conducive to individual pupil.

 Pupils should be allowed to negotiate roles in the classroom e.g.

Sweeping in the classroom, carrying books to and from teachers’ home / 0ffice.

 Teachers should avoid negative labelling pupils as dull, arrogant or deviant etc.

 Above all encourage teacher-pupil and pupil-pupil – interaction during learning

process/teaching.

Research on the limitations of interactionism perspective in a classroom / school

Social stratification is a form of social inequality.

 According to Haralambos and Holborn 2004 : 1, social stratification is the present

of distinct social groups which are ranked one above another in terms of factors such
as; prestige and wealth .

 Parson saw social stratification as, both invertible and functional for society.

 Power and prestige are essential for the core-ordination and integration of a
specialised division of labour.

 They benefit all members of society, since they serve to further collective goals
which are based on shared values.

 Social inequality brings about social stratification /social inequalities.

 Gwarinda 2002:56, says social stratification refers to the division of the population
into strata or layers and relationship between those layers especially in reference to
inferiority and superiority.
  Social stratification in a society refers to occupants having unequal access to social
opportunities and rewards, therefore social stratification refers to a system of ranking
categories of people in a hierarchy where some positions command little respect
while others are of high social status usually in terms of the amount of power prestige
and wealth that they possess.

 Those who belong to the same stratum have common interest and common
identity and have similar life style.

 In other words all societies classify their people formally or in-formally through
social interaction.

 FORMS OR SYSTEM OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

 Giddens 2001, identifies 4 different basic system of stratification that exist

in human societies : slavery ,cast ,Estate and class

 Slavery is an extreme form of inequality in which some individuals own

others as their own property .This has since been gradually eradicated.

 Cast * is a system where an individual is permanently assigned to a status

based on his or her parents status e.g. the Indians and Hindus

 Estate * were part of many traditional civilisation where peasants were

required by law to work land owned by the noble class in exchange for food
and protection from outside attacks and was very common in Europe .

 A Class system * mainly depends on economic differences that is

those who own and control the means of production belong to the upper
class, middle class and lower class. This last system is fluid as one can move
from stratum to another while the other systems are closed.

THEORIES OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

 Functionalists hold that, social stratification is an inevitable and natural element of the
societies because of natural differences in people’s abilities therefore it is necessary and just.

 They argue that, stratification is useful to the society because it enhances stability and
solidarity .It encourages members of the society to work hard so as to move to the next
stratum.
 According to Davis and Moore in their thesis ,they assert that social stratification is beneficial
consequences’ for the operation of a society

 Different individuals occupy a variety of inter-dependent and perform the roles associated
with those positions .Some roles are far more important and commanding than others whereas
some requires special talents ,skills and extensive training to ensure that, the right people
take on important positions and that they are motivated to do their best unequal rewards are
given e.g. medical doctors are rewarded with high income and prestige for the many years
they spent on training and for the important risk and sometimes unpleasant jobs they do.

 Digging graves may also be social necessary and unpleasant and does not even need a
diploma or degree of intelligence hence it is not highly rewarded.

 Functionalists maintain that, the system of distributing unequal rewards ultimately motivates
people to fill up social important roles.

 Underlying the functionalist theory of stratification, is meritocracy (a system in which social

rewards are distributed on the basis of achievements or merits). It is based on equality of
opportunity ,the poor have themselves to blame for their hardships .Gelles and levile (1999) ,
they maintained that ,without stratification society would have to experience perpetual
conflicts over space or limited resources.

 Functionalists accepts stratification on the grounds that ,people will inherit or make their own
fortunes deserve to live better than the rest, they however observe that, social stratification
though functional is more functional for some segments of population than the others

 Marxist theory * suggest that, stratification occurs through conflicts between classes with
upper classes using superior power to take the largest share of the social resources .In contrast
they view social stratification as dysfunctional in that, it benefit a small elite at the expense of
the masses .Karl Max the founders of this approach saw stratification as ,institutionalised
inequality that emerged through the division of labour that divides society into antergolistic
classes. For Karl Marx a social class is a category of people who had a common relationship
to the means of production that is those who control the means of production exploit those
who do not have
 The business owners pay workers less than the value of what they produce.
 Marx argued that the class that controls the economic life of a society is in a position to
control the other aspects of social life as well .The law is designed to protect the interest of
the dominant class and religion supports the status core.
  He also argued that, the class into which a person is born largely determines that individual‘s
mode of behaviour and thinking are inspired by the parents.
 strongly believes that., it is not the consciousness of man that determines their existence but
that their social existence determines their existence and for him economic relationships and
material conditions are all important hence failure to recognise exploitation believing that,
inequality in inevitable is false consciousness.

Marx Weber’s view of stratification / interactionists. * argues that no single characteristics such as
class totally defines a person’s position within the stratification system .

 He believes that wealth, class ,status and power determines ones position in the social ladder
The Weber class refers to people who has a similar of wealth and incomes e.g.
doctors ,teachers .nurses etc and prestige are all of the same.
 An individual gains status or prestige through memberships in a desirable group. The
interactionism says that, power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others.
 It is usually obtained from membership in influential groups such as, government bodies and
interest groups e g ZIMTA .
 In Weber’s view each of us does not have one rank in society but three thus, class, status and
power, these three influence each other and they contribute to rank an individual e g may
depend on how wealth you are .

MAJOR ASSIGNMENT

1. Education reproduces classes and maintains the status quo. Discuss [100marks]
2. Education keeps societies together and functional. Discuss [100 marks]

Question answering

Requires a plan

i. a plan must have an introduction

ii. Definition of key terms (scholarly definitions not from dictionary)quote at least two scholars
per term
iii. Discussion –as the question requires us to discuss, points written in meaningful form, discuss
points for and points against.
iv. Conclusion
v. References
 All pages must be numbered
FEMINISM

 Like Marxism and functionalism feminism is a macro perspective

 Its approach is more/less similar to the conflict perspective
 It studies gender, patriarch and the oppression of women therefore it is a women cantered
perspective advocating for the recognition of women as social actors in the social world.
 Jary and Jary (1991:2-3)” defines as holistic theory which concerned with the nature of
women global oppression “.

Feminist perspective

 Feminist believes that society is male dominated, it is a patriarch

 They also believe that society is based on a conflict between the sexes (male and female)
 Women have historical been disadvantaged in society where as men had more power than
women
 Feminists believe that this is wrong and need to be changed.
 Women had to be freed from men supremacy and exploitation.
 Feminism criticises sociology for uncritically adopting a male perspective and marginalising
the roles of females in society.
 Feminist believe that this failure by sociologists both reflects and contributes to the under
valuing of women.
 They see the exploitation of women by men as the most important source of exploitation
rather than that of the working class by the ruling class.
 They look at the differences in society between men and women and try to see how these
problems can be solved.
 The situation of women in society has to be improved
 Acker argues that feminism is an attempt to address the question of women’s subordination to
men by answering these questions:
1) How did women oppression and subordination come about?
o They could have been misled biblically because the bible says women must be
submissive to their husbands, and men were created first which makes them more
superior.
o Men pay lobola to women
o Historically it is believed that the place of women is in the kitchen, nothing else.
o Naturally men are stronger than women.
o Cultural women are child bearing machines.
 2) Why is the women oppression perpetuated?
3) How is the oppression perpetuated?
4) How would life be without women oppression?
 Peterson and Runyan (1999) say feminist individuals, organisation, institutions, perspectives
seek an end to social constructions of gender inequality and oppression have to stop.
 Feminist believe that all sexual relations are based on power thus they consider any social
relations which involve any difference in the exercise of power as political.
 For the feminist the family is viewed as the first major political unity.
 The workplace can also be a political unity.
 Feminists recognise the difference between biology and the social, the difference is usually
associated with sex (as biologically ascribed) and gender(as socially constructed).
 They observe that women biological functions have over and over again been used to
rationalise and legitimate the social status of women.
 They understand that biological realities are unchanged
 Feminists argue that males and females biologically differ but possess similar minds and
capabilities
 Females are as capable and rational as males therefore there should be equality in all aspects
of life both in the public and private spheres.
 The social construction of gender was the problem not some inherent biological difference
between men and women.
 Women should not be bound by biological realities but should participate fully in all activities

Aims of the feminists

 The major aim for the feminist is to deconstruct unjust and oppressive gender practices,
ultimately and men’s domination and read society of exploitation in women
 Feminism and education
 Feminist believe that education as an agent of secondary socialisation enforces patriarch
 They also believe that education can be used to construct and enforce the gender
 On the other hand they believe that education can be used to deconstruct

 How can education or teachers construct and reinforce gender relation in class or
society
 How can education and teacher deconstruct oppressive gender relations in class or
society as a whole

Liberal feminism
  Liberal feminist believe that the best way to fight patriarchal systems is by establishing
legislation to fight discrimination.
 They advocate for equal opportunities.
 Boswel (1989 )says liberal feminist question the traditional view that biological differences
are the basic in muscular masculine domination
 Sexual inequalities are cultural than biologically defined.
 They also believed that these sexual inequalities are as a result of gender role socialisation

Liberal Observation in education

 There is unequal access and representation of women i n some field of education e g science,
maths and engineering fields are dominated by men
 Women in education have remained under the oppression of men.
 Strategies suggested by these feminist to correct imbalance
 There should equal opportunities to all sexes.
 There should be use of legal reforms to change the status core
 They suggest that there should be removal of barriers which prevent women for realising their
goals.
 Change the socialisation process in the school because the school socialises boys and girls
into traditional gender roles and attitudes.

Criticism against liberal feminist

 The concept of being equal is ambiguous –equal opportunities of getting places in colleges
may not translate to equal opportunities in the world of work.
 The approach ignores the socialisation process in other institutions like the family religion,
mass media
 It is a conservative approach likely to help women to elite societies.
 It ignores the impact of patriarch, power, racism and social class treating women as a
homogeneous group.

Radical feminism

 It is a reaction to the failure of liberal feminism

 Radical feminist believe that the patriarch is the primary cause of oppression of women and
their subordination to men
 Women are suppressed by a male dominated society both in education and also in later life
 Men of all races and classes are the enemies
  They also believed that women ate dominated in two major ways
i. Ideological – through pornography cards, model shows
ii. Through patriarchy –marriage and property laws, denial of women’s sexual rights.
 Radical feminist therefore have no interest in becoming equal to men if being equal means
becoming like or the same as male oppressors

Radical feminist in education

 Teachers’ attention in class is unequally divided among boys and girls (Hamilton 1991 and
(Kelly 1988)
 Boys in mixed schools oppress and demean girls and female teachers.
 What is regarded as knowledge is a record of male decision Acker(1997)
 There is gender stereotyping in subjects (Arts are for girls while sciences are for boys)
 They also observed that gender stereotyping is also found in textbook e g a man driving a
tractor and women breastfeeding

Strategies to correct this observation

 Radical feminist suggest that females must have their own female teachers.
 They suggest that practices that are against females must be exposed.
 The revision of the curriculum
 Suggesting re writing of textbooks
 Considering female knowledge as human knowledge.
 Single sex schools
 Re-education or orientation of males

Criticism or weaknesses of Feminism

 The approach tends to view all females as victims of all males

 The influence of class, race, nationality, ethnicity on relations on society is ignored.
 The girls’ culture of resistance is ignored
 The theory looks at girls and women as passive beings who do not have the ability to
articulate their oppressive situations
 Promoting chances homosexuality

Questions

 Men and society at large exploit women. Discuss

 Women are their own oppressors. Discuss
 Their ideas How do they relate Views of the society
to education
Functionalist August Comte He was interested in  Viewed societies as
A French scholar biology thus he living organisms with
was the one linked biology with various parts which
coined the word sociology depend on one another
sociology in the for the good of the
19th century whole.
 He said its part has its
own function, if its
operations are disturbed
the organism suffers.
 .
Herbert Also interested in  Also viewed society as a
Spencer biology but studied living organism
Born in a middle society in which he  He believed that society
class England lived in. progresses through
individual and group
effort,
Emile Looked at those  Believed that for
Durkheim factors that keep societies to survive there
society together. must be agreement on
Also looked at moral values.
aspects which affect  Also observed that when
the welfare of societies become
individuals and individualistic the norms
groups. become eroded.
 

SOCIALISATION

 Is a process by which people are developed into social system members interacting with one
another in a social environment Ezewu (1996:37)
 Vander Zanden (1990:52) defines socialisation as “a process of social interaction by which
people acquire the knowledge, attitudes, values, and behaviour essential for active
participation in society.”
 Harra Lambos and Holborne (2004) say” is a process of learning on how to become human
and behave in ways which are acceptable to the expectations of others.”

Types of socialisation

Primary socialisation

 This happens when there is close personal face to face contact such as in the family context.
 It takes place during infancy and childhood
 It sets the ground work for all future socialisation
 The child gradually picks out sounds like language through imitation, attitudes, values and
appropriate actions from family members.
 Later in life primary socialisation can be formed with close friends.

Secondary socialisation

 This takes place outside the home e g school.

 It consists mainly of appropriate behaviours for specialised adult role.
 It prepares people for contact with strangers.
 It is useful in liberating an individual of dependence on primary attachments within the family
group.

Anticipatory socialisation

 It is a process of preparing for future roles.

 The person rehearses for future positions
Re-socialisation

 This refers to the process of discarding former behaviour patterns and accepting new ones as
part of the transition in ones’ life
 It can be an intense experience where someone takes a sharp and bold decision with their past
e g discarding drug abuse, stealing, prostitution.

Organisational socialisation

 New comers learn about how an organisation operates.

 They are told how to operate and behave in an organisation.
 One can be equipped with necessary and relevant skills.

Gender socialisation

 Refers to learning the behaviour and attitudes considered to be appropriate for certain gender
and sex.

Methods of socialisation

1) Formal socialisation
 This is what happens in a classroom
 It is structured and controlled
 Directed by teacher who are professionals
2) Informal socialisation
 It can occur anyway it involves imitation of what others do and say

Agents of socialisation

Family

 It is the primary agency of child socialisation.

 It provides direct instruction, interaction and imitation.

The school

 It reinforces and extends the process of socialisation begun on the family.

 The school is the extension of the home
 The school provides with tools needed in the outside world e g writing, speaking, and public
speaking e t c.
 The hidden curriculum found in schools socialises children.

Peer group
  Refers to people who have similar levels of social standing especial in terms of age, education
and interests who reside in close proximity.
 Peers are so powerful socialisers than teachers and family especially at the adolescent stage.
 They serve as information bearers and help one another in difficult situations.

The church/religion

 It promotes attitudes like respect, generosity, good morals, honesty, and loyalty e t c.

Mass media

 Mass media transmits hidden messages from TVs, you tube, Facebook, twitter.

TASK

1) How can you identify a poorly socialised child at ECD level in particular and the school
in general? Suggest strategies that a teacher can use to assist such learners.
2) Secondary socialisation compliments primary socialisation. Discuss.
3) Examine the role played by the family, peer group, the church/religion and mass media
in socialising the child.
4) Critically analyse positive and negative aspects for these socialising agents.

General practice questions

1. Discuss the functionalist views on the role of education in society.
2. Compare and contrast Marxist and Functionalist views’ on the role of education.

Social institutions

The family as a social institution

 Haralambos, Holborn and Hills (2004) define a family as a social group characterised by
common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction.
 It includes adults of both sexes, at least two who maintain a socially approved sexual
relationship and one or more children own or adopted.
 Giddens (2013) a group of persons directly linked by kin connections, the adults members of
which assume responsibility for caring for children.
 Filds and Casper define a family as one or two people related by blood, marriage or adoption
and living in the same residence.
 There are different types of families
1. Nuclear family
 It is the smallest type of a family consists of the husband, wife, and their offspring
 It resides in a dwelling with shades no relatives
 It is economically independent with both parents being breadwinners.
 Members devote loyalty exclusively to each other.
 Emphasis on this family is on privacy of the family affairs
 It keeps contact with relatives
 It is commonly found in urban setups.
 Role are not defined anyone can do anything.

Advantages of the nuclear family

Low costs.

Family bonds are maintained i.e. they are strong.

Conflicts and squabbles are minimized.

Disadvantages.

Lack of socialization.

Limited socialization.

Extended family

 It is the type of family that is broader or larger than a nuclear family

 Consists of grandparents, parents, children, aunts and uncles
 Two or more nuclear families can be coupled together by the extension of the parents.
 Members are economically interdependent.
 Mutual assistance and support are regarded as culturally obligatory.

Advantages of the extended family

Support.
Family bonds are good.

Culturally values are maintained.

Disadvantages of the extended family

Lack of privacy.

Conflicts are widespread.

Decision making takes time.

Expensive to support an extended family

Polygamous family

 It is the type of a family where a man marries more than one wife.
 Two or more nuclear families are coupled together by marriage such that one member become a
common member of different nuclear families.
 Male dominance is common and women are subordinates
 Roles are clearly defined.
 Commonly found in traditional societies.
 It is characterised by competition, sometimes hatred among children and jealousy.
 In instances where the husband is firm and fair there is love.

Advantages of a polygamous family

Help each other.

Hardworking wives trying to impress their husband.

Fairness.

Balance of the male: female ratio.

Disadvantages

Easy spread of diseases.

Promotes infidelity amongst women.

Jealously among the wives.

Witchcraft is common.

Divides children of the same blood.

Inheritance problems when the father dies.

Reconstitution family

 This is the type of family where divorcee’s widow or widower brings in children from former
marriages.
 A single parent family

 This is a form of a family where a parent brings up her/his children.

 Single parent families commonly emanate from divorce and death however nowadays

there are some women who prefer to remain single.

 Child headed families

 This is a type of a family where children are left to take care of themselves, no adult is

involved in bringing up the children.

 Children brought up in such families are poorly socialized as they lack the appropriate

norms and values.

 Functions of the family

 Socialisation- equipping children with appropriate norms and values of a society.

 Reproduction.
 Provides financial support.

 Implications for the teacher

 The teacher will be able to understand the behaviour of the students.

 The teacher should be able to handle children from different family backgrounds.

 The teacher should be a guide and counsellor to the students.

 The teacher should avoid favouritism and treat all children equally.

 The teacher will be able to come up with different methods of how to handle children as

they come from different backgrounds.

ORDER AND DEVIANCE

Definition of terms
Order

 Order refers to the condition in which very part, unit is in its right place (The Concise

Oxford Dictionary).

 In most if not all societies it is achieved through socializing members into the

accepted norms and values of that society.

Deviance

 It is a noun from the verb deviate which means to turn aside or diverge from the

course of action, rule, truth etc.

 Individuals who deviate or refuse to live by the rules followed by the majority are

called deviants.

 Adams (2000: 373) says “deviance is the label for all forms of behaviour that are

considered unacceptable, threatening, harmful or offensive in terms of the standards

or expectations of a social group or particular society.”

 The behaviour violates the standards of conduct or expectations.

 Giddens (2001:203) says “deviance maybe defined as non-conformity to a given set

of norms that are accepted by a significant number of people in a community.”

 Therefore the study of deviant behaviour considers the rules observed by people,

those they are breaking, why they are breaking them and how that can be controlled

for the survival of the society.

 Deviance is relative, it can only be defined in relation to a particular standard i.e. it is

contextual and no standards are fixed or absolute.

 What is regarded as deviant varies from place to place and from time to time.

 What could be considered deviant today maybe defined normal in the near future.
  Deviance is also culturally defined, an act defined as deviant in one culture maybe

perfectly normal in another culture.

Forms of deviance

There are basically two forms of deviance and these are crime and delinquency

Crime

 It refers to those activities that break the law and are subject to punishment

 Crime can be defined as a violation of criminal law for which some governmental

authority apply formal penalties.

 The criminal deviates from formal social norms administered by the state

 Laws divides crimes into various categories depending on the severity of the offence,

the age of the offender, the potential punishment that can be levied and the court that

holds jurisdiction over the case

Delinquency

 It refers to criminal or anti-social acts that are committed by young people.

 Different sociologists view deviance differently.

Functionalist views on deviance

 They see crime and deviance resulting from structural tensions and a lack of moral

regulation within a society (Giddens, 2001).

 If the aspirations and desires held by individuals or groups are not met, it results in

deviant motivations of some of its members.

 Functionalist emphasise on the importance of shared norms and values as the basis of

social order.
 The analysis of deviance begins with the society as a whole.

 Functionalist look for the source of deviance in the nature of society rather than the

individual.

 Durkheim and Merton argue that deviance is necessary in all societies. It is universal

and normal thus inevitable (unavoidable), performing positive functions for social

systems.

 Two important functions fulfilled by deviants are the adaptive function which

introduces new ideas and changes into society.

 It is an innovative force that brings about change since societies need to progress

rather than stagnate.

 The second function is that it also promotes boundary maintenance between good

and bad behaviours in society through social control mechanisms.

 They are also two forms of social control mechanisms i.e. informal and formal control

mechanisms.

 Informal control mechanisms- these are based on unwritten rules and acceptance of

social norms and values, they form a close part of everyday life through the family,

school, church, peers and mass media socialization e.g. greeting elders, putting on

hats.

 In conforming to established norms and values individuals usually receive acceptance

and rewards as positive sanctions e.g. being respected, trusted.

 Those who break the rules, norms or values receive negative sanctions such as being

ridiculed and condoned.

 So norms exist alongside sanctions to reinforce conformity.

 Formal control mechanisms- these are based on written rules and laws of the state

passed by the government and interpreted in courts of law.

  Negative sanctions such as fines, imprisonment are imposed.

 It is socially accepted that the law is morally right thus should be obeyed.

Marxist views on deviance

 They recognize that social order is necessary for a society to function efficiently.

 To them one class (ruling class) gains far more from society than other classes.

 It is the ruling class that seeks to maintain or impose social orders by a variety of

means.

 They agree with functionalist that socialization plays a crucial role in promoting

conformity and order.

 Marxist are highly critical of the values and norms of the capitalist society.

 The working class has to conform to a social order which is against it’s really interest

therefore conflict not consensus is the fundamental social reality.

 Marxist see deviance as emanating from unequal power relations and inequality in

general.

 In capitalist societies rules and laws operate in favour of the ruling class and to

disadvantage the working class.

 Because of this bias working class people are more likely to become deviant e.g. the

poor may resort to theft or prostitution.

 O’Donnell (1992:306) argues “…..many so-called criminals and deviants in

capitalists societies are seen as victims of the system.”

Interactionist views on deviance

 Deviance according to interactionist is seen as socially constructed.

 They reject the idea that there are types of conduct that are inherently deviant.
  Interactionist are mainly concerned with how behaviours initially come to be defined

as deviant and why certain groups and not others are labelled as deviant.

 According to Becker society, not the deviant is responsible for deviance, to him

deviant behaviour is behaviour that people label so.

 Sutherland advances the notion that deviance is learned as individuals associate with

each other, there is a tendency that they learn from one another especially peer

groups.

 Labelling theorists interpret deviance not as a set of characteristics of individuals or

groups but as a process of interaction between deviants and non-deviants.

 People who represent the forces of law and order do most of the labelling

 Labelling not only affects how others see an individual but also influences the

individual’s sense of self.

 Once a label has been given it can be difficult to get rid of and the individual ends up

accepting the label and sees himself as a deviant.

TASK

Identify and discuss various deviant behaviours prevalent at ECD level and show how best

teachers can deal with deviant pupils

 drug abuse

 stealing

 bullying-identify the root of the problem and take further, abused child, parents

fighting-

 making noise- engage learners in a lot of school work

 sexual abuse-child headed family

 alcohol
Assess the major factors contributing to learner’s deviant behaviour in schools

 peer pressure-result in drug abuse

 abuse at home or parents always fighting, lack of attention

 poverty/ child headed families

 sexual abuse

Deviances continued

 A French sociologist Emile Durkheim made frantic efforts to explain or express

modern perceptions on deviance in schools and society.
 Durkheim felt that deviance is inevitable in society and schools. He also suggested
that deviance provides a lot platform for change and innovation to define or clarify
important social norms in society.
 He felt that people engage in deviant behaviour because of an absence of clear social
norms and values
 Norms and values need to be tested and revealed occasionally.
 What is deviant behaviour in one society is regarded as normal and acceptable
behaviour in another.
 Think of a young man in Byo who married a step mother who is pregnant now. Is this
acceptable?

Definitions

 Jermerk in Haralambos and Holborn (2008) defines deviance as a behaviour that

violates and contradicts the norms and values of a social group in which that
behaviour exists.
 Giddens (2001) says deviance is a behaviour which does not fit the expectations of a
social group
 Hargerdon(1993) views deviance as variation regard certain action to be deviant while
other views the same action as normal and not deviant. Homosexualityis a deviant
practice in Africa and Zim but a normal thing in South Africa and Western world.

Primary and secondary deviance

 Primary deviance is the initial stage of defining deviant behaviour. It is the

engagement in initial act of deviance.
 This does not result in a person internal-lizing a deviant identity and one’s self-
concept remains neutral as one cannot be labelled deviant yet.
 Stealing ice cream from the fridge at home is primary deviance but if it continues to
the extent of stealing at school and being punished then it ceases to be primary
deviance.
  Once punished at school for stealing and being sent to prison for stealing a car he
becomes a thief a criminal
 Secondary deviance is a stage of deviant identity on a long term basis. From drug
abuse as a primary deviant behaviour to becoming a murderer it becomes a secondary
deviant..
 A student expelled from school belongs

Deviant behaviours in society

 Stealing
 Murder
 Rape
 Armed robbery
 Gender abuse
 Sexual abuse
 Prostitution
 Homosexuality
 Witchcraft
 Indecent dressing

Deviant behaviours in schools

 Banking lessons
 Making noise
 Not doing homework
 Bullying others
 Stealing
 Eating in class
 Sleeping in class
 Drug abuse
 Sexual abuse
 Since deviance is inevitable punishing learners learners is not recommended but
counselling is a better solution.
 Contemporary scholars fell that punishing wrong doers increases chances of repeating
their mischievous or deviant behaviours.

Functionalist views on deviance

 Functionalists believe that deviance plays an important role in society and can be used
to challenge people’s views.
 They view deviance as a key component of functioning society.
 Functionalists are concerned with the way the different elements of society contribute
to the whole.
 Emile Durkheim a French sociologist believed that deviance is a necessary part of a
successful society and that it serves the following functions
 It clarifies norms for society and increases conformity to those norms.
  These norms are usually on behaviour expectations- What is wrong is punishable
therefore people comply to avoid punishment or imprisonment if a crime is committed
like rape therefore conformity to norms is observed
 It also strengthens social bonds among the people who react to the deviant
 People unite to fight against criminals or wrong doers like thieves and rapists
 It can lead to positive social change and challenge peoples current views.
 The introduction- Law was as aresult of a reaction to pass values and norms of
treating married women and children as people who need physical punishement to
correct their misbehaviour.
 In last century women and children were physically assaulted and culprits were not
punished as there was no domestic violence law.

The social Disorganised Theory

 This theory asserts that crime is mostly likely to occur in communities with weak
socialites and absence of social control.
 The theory also asserts that individuals who grow up in impoverished areas are more
likely to participate in deviant or criminal wealthy neighbourhood with a good school
system and families who are involved positively in the community.
 This theory points to broad social factious as the cause for deviance.
 The theory suggests that a person is not born a criminal or deviant but becomes one
over time often based on factors in his or her social environment.
 The theory was the work of University of Choicago researchers Robert Park and
Enerst Biorgess in 1916 and 1925.
 The theory had an

The strain theory/ anomie theory of

Robert Merton in 1938 expanded Durkheim theory by noting that access to means of
achieving socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms
and accepts these goals or rebels and rejects them.

 A woman who attends a business school, gets an MBA , and gets a CEO post in a
company and becomes a millionaire achieves success.
 Not everyone in society stands of an equal footing for success.
 Merton defined five ways people respond to a gap between having socially accepted
goal and no socially way to pursue it

Conformity- this is for those who conform choose not to deviate.

Practice questions

1. Analyse the contribution of functionalism and interactionism to primary

education
2. Outline the symbolic interaction’s theory of deviance, With relevance
examples from your school discuss three types of behaviours and suggesting
any possible solutions
 3. Analyse the relationship between culture and inclusive education.

Culture, Education and Society

Definitions

 Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relative large group of people.

 Culture in its sense is cultivated behaviours, beliefs, values and symbols that people
accept, learn, experience and follow and socially transmitted
 Culture is a some total behaviour of a group of people that are generally considered to
be a tradition of that group of people and are transmitted from generation to
generation
 Culture is collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one
group of people or category of people from another.

Education

 Lawson and Garrod (2003 p 84) defines education as a process of acquiring skills and
knowledge both formal and informal
 Angeveld (1998) defines education as every interaction that happens and occurs

Cultural capital

 Is the accumulation of knowledge, behaviours and skills that one can into take to
demonstrate one’s cultural competence and that’s one’ social status for standing in
society.
 Objects that we own that might relate to our educational pursuits are related to
cultural capital.
 Computers, laptops, printers that can hence learning are part of our cultural learning
 Cultural capital can exist in institutionalised forms like certificates and other forms of
ranking..
 Degrees, religious titles and job titles are part of our cultural capital.
 Economic capital has another role in terms of money to have access in better
opportunity

Cultural deprivation

 Refers to the absence of certain expected and acceptable cultural phenomena in the
environment that result in failure to achieve intended goals.
 This maintains the virtuous poverty among the poor who receive poor resources and
cannot compete with the rich in education.
 The case in the point is a rural school in rural homes that deprive learners; the absence
of laboratories, libraries is the source of deprivation.

Multicultural education
  Refers to any form of education in teaching that incorporates the histories, beliefs and
perspectives of people from different cultural background
 Teachers must modify or incorporates lessons to reflect the cultural diversity of the
students in a particular class.
 Culture covers many aspects like race, ethnicity, language religion, gender, sexual
orientation and exceptionality (disabled)

In a multicultural set up the following are considered

a. Curriculum design a previously

b. Learner instruction- this should suit all learners including those with disabilities
c. Learning assessment- some learners are not fluent in some local languages therefore
their mother languages must be used.
d. Teacher education- skilled teachers must handle multicultural classrooms
e. Staffing –teachers must be deployed to cater for diversities in the schools and
communities
 Civil rights acts of education

Resource allocation- most NGOs operate in rural areas

Assessment in teaching-

Social stratification

 Gwarinda (2002p. 56) says it is the division of population into layers and the
relationship between these layers especially reference to inferiority and superiority
 It refers to the division of society into layers or stratas whose occupants are people of
unequal Levi
 It can be regarded as a system of rating people in a hierarchy with some position
commanding little respect while others with high respect
 Key factors are power, prestige and wealth
 Income, race and education can also be used for this
 Those who belong to the same rank or category have common interest, identity and
similar lifestyle.
 Society’s resources are distributed or unevenly throughout the different layers.
 Society’s culture and religion enforces inequality in society.
 In cultural context women are expected to be very submissive to their husbands and
yet some women are more intelligent, hardworking more than men.
  Social standing of parents are also passed on to their children but some children erode
the wealth and attain a lower position of the society.
 Traditional rule like village herd transfer their position to their children.

Forms of stratification

 Giddens (2001) identify the four best forms of stratification that have existed in
women society thus slavery, class
 Slavery-Slavery is an extreme form of oppression in which some individuals are
owned by others.
 This have been eradicated since the of slavery.
 Caste- Is a system of where by an individual is assigned to his/her parents’ position.
 One is socialised to accept one’s position
 Apartheid in SA was a cursing system
 Estate- these were the part of the many traditional civilisation where peasants were
required to work for the noble class in exchange of food
 Class- system that depends on economic differences.
 Those who own the means of production belong to upper glass ( bourgeois) the
middle class mainly workers in public places and peasants who work in the farms.
 One can move from one class to another especially in the independent Zim especially
where land is allocated to poor when others made fortunes with it while others failed
to utilise it.

WHY SHOULD SOCIAL STRATAS EXIST

Functionalist perspectives

 Social stratification is inevitable and natural element of the society because there are
natural diff among people
 What will be the motivation of doing your best when rewards are the same for
everyone?
 You work hard in order to get a bigger prize of reward.
 It enhances and promotes stability and solidarity.
 It encourages members of the society to work hard as to move up the ladder.
 Different individuals occupy a variety of interdependent positions in society and
perform the roles associated with those positions.
  Some roles are far more important and demanding than others while some require
special skills and talents and intensive training by confident people.
 Unequal rewards are given to diff people to make sure right people take their
positions to do the best
 Functionalists favour the system of distribution of unequal rewards
 Meritocracies is encouraged by functionslist

Marxist historical materialism

 Based in super strata

 It has 2 economic strata: the base and the super strata
 The base is made up of relations of production
 The ruling class owns means of production, the factories and the equipment
 Marx believe that there are 2 classes- the owners of means of production and the
workers
 The owners of production seem to own the workers as well.
 These owners are called the bourgeoisie and those are who sell their labour are the flo

Communalism

 It was practised in ancient society when land was means of production and
communally owned.
 The bourgeoisie are the imperialists that own companies that operate all over the
world.
 Imperialism is the highest state of
 Question-
1. Critically examine the views of Marxist and functionalist on the role of social
stratification and show how these have an impact education.
2. Discuss the influence of social status and the determinant of student performance in
the classroom and show how a teacher can assist learners affected by their social
status.
3. Education discriminates. Discuss
Social status

 Spacey 2016 defines social status as a social standing of a person as compared to

other in a group or situation.
 It is the ranking of people in the mind regarding their social position from themselves
or others.

The main types of social status

Ascribed

 They are those that you are born with or changes voluntarily, common among them
are age, race, nationality, physical abilities, physical characteristics, appearance or
gender e.g. one may be proud of their personality, authority. e,g. The prime minister
of a nation has a great authority
 Leadership- the ability to influence or motivate people beyond your formal authority

Achieved status

The status that one attains

Master status

One that overwrites or is dominant over others

It is the one that determines a person’s social standing and identity, e.g. teacher, doctor etc

A combination of several statuses

It is occupied simultaneously by and individual e.g. father, footballer

Status symbols

 These are materials or symbols in which one is identified by e.g. the car you drive,
clothes you wear

Status inconsistence

 It’s a status that cause contradicting behavioural expectations

 A highly educated person employed as unskilled
  Wealth and position: A formal position in a society like a manager of a company
wearing expensive clothes.
 Fame and popularity: these are people usually discussed by others e.g celebrities
who are usually covered by media.
 Accomplishing: This includes education wealth e.g university professor
 Social skills and intelligence: these are good people who earn a high status even for
being funny
 Honours: the one who wins award e.g. the noble prize Mandela

The status and the role

 A person occupying a certain status in society is expected to perform a certain role

 Valentine 1993 defines a role is a set of responsibilities that are meant to be carried by
an individual occupying that status e.g. senior woman or master
 Adam 2000 say is a collection of cultural defined rights, obligations and expectations
that accompany a status in a social system.
 Farhan 2003 p 152 say it’s a term used to describe in a the behaviour expected of a
status in relation to other statuses.
 A role is a responsibility of duty that goes with a particular status.

Different views on roles

Functionalists

 They feel that rules maintain social order

 The rules help in the smooth running and functioning of any organisation in the
society as each member is aware of what is she/ he is expected to do.
 The roles define the parameters on which one should operate e.g. in school there are
set structures senior master, HODs etc

Marxist

 They view roles can be used as a means of bargaining for and attaining membership
and acceptance in a society as well as gaining
 Roles held by some people put them in advantageous position of obtaining the scarce
resources of the society.
  Using roles some pursue their own interest and opportunities for themselves. For
example the SRC president is likely to beg for accommodation or get more food at the
DH, the head’s office usually has a fridge, heater and some refreshment.
 The more opportunity they have in the role, the easy the role and the greater the
possibility of conflict with those without authority.

Roles

 This occurs when a single status make contradictions or demands on a single

Role

 Occurs when positions of an individual make compatible demands e.g. an employed

mother cannot meet the requirement of a full time job
 Married students are affected by family demands e.g being involved in sports

The role set

 This is where there are cluster roles in which one has to perform.

Educational implications

 Social status has an influence on the kind of education one receives

 Enraw - say research findings have shown that people in high economic status send
their children earlier than those without economic status.
 They have means and opportunities to send their children to nursery school.
 They also prepare their children for school adequately
 Children of high family statuses stand to do well than those with low status home due
to the cultural capital they have.
 They are outspoken, smart and loved by teachers, low status children are usually
withdrawn, dirty and untidy hence ignored and unloved.
 High status children attend private and group A schools or boarding schools, girls
college, falcon, petra- The low status attend government and rural day schools that are
overcrowded.