CURRICULUM GRADE 10 -12 DIRECTORATE

NCS (CAPS)

LEARNER SUPPORT DOCUMENT

GRADE 11

PHYSICAL SCIENCES
REVISION DOCUMENT

2025

1
 PREFACE

This support document serves to assist Physical Sciences learners on how to deal with curriculum gaps and
learning losses. It addresses all the topics in the Grade 11 curriculum.

Activities serve as a guide on how various topics are assessed at different cognitive levels and to prepare learners
for informal and formal tasks in Physical Sciences. It covers the following topics:

No. Topic Page

1. Vectors in 2 dimensions 3 – 10

2. Newton’s Laws 10 – 18

3. Electrostatics 19 – 29

4. Electromagnetism 30 – 36

5. Electrodynamics 36 – 39

5. Electric Circuits 39 – 45

6. Atomic combination 46 – 52

7. Intermolecular forces 53 – 58

8. Quantitative Aspects of Chemical Change 58 – 70

9. Energy and chemical change 70 – 75

10. Acids and Bases 75 – 82

11. Ideal Gases 82 – 89

12. Redox Reactions 89 - 94

2
VECTORS IN 2 DIMENSIONS
• Vector- A physical quantity with magnitude and direction.
(Example: force, displacement, velocity, acceleration, electric field, etc.)
• Scalar- A physical quantity with magnitude only.
(Example: time, temperature, charge, work, Energy, distance, speed, mass etc.)
• Resultant – is the single vector having the same effect as two or more vectors together.
• Equilibrant – is the force that brings equilibrium to a system of forces. It is equal in magnitude but acts in
opposite direction to the resultant.
• Triangle rule of forces – When three forces are at equilibrium, they can be represented by the sides of a
triangle taken in order.
• Direction of a vector acting at an angle – Different methods can be used to describe the direction of a
vector:

X and Y axes

FA: 10 N at 30o above the positive x- axis (horizontal axis)

FB: 8 N at 12° left of the negative y- axis (vertical axis)
FC: 5 N at 65° above the negative x- axis (horizontal
axis)

Bearing
Use North as 0° and measure clockwise:
FA : 10 N on a bearing of 60o
FB : 8 N on a bearing of 192o
FC : 5 N on a bearing of 335o
FA : 10 N on a bearing of 60o

Compass (Cardinal points or directions)

FA : 10 N at 30o North of East

FB : 8 N at 12o West of South
FC : 5 N at 65o North of West

RESULTANT OF VECTORS

3
Resultant of co-linear vectors
• Co-linear vectors – Vectors that act on the same straight line.
Example: F1, F2 and F3 in the diagrams below are examples of co-linear vectors.

The resultant is calculated by doing the vector sum of the vectors:

(Direction: Taking Left and/or downwards as positive).
FR = F1 + (-F2) + (-F3)
Resultant of perpendicular vectors

WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 1
Two forces, F1 of magnitude 11N and F2 of magnitude 30N, are applied on an object as shown in the diagram below.
Determine the resultant force by accurate construction and by calculations.

- By construction
Draw the forces using a specified scale and accurate angle measurements.
Scale: 1cm = 2N

Measurements:

4
Resultant = 10,6cm = 21, 20 N at an angle of 25° below the negative x-axis.
(The equilibrant will be 21,20 N at an angle of 25° above the positive x-axis)

- By calculations
Determine the x- and y-components of each force.
Take East as Positive for horizontal components and North as positive for vertical components
Vertical components Horizontal components
F1 (11 N) F1x = F cos θ = 11cos70 = o F1y = F sin θ = 11 sin 70o
= 3,76 N East = 10,34 N North
F2 (30 N) F2x = F cos θ = 30 cos 40o F2y = F sin θ = 30 sin 40o
= 22,98 N West = 19,28 N South
Vector sum of Fx = F1x + (-F2x) Fy = F1y + (-F2y)
components = 3,76 + (-22,98) = - 19, 22 = 10,34 + (-19,28) = - 8, 94
= 19. 22 N West = 8, 94N South

Calculate the resultant using Pythagoras theorem:

F R 2 = F x2 + F y2
FR2 = 19, 222 + 8, 942
FR = 21, 20 N
Find angle:
8,94
tan θ =
19,22
Ө = 24, 95o

Example 2
A billboard of mass 15 kg is suspended from a roof by means of a light inextensible string. A Force F
pulls the billboard sideways, as shown in the diagram below:

When the angle between the roof and the string is 400, a closed vector diagram is obtained for all the
forces acting on the billboard.

2.1 What deduction can be made when the forces acting on an object forms a closed vector (2)
diagram?
2.2 Calculate the weight of the billboard. (2)
2.3 Draw a labelled closed vector diagram of all the forces acting on the billboard. Indicate the
value of one of the angles. (4)
2.4 Calculate the tension in the string. (2)
2.5 The magnitude of force F is equal to the magnitude of the horizontal.
Give a reason why these two forces are not considered to be an action-reaction pair
according to Newton’s Third Law. (1)
[11]

5
Solution
2.1 Resultant force is zero / Fnet = 0/ Object in equilibrium. ✓✓ (2)
2.2 W = mg
= (15)x(9.8) ✓
= 147 N✓ (2)
2.3
✓
✓
✓ (4)
(✓1 mark for a closed vector diagram)
✓ ✓
𝑤
2.4 𝑇= ✓
sin 40
147 (2)
= ✓
sin 40
T =228.69 N
2.5 The two forces act on the same object (Newton’s Third Law). ✓ (1)
[11]
Example 3
Four forces A, B, C and D act at a common point O as shown in the diagram below. The magnitudes
of forces are as follows: A is 5N, force B is 8N, force C is 6N and FD has unknown magnitude.

3.1 Define the term resultant vector. (2)

3.2 Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force B and force C . (2)
The net horizontal component for the forces FA , FB, FC and FD is equal to 1,25 N West.
3.3 Calculate the magnitude of force FD (3)
3.4 Hence, calculate the magnitude of the resultant force acting at point O. (5)
3.3 Calculate the magnitude of force FD (3)
[15]
Solution
3.1 The single vector which has the same effect as all the other vectors acting together. ✓✓
(2)
3.2 FR = (- FB) + FC = -8+ 6✓ = -2 N, Therefore FR = 2N West✓ (2)
3.3 -FB +(-FA cos 300) + FC + FD cos 600 = 1,25 ✓
-8- 4,33 + 6+ FD sin 600 = 1,25 ✓
FD = 15,16 N ✓ (3)
3.4 FRY = (5 sin 300) + (- 15.16 cos600) ✓
= -10.63 N. ✓
FR = √1.252 ✓ + (−10.63)2 ✓
FR = 10.70 N✓ (5)

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VECTORS IN TWO DIMENSIONS ACTIVITIES
QUESTION 1
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1.1 Four forces act on a point, as indicated in the diagram.

The magnitudes of the components of the resultant (net) force in the horizontal (FX) and
vertical (FY) directions are …
A FX = 3 N and FY = 6 N.
B FX = 1 N and FY = 4 N.
C FX = 2 N and FY = 2 N.
D FX = 4 N and FY = 2 N. (2)

1.2 Two forces, F1 and F2, act on a point. If F1 and F2 act in the same direction the maximum resultant has a
magnitude of 13 N. If forces F1 and F2 act in opposite directions the magnitude of the minimum resultant
is 3 N. The magnitude of the two forces, in newton, is …
A 8 and 5.
B 16 and 10.
C 3 and 10.
D 10 and 7. (2)
1.3 Two forces, F1 and F2, act simultaneously at a point in the directions as shown in the sketch below.

Which ONE of the following represents the resultant of the two forces?

(2)
1.4 Two forces 5 N and 7 N respectively act simultaneously on an object. Which of the following CANNOT be
the magnitude of the resultant for these forces?
A 12 N
B 2N
C 13 N
D 9N

7
 (2)
1.5 In the diagram below, an object of mass m is held at rest by a string passing over a frictionless pulley.
The mass of the string is negligible

The magnitude of force P in the strings is ...

A mg
B mg sin45o
C 1
𝑚𝑔
2
D mg tan45o (2)
[10]

QUESTION 2
An engine block with a total mass of 650 kg, is suspended by a cable over a frictionless pulley. A
learner pulls a rope, attached to the engine block, horizontally to the right so that the cable forms an
angle an angle of 10o with vertical. It is then kept in this position.

2.1 Explain the concept of Forces in Equilibrium (2)

2.2 Draw a labelled, free-body vector diagram showing ALL the forces acting on the engine
block. (3)
2.3 Calculate the magnitude of the tension in the cable. (3)
[8]
QUESTION 3
Heavy rain caught a learner on his way back home from school. On reaching home, he emptied his backpack and
hung his backpack on the washing line between two vertical parallel poles. The bag remains in equilibrium. He
realized that the angle between the washing line and pole B is 500. On further investigation he noted that force on
the washing line between his bag and pole A is 7,51 N as shown in the diagram below:

8
3.1 Draw a vector diagram showing at least one angle and all forces acting on the bag.
(4)
3.2 Write down the magnitude of the resultant of all forces acting on the bag. (2)
3.3 Name and explain the principle you used to answer question 1.2 (2)
3.4 Calculate the mass of this wet bag if the force on the washing line between the bag and pole
A is 7,51 N. (5)
3.5 When the bag is completely dry, the washing line become more contracted (more horizontal).
How would the magnitude of FB change?
Only write down INCREASE, DECREASE or REMAINS THE SAME (2)
[15]

QUESTION 4
Three forces A, B and C of magnitudes 240N, 350 N and 200N respectively act on a point O in the directions as
shown below.
The forces are not drawn to scale.

4.1 Define the term resultant force. (2)

4.2 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force. (10)
[12]

QUESTION 5
The resultant of the three forces F1, F2 and F3 acting at one point is ZERO.
The arrangement of the three forces is shown in the diagram below.

9
The magnitude of forces F2 and F3 are 250 N and 100N respectively.
5.1 Define the term Equilibrant of forces. (2)
5.2 Calculate the magnitude of force F1. (3)
5.3 Determine the value of angle ⍬. (2)
[7]
NEWTON’S LAWS
1. FORCES
A force is a push or a pull.
A force can be either a contact force or a non-contact force.
• Contact force – a force exerted between objects that are in contact with each other. (e.g., Applied force,
Tension, Friction, Normal.)
• Non-contact force – a force exerted between objects over a distance without touching each other. (e.g.,
Electrostatic force, Gravitational force, Magnetic force).
• Normal force – a force or the component of a force which a surface exerts on an object in contact with it,
and which is perpendicular to the surface.
The magnitude of the normal force depends on the gravitational force, the applied force and the surface
orientation (horizontal or inclined).
Examples:

N = Fg = mg N = Fg – Fy = mg – Fsinα N = Fg┴ = mgcosɵ

= 12 x 9, 8 = 12x9, 8 – 45xsin20o = 12x9, 8 x cos 20o
= 117, 6 N = 102, 21 N = 110, 51N

• Frictional force –
Friction is the parallel component of the contact force on an object by the surface on which it rests or
moves.
Coefficient of friction (μ) – a value that indicates the roughness/smoothness of surfaces in contact.
There are two types of friction: Static friction and kinetic friction.

Static friction fs Kinetic friction

Static friction is the force that opposes the Kinetic friction is the force that opposes the motion
tendency of motion of a stationary object of a moving
relative to a surface. object relative to a surface.
The maximum static friction is calculated as: Kinetic friction is calculated as:
fsmax = μs.N fk = μk.N

10
 This graph shows how the relationship between
static friction and the applied force.
fs increases as Fapplied increases until fsmax is
reached.
Fk is constant and less than fsmax. Fk is also
independent of Fapplied.

• Tension – a force developed within a rope or a string.

• Applied force – a push or a pull exerted on an object.

2. NEWTON’S LAWS
• Newton's First Law of Motion:
A body will remain in its state of rest or motion at constant velocity unless a non-zero resultant/net force
acts on it.

• Newton's Second Law of Motion:

When a resultant/net force acts on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction of the net force at an
acceleration directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

• Newton's Third Law of Motion:

When object A exerts a force on object B, object B simultaneously exerts an oppositely directed force of
equal magnitude on object A.

FA on B = FB on A

Forces FA on B and FB on A do not cancel each other because they act on different objects.

• Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation:

Each body in the universe attracts every other body with a force that is directly proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.
F: Gravitational force (N)
𝐆. 𝐦𝟏 . 𝐦𝟐 m1, m2: Masses (kg)
𝐅= r: Distance from centres (m)
𝐫𝟐
G: Gravitational constant
● Weight - the gravitational force exerted by the Earth on an object on or near its
(Gsurface.
= 6, 67x 10-11 N.m2.kg-2)

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● Mass - the amount of matter in a body (kg).
● Weightlessness - the sensation experienced when all contact forces are removed.

FORCE/FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS, NORMAL AND NET FORCE EXPRESSIONS

Plane Diagram Force diagram Free-body 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 =ma

diagram
Horizontal N N
(frictional) 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ma
F F
F f F+(-f) = ma
f
w (N = w = mg)
w
Horizontal at
F N F N F
an angle 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ma
(frictional) f F// - f = ma
f
(N= w - 𝑭𝒚 )

w w
Horizontal at
F F N N
an angle 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ma
(frictional) f f F// - f = ma
F (N = w + 𝑭𝒚 )
w w
Vertical
T T 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ma
W – T = ma

w w
Inclined F
F N F
(frictional) 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ma
w// N F- f - w// =ma
f 𝒘// = mg sin θ
ɵ f w┴ 𝒘┴ = mg cos θ
w w (N=𝒘┴ = mg cos θ)

WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
A block of mass 2 kg is at rest on a rough horizontal surface. The block is connected to another block of
mass 1,5 kg by means of a light inextensible string which hangs over a frictionless pulley. The 2 kg block
experiences a constant frictional force of 3,1 N when a force of 20 N is applied to the block as shown in the
diagram below. Ignore the effect of air friction.

12
1.1 Define the term kinetic friction. (2)
1.2 Draw a labelled free-body diagram indicating all the forces on the 2 kg block. (5)
1.3 Apply a Newton’s Second Law of motion to each of the blocks and calculate the magnitude of the
acceleration of the blocks. (6)
1.4 Calculate the magnitude of tension in the string. (2)
[15]
SOLUTIONS
1.1 is the force that opposes the motion of a moving object relative to a surface. ✓✓
(2)
1.2

(5)

1.3 For a 2 kg block For 1,5 kg block:

Fnet = ma Fnet = ma✓
F-T- fk = 2a T- 1,5 (9,8) ✓ = 1,5a✓
20- T- 3,1 = 2a ✓ T- 14,7 = 1,5a
16,9 – T = 2a T = 1,5a + 14,7 …. equation 2
T = 16,9 – 2a ……equation 1
Equation 1= equation 2
16,9-2a = 1,5a + 14,7✓
2,2 = 3,5a
a= 0.63m.𝑠 −2 ✓ (6)

1.4 T = 16,9 -2a T = 1,5a + 14,7

T = 16,9 – 2 (0,63) ✓ OR T = 1,5 (0,63) + 14,7
T = 15.64 N ✓ T = 15,64 N (2)
[15]
QUESTION 2
Block A with a mass 4 kg, that is at rest on a rough horizontal table, is connected to another block B with
mass 8 kg by a light inextensible string passing over a frictionless pulley. A force F 1 of magnitude 96 N is
applied vertically upwards on block B as shown in the diagram below.

A force F2 of magnitude 75N is now applied at an angle of 250 with the horizontal on block A and the block
accelerates to the left. The kinetic frictional force on block A is 11,76 N. Ignore the effects of air friction.
2.1 Define the term frictional force. (2)
2.2 Draw a labelled free-body diagram for block A. (5)
2.3 Calculate the magnitude of the:

13
2.1 Define the term frictional force. (2)
2.3.1 Acceleration of block A. (5)
2.3.2 Tension in the rope connected to block A. (2)
[14]
SOLUTIONS
2.1 Frictional force is the force that opposes the motion of an object and which acts parallel to the
surface. ✓✓ (2)
2.2

(5)

2.3.1 For block A: For block B:

Fnet = ma ✓ Fnet = ma
Fx + (-T) + (-f) = ma Fg +T + (-F) = ma
(75) cos 250 – T – 11,76✓ = 4a ✓ 78,4 + T – 96✓ = 8a
56,21 – T = 4a T = 8a +17,6…………
T = -4a + 56,21 …. 2
1
-4a + 56,21 = 8a + 17,6
12a = 38,61
a= 3,22 m. 𝑠 −2 ✓ (5)
2.3.2 For block A: T = -4a + 56,21
= (- 4a) (3,22) + 56,21✓
= 43,33 N✓ (2)
[14]
QUESTION 3
A block of mass 1 kg is connected to another block of mass 4 kg by a light inextensible string. The system
is pulled up a rough plane inclined at 300 to the horizontal, by means of a constant force of 40N, parallel to
the plane as shown in the diagram below.

The magnitude of the kinetic frictional force between the surface and the 4 kg block is 10 N. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the 1 kg block and the surface is 0,29.

3.1 State the Newton’s Third law of motion in words. (2)

3.2 Draw a labelled free-body diagram showing all the forces acting on the 1 kg block as it moves up
the incline. (5)
3.3.1 Kinetic frictional force between the 1 kg block and the surface. (3)
3.3.2 Tension in the string connecting the two blocks. (6)
[16]

14
Solutions
3.1 When Body A exerts a force on body B, body B exerts a force of equal magnitude in the opposite
direction on body A. ✓✓ (2)
3.2

(5)

3.3.1 For the 1 kg block

fk = µk N✓
= µk mg cos ⍬
= 0.29 (1x 9,8 cos 300) ✓
= 2,46 N✓ (3)
3.3.2 Fnet = ma✓
FA – [(T + fk) + mg sin ⍬] = ma
40- [T + 2,46 + 1 (9,8) (sin 300)] = 1(a)
40 – T – 7,36 = a……………. (1)

For 4 kg block
T- (mg sin ⍬+ fk) ✓ = 4a✓
T – (4x 9,8 sin 300 + 10) = 4a
T- 29,6 = 4 a …………. (2)
From (1) and (2)
. a= 0,61 m.s-2 ✓
T = 29,6 + 4(0,61) ✓
T = 32,04 N✓ (6)
[16]
ACTIVITIES- NEWTONS LAWS
QUESTION 1
An 8 N force pulls horizontally on a block of mass 2 kg. The block slides on a smooth horizontal surface. The first
block is connected by a horizontal weightless inelastic string to a second block of mass 0.98 kg on the same surface.

1.1 Draw a free-body diagram for each block (7)

1.2 Determine the acceleration of the blocks. (7)
1.3 Determine the tension in the string. (3)
1.4 The mass of the first block is increased. State whether the tension in the string will INCREASE, (1)
DECREASE OR STAY THE SAME.
[18]
QUESTION 2
A 250 N force is applied on a block of mass 25 kg. The 25 kg block is connected to a 10 kg block by a light
inextensible string through a frictionless pulley as shown on the diagram below. The 250 N force acts at an angle of
25o to the horizontal so that the system of blocks accelerates to the left. The coefficient of kinetic frictional force
between the 25 kg block and the surface is 0,15.

15
2.1 Define the term kinetic frictional force (2)
2.2 Draw a labelled free-body diagram of all forces acting on the 25 kg block (5)
2.3 Calculate the:
2.3.1 Normal force exerted by the surface on the 25 kg block (3)
2.3.2 Acceleration of the system of blocks (7)
[17]

QUESTION 3
Two blocks of masses 1, 5 kg and 3, 2 kg are connected by a light inextensible string.
A 24 N force is applied on a system of blocks to move them up an inclined surface which is 25 o to the
horizontal at a CONSTANT VELOCITY as shown on the diagram below.
The 1, 5 kg box experiences a constant frictional force of 2 N as it moves up the incline.

3.1 State Newton’s Second Law of Motion in words. (2)

3.2 Draw a labelled free-body diagram of all forces acting on the 1,5kg block. (4)
3.3 Calculate the:
3.3.1 Tension in the string connecting the blocks (5)
3.3.2 Coefficient of kinetic frictional force between the 3,2kg block and the surface (6)
[17]
QUESTION 4
4.1 Learners investigate the relationship between the mass of an object and the acceleration it
experiences when a constant net force is applied on the object. They use their results to draw the
graph below.

16
 4.1.1 State Newton's Second Law of Motion in words. (2)
4.1.2 Calculate the gradient of the graph. (3)
4.1.3 Hence, determine the net force applied on the object during the experiment. (2)
4.1.4 Write down a conclusion for this experiment. (2)

4.2 In the diagram below, a 1 kg mass and a 2 kg mass are connected by an inextensible string of
negligible mass. The string is passed over a light frictionless pulley so that the masses hang down
as shown. Initially the system is held stationary.

4.2.1 Draw a labelled free-body diagram showing ALL the forces acting on each block.
(4)
4.2.2 Calculate the acceleration of the blocks. (5)
[18]
QUESTION 5
Block A, which is at rest on a horizontal rough surface, is used as an anchor to hold block B, with a mass of
56 kg, in the air at a certain height above the ground. The two blocks are connected with a rope R, which
makes an angle of 350 with the vertical. Blocks B is suspended from the ceiling with cable C. Refer to the
diagram below.

17
Block A experiences a frictional force of magnitude 200N. The system is stationary.

5.1 Define the term static frictional force (2)

5.2 What is the magnitude of the resultant force acting on block B? (1)
5.3 Draw a labelled free-body diagram indicating all the forces acting on the block B. (3)
5.4 Determine the horizontal components of the force in rope R. (1)
5.5 Calculate the vertical component of the force in cable C. (4)
5.6 Calculate the angle ⍬ between the cable and the ceiling. (2)
[13]
QUESTION 6
Two satellites orbiting the Earth are situated on opposite sides of the Earth.
Satellite A has a mass of 3 800 kg and Satellite B has a mass of 4 500 kg. Satellite A is at a height of 25
000 km above the surface of the Earth.

6.1 State Newton's Universal Gravitational Law in words. (2)

6.2 Explain the term weightlessness (2)
6.3 Calculate the force between the Earth and the satellite A. (4)
6.4 What distance above the surface of the Earth should Satellite B be to experience the same force
towards the Earth as Satellite A?
Choose from GREATER THAN, LESS THAN or EQUAL TO the distance above the Earth.
Explain how you arrived to the answer. (4)
[12]

QUESTION 7
Gravitational force exist between the sun and the Earth.
7.1 Define the term weight. (2)
7.2 The mass of the sun is 330 000 times greater than that of the Earth. The distance between the (4)
centres of the sun and the Earth is 1,38 x 109 m. Calculate the gravitational force that the sun
exerts on the Earth.
7.3 How will the gravitational force that the Earth exerts on the Sun compare to the answer to (2)
QUESTION 7.2? Write only GREATER THAN, LESS THAN or EQUAL TO. Give a reason for
the answer.
[8]

18
ELECTROSTATICS
Principle of charge conservation
• The SI unit for electric charge is the coulomb (C).
• Principle of conservation of charge: The net charge of an isolated system remains constant during any
physical process e.g., two charges making contact and then separating.
Q1 + Q2
• Final charge after separation: Qnew =
2

• Amount of charge transferred:

• Note: This also applies to three physical identically sized spheres

Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3
Q new =
3

Principle of charge quantization

• The principle of charge quantization: All charges in the universe consist of an integer multiple of the charge
-19
on one electron, i.e. 1,6 x 10 C.

• Apply the principle of charge quantization

-19
where qe= 1,6 x 10 C and n is an integer (whole number)
COULOMB’S LAW
The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by two-point charges (Q1 and Q2) on each other is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
(r) between them.
𝐐𝟏 𝐐 𝟐
𝐅=𝐤 𝟐
𝐫
Graphical representation of Coulombs law:
• The electrostatic force is directly proportional to the product of the charges (Fα Q1∙Q2)

• The electrostatic force is inversely proportional to

the square of the distance between the two charges.
1
Fα
r2

19
• Electrostatic force is directly proportional to the inverse of a square of a distance.
Magnitude of force F

For (2µC, -3µC) pair of charges

For (1µC,2µC) pair of charges

𝟏
𝒓𝟐

ELECTRIC FIELDS
• An electric field is described as a region in space in which an electric charge experiences a force.
• Field lines around the single point charge

• Field lines between two unlike charges

• Electric Field Lines between the two like charges

20
• The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction that a positive test charge would move if placed at
that point.
• The electric field at a point is the electrostatic force experienced per unit positive charge placed at that point.
F
E=
q
q is the charge that experiences the force (C).
E – electric field (N.C-1)
F – Electrostatic force (N)
Force due to charge Q

F
Q
q charge experiencing electric field

• Worked example:
Charge B experiences a force of 2 N due to charge A.
Determine the electric field at point B.

A B

+2 μC -5 μC
F
E=
q
2
E=
5 x 10−6
E = 4 x 105 NC-1 to the right
ELECTRIC FIELD PATTERN

Electric field at distance r from point charge Q

• If a test charge q is placed at a distance r from a charge Q, the magnitude of the electrostatic force F that Q
and q are exerting on each other is:
• The test charge placed at a point in electric field will experience a force; the magnitude of the force
experienced will depend on the distance of the test charge(q) away from the charge(Q) setting the field`

21
 kQ
𝐄=
r2
E is the electric field (N.C-1)
Q is the charge setting the field (C)
r is the distance (m)

The strength of the electric field at different points is dependent on the position of a test charge in the field.
The greater the distance between the two charges in the field, the smaller the force experienced by a test
charge.

+q experiences a
greater force at A than
at C. Therefore, E is
stronger at A than at C

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Three point charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 are placed in vacuum as shown in the diagram below. Charge Q 1 has a charge
of +6 x 10-6 C, Q2 has a charge of +3 x 10-6 C, and Q3 has a charge of +6 x 10-6 C.

1.1 State Coulomb’s Law in words. (2)

1.2 Draw a free body diagram to show the forces acting on the point charge Q2 and find the resultant
force that acts on Q2 graphically. Ignore gravitational force. (3)
1.3 Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force that acts on point charge Q 2. (6)
[11]
SOLUTION 1
1.1 Coulomb’s law states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two
point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
1.2

22
1.3

WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Two small identical metal spheres on insulated stands carry charges of +4,2 × 10 -9 C and
-6,8 × 10-9 C respectively. They are placed at a distance of 0,3 m apart.

2.1 State Coulomb's law in words. (2)

2.2 Calculate the magnitude of the electrostatic force that the one charge exerts on the other. (3)

The two spheres are allowed to touch and are then returned to their original positions.

2.3 Calculate the number of electrons that were transferred. (3)

2.4 Define electric field at a point. (2)
2.5 Draw the electric field pattern between the two charged spheres. (2)
2.6 Calculate the magnitude of the net electric field at point P situated at 0,1 m to (5)
the left of the spheres, as shown in the diagram above.
SOLUTION 2
2.1 The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by two-point charges (Q1 and Q2) on each other (2)
FAC
is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance (r) between them
2.2 𝐾𝑄 𝑄
𝐹 = 1 1✓
𝑟2
(9×109 )(4,2×10−9 )(6,8×10−9 )
= ✓
(0,3)2

= 2,856 × 10−4 N ✓ (3)

2.3 Q1 + 𝑄2
Q 𝑛𝑒𝑤 =
2

23
 4,2×10−9 +(−6,8×10−9)
= ✓
2
−9
= −5,5 × 10 C

∆𝑄
𝑛=
𝑒
−5,5×10−9 −4,2×10−9
𝑛= ✓
−1,6×10−19
10
𝑛 = 6,0625 × 10 electrons✓ (3)
2.4 It is the electrostatic force experienced per unit positive charge placed at that point. (2)

2.5 (2)

2.6 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝐾𝑄1
+
𝐾𝑄2
✓
𝑟2 𝑟2
(9×109 )(5,5×10−9 ) (9×109 )(5,5×10−9
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ✓− ✓
(0.4)2 (0.3)2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −2,41 × 102
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2,41 N∙ C −1 ✓ 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 ✓ (5)
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Two point charges, P and S, are placed a distance 0,1 m apart. The charge on P is +1,5 x 10-9 C and that on S is -
2 x 10-9 C. A third point charge, R, with an unknown positive charge, is placed 0,2 m to the right of point charge S,
as shown in the diagram below.

3.1 State Coulomb's law in words. (2)

3.2 Draw a labelled force diagram showing the electrostatic forces acting on R due to P and S. (2)
3.3 Calculate the magnitude of t h e charge o n R, i f i t e x p e r i e n c e s a n e t electrostatic force
of 1,27 x 10-6 N to the left. Take forces directed to the right as positive (7)
SOLUTION 3
3.1 The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by two-point charges (Q1 and Q2) on each other (2)
is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance (r) between them
3.2 (2)

3.3 To the right as positive✓ (1)

24
 (6)

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
In an experiment to verify the relationship between the electrostatic force, F E, and distance, r, between two identical,
positively charged spheres, the graph below was obtained.

1
Graph of FE versus
𝑟2

4.1 Write down the dependent variable of the experiment. (1)

4.2 What relationship between the electrostatic force F E and the square of the distance, r2, between (1)
the charged spheres can be deduced from the graph?
4.3 Use the information in the graph to calculate the charge on each sphere. (6)
SOLUTION 4
4.1 FE/Electrostatic force (1)
4.2 The electrostatic force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charges. (1)

25
4.3 (6)

[16]
ELECTROSTATICS ACTIVITIES
QUESTION 1 (MULTIPLE CHOICE)
1.1 Two identical small metal spheres on insulated stands carry equal charges and are a distance d
apart. Each sphere experiences an electrostatic force of magnitude F. The spheres are now
placed a distance d apart. The magnitude of the electrostatic force each sphere now experiences
is:
A. 1
𝐹
2
B F
C 2F
D 4F (2)
1.2 Three spheres with charges of +3Q, -4Q and -5Q respectively are placed on isolated
stands as shown in the diagram below.

The spheres are simultaneously brought into contact with each other and returned to
their original positions.
The charge on each sphere after contact is….
A Q
B -2Q
C -3Q
D 6Q (2)
1.3 Three point-charges of magnitude +1 µC, -1 µC and -1 µC are placed in a vacuum to form a
right-angle as shown in the diagram below.

The net force acting on the + 1 μC can by represented by …

A

26
 B

D (2)

-1
1.4 The magnitude of the electric field at a point P from a positive point charge q is x N∙C .
Which ONE of the statements below regarding this electric field is CORRECT?

A A + 1 C charge placed at P will experience a force of magnitude x N directed away

from q.
B The force on a + 2 C charge placed at P will have a magnitude ¼ x N directed
away from q.
C A + 1 C charge placed at P will experience a force of magnitude x N directed
towards q.
D The force on a + 2 C charge placed at P will have a magnitude ¼ x N directed (2)
towards q.
[8]
QUESTION 2
Two metal spheres, J and L placed on wooden stands, carry charges +3 μC and +2 µC respectively. The
diagram is not drawn according to scale.

2.1 State Coulomb’s Law in words. (2)

2.2 Calculate the electrostatic force experienced by sphere L as a result of sphere J. (4)
Sphere L is now placed 12 cm away from sphere J. Another sphere M with a charge of -8 μC is
brought into contact with sphere L. After contact, sphere M is placed on a wooden stand P, 8 cm
from sphere L, as shown in the diagram.

2.3.1 What is the charge (Q) of sphere M after contact with sphere L? (1)

27
 2.3.2 Calculate the number of electrons transferred between sphere L and sphere M (3)
after contact.
2.3.3 Draw the electric field pattern due to the charge of sphere J and sphere L after (3)
contact.
2.4 Calculate the net electric field strength on sphere L due to sphere J and sphere M after (6)
contact.
[19]
QUESTION 3
3.1 The relationship between the electrostatic force (F) experienced by a test charge and the
magnitude of the electric field (E) the charge is placed in, is investigated. The results
obtained are shown in the graph below.

3.1.1 For this investigation, write down the independent variable. (1)
3.1.2 State, in words, the relationship between F and E as depicted by the graph. (1)
3.1.3 Write down the NAME of the physical quantity represented by the gradient of this (1)
graph.
3.1.4 Calculate the value of the gradient of the graph. (3)
3.1.5 Hence, write down the magnitude of the test charge that is used. (1)

3.2 Two small charged spheres (A and B) are fixed 0,5 m apart on a vertical pole. The upper
sphere, B, carries a fixed charged of -3,0 ×10-6 C, and the lower one, A, carries a charge
of +8,0 ×10-6 C.
A 0,03 kg small sphere, C, carrying an unknown charge Qc, is suspended 1 m above
sphere B, as shown in the diagram.

1m

Pole 0,5 m

3.2.1 Draw a diagram that shows the electric field pattern between spheres A and B. (3)

28
 3.2.2 Draw a labelled free-body diagram showing all the forces acting on Sphere C. (3)
3.2.2 Calculate the charge on sphere C. (5)
3.3 A small metal sphere M carries a charge of +2,4 × 10−9 𝐶
3.3.1 Sketch the electric field pattern associated with sphere M (2)
𝟑, 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 electrons are now transferred to sphere M.
3.3.2 Calculate the electric field at a point 0,125 m from the sphere M. (6)
[26]
QUESTION 4
4.1 An investigation is conducted with pairs of IDENTICAL point charges, all placed a distance
r meters from each other, as shown in the diagram below.

The graph below shows the relationship between the electrostatic FORCE F, exerted by one
point charge on the other, and the PRODUCT of the two charges, Q2.

4.1.1 For this investigation, write down the controlled variable. (1)
4.1.2 Write down the relationship between the electrostatic force F and the product (1)
of the two-point charges, Q2.
4.1.3 Using the graph, calculate the value of the gradient of the graph. (3)
4.1.4 Using the mathematical expression of Coulomb’s law and the answer to (4)
QUESTION 4.1.3, calculate the distance r between the charges.
4.2
Two-point charges, Q1 = +8 µC and Q2 = +2 µC, are separated by a distance of 0,4 m,
as shown in the diagram below.

4.2.1 Define electric field at a point in words. (2)

The two-point charges are allowed to touch and returned to their original positions.

29
 4.2.2 Calculate the distance d between point P and point charge Q2, as shown in the (4)
diagram above.
4.2.3 Calculate the number of electrons transferred from one charge to the other when (4)
they come into contact.
[19]
QUESTION 5

Three small identical spheres X, Y and Z are mounted on insulated stands as shown. X
carries a charge of +20nC, Y carries a charge of -8nC and Z is neutral.

5.1 Give a reason why the metal spheres are mounted on insulated stands (1)
5.2 Spheres X is first brought into contact with sphere Y, Sphere X is moved and then brought
into contact with sphere Z and then separated.
5.2.1 Calculate the net charge on each sphere on each sphere after they are separated (3)
5.2.2 Which of the three spheres undergoes a small net increase in mass? Give a (2)
reason for the answer
5.3 Three point charges, X, Y, and Z of magnitudes +20 uC, -45 uC and +30 uC respectively
are placed so that they form a right angle as shown below. X and Y are 600 mm apart,
whilst Y are 800 mm apart.

5.3.1 Calculate the magnitude of the net electrostatic force exerted on Y by X and Z. (5)
Point charge Y is now removed.
[11]

30
ELECTROMAGNETISM
NOTES
• Electromagnetism is the study of the relationship between electric and magnetic fields.
• The magnetic field produced by an electric current is always oriented perpendicular to the direction
of the current flow.
• The following sketch shows what the magnetic field around a wire looks like when the wire has a
current flowing in it. We use B⃗ to denote a magnetic field and arrows on field lines to show the
direction of the magnetic field.

• The direction of the current in the conductor (wire) is shown by the central arrow. The circles are
field lines and they also have a direction indicated by the arrows on the lines.
• The Right-hand rule says that the magnetic field lines produced by a current-carrying wire will be
oriented in the same direction as the curled fingers of a person's right hand (in the “hitchhiking”
position), with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current flow.

• Electromagnetic induction Faraday discovered that when he moved a magnet near a wire a voltage
was generated across it.
• If the magnet was held stationary no voltage was generated. Thus, the voltage only existed while
the magnet was moving. We call this voltage the induced emf (Ɛ).
• A circuit loop connected to a sensitive ammeter will register a current if it is set up as shown in the
following figure which indicates the upward- and downward movement of the magnet: Magnetic flux
Before we move onto the definition of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction and examples, we
first need to spend some time looking at the magnetic flux.

31
For a loop of area A in the presence of a uniform magnetic field, B⃗ , the magnetic flux (Φ) is expressed as:
Φ = BAcosθ ,
where:
θ = the angle between the magnetic field, B, and the normal to the loop of area;
A = the area of the loop; and
B = the magnetic field.
The S.I. unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb).

Environmental impact

In South Africa we have many power lines, which carry electrical power all over the country. Unfortunately
this can have a negative impact on the wildlife, particularly birds. Birds may be physically harmed by power
lines due to electrocution or physically colliding with the power lines. Large birds are especially at higher risk
of colliding with the power lines. Each year thousands of birds are killed from collisions. The power lines
also potentially interfere with nearby radio signals, as they can generate similar signals.

Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction

• The magnitude of the induced emf across the ends of a conductor is directly proportional to the rate
of change in the magnetic flux linkage with the conductor. This can be stated mathematically as:
Ɛ = -N Δϕ
Δ𝑡
• Where φ = B⋅A and B is the strength of the magnetic field. N is the number of circuit loops. A
magnetic field is measured in units of teslas (T).
• The minus sign indicates direction and that the induced emf tends to oppose the change in the
magnetic flux.

32
 • When the north pole of a magnet is pushed into a solenoid the flux in the solenoid increases so the
induced current will have an associated magnetic field pointing out of the solenoid (opposite to the
magnet’s field).
• When the north pole is pulled out, the flux decreases, so the induced current will have an associated
magnetic field pointing into the solenoid (same direction as the magnet’s field) to try to oppose the
change.

WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUSTIONS [10 MARKS]
1.1. Consider the emf induced in a coil. Which of the following graphs correctly describes the relationship
between the induced emf and the number of turns in the coil?

(2)

1.2 A circular coil is placed inside a magnetic field and rotated clockwise to induce an emf. Which ONE
of the following changes will increase the induced emf ?
A Rotating the coil slower
B Decreasing the number of turns/ windings of the coil.
C Increasing the speed of rotation of the coil.
D Changing the polarity of the magnets. (2)
1.3. The magnetic flux linkage through a coil depends on…
A The thickness of the wire in the coil.
B The angle between the coil and the magnetic field.
C The direction of the magnetic field.
D The material the coil made of. (2)
1.4. Which ONE of the sketches below represents the CORRECT magnetic field pattern around a
straight current-carrying conductor?

(2)

33
1.5 When a current, passes through a straight conductor a field is generated around the conductor.
Which ONE of the following combinations is correct for the nature of the field and the orientation
of the field?
NATURE OF THE FIELD ORIENTATION OF THE FIELD
A Magnetic Perpendicular to the conductor
B Electric Perpendicular to the conductor
C Magnetic Parallel to the conductor (2)
D Electric Parallel to the conductor
QUESTION 2 [11 MARKS]
2.1 The arrangement of apparatus to demonstrate Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction is
shown below.

2.1.1 State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction in words. (2)

2.2.2 State TWO ways in which the deflection on the galvanometer can be increased. (2)
2.2 A coil with area 0,6 m2 is held with its axis coinciding with the direction of a
magnetic field of strength 0,4 T.
2.2.1 Calculate the magnetic flux linkage. (3)
In order to produce an emf of 9 V, the area of the coil, with its axis coinciding with the direction of a
magnetic field, is halved from 0, 6 m2 to 0, 3 m2 in 2 minutes.
2.2.2 Calculate the number of turns in the coil. (4)
QUESTION 3 [11 MARKS]
3.1 The setup of the apparatus below was used to demonstrate the Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic
induction.

3.1.1. What will be observed on the Galvanometer when the bar magnet is held stationary inside (2)
the solenoid? Give a reason for the answer.
3.1.2. What is the direction of the induced current through the Galvanometer? Choose from J to (1)
K or from K to J.
3.2 A magnetic field with a field strength of 0, 5 T passes through a conducting loop of area 10 cm 2 in
such a way that the field lines are at 700 to the plane of the loop.
3.2.1 Calculate the magnetic flux linkage. (3)
3.2.2 Calculate the average emf that will be induced across the ends of coil if it is removed from (3)
the field in 0,2 s.
3.3 A circular coil is placed inside the magnetic field and rotated clockwise to induce an emf. How will
the following changes influence the magnitude of the induced emf?
Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME
3.3.1 Changing the polarity of the magnet (1)
3.3.2 Increases the speed of rotation of the coil (1)

34
QUESTION 4 [14 MARKS]
A coil with diameter of 0, 6 m contains 60 turns and lies so that the magnetic field strength is at maximum
of +0,15T. The field then changes to its minimum in 1, 6 s. (𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 )

4.1 State Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction in words. (2)

4.2 Calculate: (4)
4.2.1. the change in the magnetic flux in the loop. (3)
4.2.2. the average induced emf in the loop in 1,6 s. (3)
4.3. If the coil is now rotated in 1, 8 s, how would it change the induced emf ? Write only INCREASE, (2)
DECREASE OR REMAIN THE SAME. Explain your answer.

SOLUTIONS FOR WORKED EXAMPLES

1.1 A ✓✓
1.2 C ✓✓
1.3 B ✓✓
1.4 B ✓✓
1.5 A ✓✓ [10]
2.1.1 The magnitude of the induced emf (in a conductor) is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux
linkage. ✓✓ (2)
2.1.2 Move the magnet quickly inside the coil.  (2)
Use a stronger magnet ✓
2.3.1 Φ= BA cosθ ✓
Φ= (0,4) (0,6) cos00 ✓ (3)
Φ = 0.24 Wb ✓
2.3.2 Φ = BAcos 00
Φ1/2 = (0,4)(0,3) cos 00✓
Φ = 0,12 Wb
Φ
ε = -N ✓
t
(0,12−0,24)
9=-N ✓ (4)
120
N = 9000 turns✓ [11]
QUESTION 3
3.1.1 The magnitude of the induced emf across the ends of a conductor is directly proportional to rate of (2)
change in the magnetic flux linkage with the conductor. ✓✓
3.1.2 No deflection / zero reading ✓ (2)
No change in the magnetic flux linkage. ✓
3.1.3 K to J✓ (1)
3.2.1 Φ= BA cosθ ✓
Φ= (0,5) (0,001) cos200 ✓
Φ = 4,70 × 10-4 Wb ✓ (3)

35
3.2.2 Φ
ε = -N ✓
t
=-1(04,70 ×10-4)✓
0,2
(3)
= 2,35 × 10-3 V ✓
3.3.1 REMAIN THE SAME✓ (1)
3.3.2 INCREASES✓ (1)
QUESTION 4
4.1 The magnitude of the induced emf (in a conductor) is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux (2)
linkage. ✓✓
4.2
4.2.1. Φi= BA cosθ ✓
=(0,15) 𝜋𝑟 2 Cos θ
= (0,15)(𝜋) X 0,32Cos 0o✓
= 4,24 x10-2 Wb
Φi= Φi- Φf
=0-4,24x10-2
= -4,24x10-2 Wb

Φ
4.2.2. ε = -N ✓
t
= (-60)(-4.24x10-2)✓
1,6 (5)
= 1.59 V✓
4.3. DECREASES✓ (3)
The emf is inversley proportional to the time of rotation, ✓thus if the time increases the emf will
decrease✓0.
ELECTRODYNAMICS
PRACTICE ACTIVITIES
QUESTION 1 [9 MARKS]
A coil with 200 windings and a surface area of 2,8 × 10−3 m2 is rotated at constant speed in a constant
magnetic field of 2, 5 T. An emf of 3,5V is induced in the coil.
1.1. Consider the following statement: The magnitude of the induced emf across the ends of a conductor
is directly proportional to the rate of change in the magnetic flux linkage with the conductor.

Name the law represented by the above statement. (1)

1.2. Calculate the :

1.2.1. Change in magnetic flux if the angle of the coil related to the magnetic field changes from
00 to 900. (3)
1.2.2. Time it takes the coil to rotate from 00 to 900. (3)
1.3 By what factor will the induced emf change if a coil with 100 windings is used under the same (2)
conditions?
QUESTION 2 [13 MARKS]
2.1. State Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction in words. (2)
2.2. A bar magnet is dropped vertically downwards through a circular conducting loop, as shown below. An
emf is induced in the circuit.

36
The direction of the induced current is views from above.
2.2.1. State the direction of the induced current. Choose from clockwise or anticlockwise. (2)
2.2.2. Explain why an emf is induced across the ends of the coil. (2)
2.3. A flat of wire has an area of 0,020m2and consists of 50 turns. At 1=0 s, the coil is oriented so that
the normal to its surface makes an angle of 00 to a constant magnetic field of magnitude 0, 15 T.
the coil is then rotated in a time of 0, 10 s along its axis so that the normal to the surface makes an
angle of 600 to the magnetic field.
Calculate the average induced emf in the coil. (5)
2.4. Explain the meaning of the minus sign in the equation for Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
Φ
ε = -N
t
(2)
QUESTION 3 [11 MARKS]
An induction coil of area 48, 6 cm2 and 200 windings is rotated clockwise in a constant magnetic field of
magnitude 2, 4 T. Refer to the diagram below.

The graph below shows how the induced emf varies with the inverse of time.

3.1 State Faraday’s law in words (2)

3.2 Use the information in the graph to calculate the change in magnetic flux when the emf is 3 V (4)
3.3 The coil rotates through an angle θ to a position where the magnetic flux becomes zero.
Calculate angle θ. (5)

37
QUESTION 4 [10 MARKS]
A magnet is brought near a solenoid or coil as shown in the diagram below.

4.1. State Faradays law of Electromagnetic induction. (2)

4.2. Why does the galvanometer deflect as the magnet is brought close to the coil? (1)
4.3. What rule can be used to predict the direction of the induced current? (1)

4.4. Give THREE ways in which the strength of the induced current can be increased. (3)
4.5. A coil with 200 windings (turns) s rotated so that the magnetic flux linkage with each winding changes (3)
from 5 x 10-4 Wb to 1 x 10-4 Wb in 0,2 s.
Calculate the induced emf in the coil.
QUESTION 5 [13 MARKS]
A circular coil with 250 windings (turns) and a radius of 0, 04 m, is rotated clockwise inside a magnetic field
with a field strength of 3, 2 T.

5.1 Calculate the magnetic flux through the coil at the position indicated on the diagram, where the coil
is perpendicular to the field. (3)
5.2 If the coil rotates clockwise through 25°, and the potential difference induced is 2, 8 V, calculate the
time in which this rotation took place. (4)
5.3 Which law can be used to explain the phenomenon described in QUESTION 5.2? Name and state
the Law. (3)
5.4 5.4.1 If the circular coil is replaced with a square coil with a side length of 0, 04 m, and the same
movement is made in the same amount of time, will the induced emf be the same as, larger
than or smaller than the circular coil? Write down only THE SAME AS, LARGER THAN or
SMALLER THAN. (1)
5.4.2 Explain the answer to QUESTION 5.4.1 (2)
QUESTION 6 [10 MARKS]
6.1 The sketch below shows a current carrying solenoid that is wrapped around a soft iron
Core.

38
 (1)

Does A represent the North pole or the South pole of the magnetic iron core?
6.2
6.2.1 Is the magnetic field direction outside the core from A to B or from B to A (1)
6.3. A coil is moved into and out of the magnetic field of a bar magnet as shown below so that the rate
of change of magnetic field is ∆ϕ=0,6, T.s-1

The area through which the field links with the coil is given by A=0,4 m 2
6.3.1. State Faradays law of electromagnetic induction in words. (2)
6.3.2. Calculate the magnitude of the average emf generated in the coil, if the coil has 8 turns. (4)
6.3.3. If the experiment is repeated with a new coil that has twice as many turns, what would the (2)
new emf be?
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Grade 11 concepts
• Ohm's law
The potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the current in the conductor at constant
𝑉
temperature. 𝑅=
𝐼
Graphical representation of Ohm’s law
Ohmic resistors non-ohmic resistors

Resistors that obeys ohms law resistors that do not obey ohms law

• Power
Is the rate at which work is done (or energy is transferred)
𝑊
• The following formulae can be used to calculate Power 𝑃 =
∆𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅
• Energy

39
is the ability to do work
formulas to be used when calculating energy
𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼∆𝑡
𝑊 = 𝐼 2 𝑅∆𝑡
𝑉2
𝑊= ∆𝑡
𝑅
• EMF
is the maximum energy provided by a battery per unit charge passing through it.
• Internal resistance
Real batteries are made from materials which have resistance. This means that real batteries are not just sources of
potential difference (voltage), but they also possess internal resistance. If the total potential difference source is
referred to as the emf, 𝜺, then a real battery can be represented as an emf connected in series with a resistor r. The
internal resistance of the battery is represented by the symbol r.
𝑉 ′ = 𝐼𝑟
𝐸𝑚𝑓 = 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)

Cost of electricity
To calculate the cost of electricity, the energy must be expressed in Kilowatt hour(kWh).
The kilowatt-hour (kWh) refers to the use of 1 kilowatt of electricity for 1 hour.
1 kWh is an amount of electrical energy, also known as one unit of electricity.
Cost = Energy x Cost per unit
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
The battery of EMF 2,4V and negligible internal resistance is connected in a circuit as shown below.
A current of 2A registers on ammeter A1

1.1 State the Ohms law in words. (2)

1.2 Calculate the effective resistance of the circuit. (3)
1.3 Calculate the reading on
1.3.1 The voltmeter (3)
1.3.2 The ammeter A2 (3)
1.4 Calculate the amount of energy (KWh) that is transferred to the circuit in 48 hours. (5)
1.5 The 3Ω resistor is now replaced by a 6Ω resistor. How will this affect each of the following (choose
from INCREASES, DECREASES, OR REMAIN THE SAME).
1.5.1 The reading on A1 . Explain the answer (3)
1.5.2 The reading on A2 (1)
[20]
Solutions
1.1 The current in a metal is directly proportional to the potential difference across the ends of the
conductor, provided the temperature remains constant. ✓✓
1.2 1 1
= +
1
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1
= + ✓
𝑅𝑝 6 3
Rp = 2 Ω✓
Effective Resistance = RP + Rs = 2 + 1 = 3Ω ✓
1.3.2 Rp =
𝑉
✓
𝐼
V= 0.8× 2 = 1.6𝑉 ✓✓
1.3.3 R=
𝑉
✓ =6=
1.6
✓ I= 0.27 A ✓
𝐼 𝐼
1.4 P = VI ✓

40
 = 2,4 × 0,8 ✓
= 1,92W = 0,00192 KW ✓
W = Pt
= 0,00192 × 48✓
= 0,09216 KWh ✓
1.5.1 Decrease. ✓ Resistance of circuit increases, from Ohms Law, R is inversely proportional to the current.
✓✓
1.5.2 Increases
Worked examples 2✓
Learners investigate to verify Ohm’s Law. They measure the current through a resistor for different
potential differences across its ends, ie the potential difference was chosen as the independent
variable. The results obtained are tabulated below:
Potential Difference (V) Current strength (A)
21.4 0.80
35.8 1.20
56.0 1.90
72.04 2.30
98.04 3.20
124.04 4.12
2.1 State Ohm’s Law (2)
2.2 The dependant variable in this was the current
2.2.1 Name one quantity that was controlled in this investigation. (1)
2.2.2 State how the quantity in Question 2.2.1 was kept constant (1)
2.3 Using the information in the table and the graph sheet provided, draw a graph of current versus (5)
potential difference.
2.4 Calculate the gradient of the graph. (4)
2.5 What quantity does the gradient of the graph represent? (1)
2.6 Hence determine the resistance of the resistor. (2)
[16]
Solutions
2.1 The potential difference across the conductor is directly proportional to the current in the conductor at
constant temperature. ✓✓
2.2.1 Resistance / Temperature of the resistor✓
2.2.2 Do not keep the circuit on for long periods of time. ✓
2.3
Current vs potential difference
Current

Potential difference

suitable scale used on X and Y axes ✓

X and Y axes correctly labelled ✓
correct plotting of points ✓
best fit curve drawn joining points ✓

2.4 Gradiant (1/R) =

∆𝐼
✓
∆𝑉

41
 4.5−1.4
= ✓✓
140−40

=0.031Ω✓
2.5 Inverse of resistance/
1
✓
𝑅
2.6 1
= 0,031
𝑅
R =32,26 Ω ✓✓

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS MCQ QUESTIONS

QUESTION ONE
FOUR possible answers provided to the following questions only one answer that is correct. Choose
the correct answer write only the correct letter next to question number
1.1 In the circuit shown below two identical resistors are connected to 12V cell and the switch is open the
reading on v will be:

A) 0V
B) 6V
C) O,6 V
D) 16 V (2)
1.2 The unit for electric power is
A) N C-1
B) J.s-1
C) Kg.m.s-1
D) N.s (2)
1.3 The potential difference across the battery in the circuit diagram below is 10 V. The internal resistance (2)
of the battery can be ignored Two voltmeter V1 and V2 are connected in the circuit as shown in the
diagram below the reading on V1 and V2 will be:

Voltmeter 2 Voltmeter 1
A) 10 0
B) 0 10
C) 0 0
D) 10 10

1.4. Current is the same in

A) Series connection
B) Parallel connection
C) Combination of parallel and series connection
D) Two resistor in parallel (2)
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS STRUCTURED QUESTIONS
Question one
In the circuit diagram below the battery has emf of 6 V and negligible internal resistance.

42
1.1 Calculate the:
1.1.1 Effective resistance in the circuit (3)
1.1.2 Reading on ammeter A1 (1)
1.1.3 Reading on ammeter A2 (3)
1.1.4 Power dissipated by the 4 Ω resistor (3)
1.2 What is the reading on voltmeter V? No calculation is required. (1)
1.3 A kettle is rated 1 500 W. Calculate how much a learner will pay for electricity for using the kettle for 4 (4)
hours. Eskom charges 1 kWh electricity at R2,05. [17]
Question two
You are given four identical resistors, each of magnitude “R” and battery of Emf “v” volts.
2.1 Sketch an appropriate circuit diagram, use all the above components, to show how you would connect (2)
them to obtain a total resistance of R in the circuit.
2.2 Use the relevant calculations to show that the total resistance in your circuit in 2.1 is equal to R. (3)
2.3 The circuit diagram below shows a battery of known Emf with neglible internal resistance, connected
as shown below.

The reading on voltmeter is 4V. Calculate :

2.3.1 The effective resistance in the circuit. (3)
2.3.2 The current flowing through the 1Ω resistor. (3)
2.3.3 The reading on the ammeter. (4)
2.3.4 The Emf of the battery (3)
2.4 The switch S is now opened
2.4.1 How will the energy dissipated by the 4Ω resistor change if the time is in operation remains (1)
constant ? State whether it will increase , decrease or remain the same.
2.4.2 Briefly explain your answers using relevant formulae. (2)
[20]
Question three
Three resistors , of 3Ω, 4Ω and 6Ω, and a bulb are connected in a circuit, as shown below. Initially all
the switchesz , S1 , S2,and S3 are open. The internal resistance of the battery and the resistance of the
connecting may be ignored

3.1 State the Ohms’ law in words. (2)

43
3.2 Switch S1 is now closed and the voltmeter and ammeter readings are recorded. The voltmeter and
ammeter readings, when both switch S1 and switch S2 are closed, are then recorded, as well as the
readings when all three switches, S1 ,S2 , and S3 , are closed. The results are shown in the table below

3.2.1 Explain the increase in the ammeter reading as more switches are closed. (2)
3.3 Calculate the :
3.3.1 Resistance of the bulb. (3)
3.3.2 Potential difference of the battery (4)
3.4 Define the term power. (2)
3.5 Calculate the power dissipatedin the 6Ω resistor when ONLY SWITCHES S1 and S2 are closed. (4)
3.6 How will the BRIGHTNESS of the bulb be affected as more switches in the circuit are closed? Write (1)
only INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME.
3.7 Explain the answer to question 3.6. (2)
[21]
Question four
Two grade 11 learners conduct two separate expiriments (Expiriment A and Expiriment B) to verify the
relationship between the potential difference across a resistor and the current trough resistor. They
each used the following components to set up their circuits : battery, an ammeter, a resistor of unkown
resistance, a voltmeter, a switch conducting wire and rheostat

Potential difference (V)

4.1 Write down the law investigated in the expiriment above (1)
4.2 What is a function of rheostat (1)
4.3 State one precaution that the learners would have to take to ensure that the temperature of their (1)
resistors remains constant
4.4 Draw circuit diagram to show how the learners should connect the given components in the circuit (4)
4.5 Consider graph B
4.5.1 What is the relationship between the current and the potential difference across resistor? (1)
4.5.2 What does the gradient of the graph represent ? (1)
4.5.3 What is the current trough the resistor when the potential difference across the resistor is 6 (1)
V?
4.5.4 Using the graph calculate the resistance of the resistor in expiriment B (4)
4.6 Consider graph A and B
4.6.1 Which experiment used a resistor with higher resistance ? (1)

44
 4.6.2 Give a reason for your answer (2)
[18]

Question five
The variation with potential difference V of the current I in a component Y and in a resistor R are shown
in the graph. The current is plotted on the y axis and the potential difference is plotted on the x axis
Current vs potential difference
I(A)

V(V)

5.1.
5.1.1 Use the graph to explain how it can be deduced that resistor R has a constant resistance of 20 (3)
Ω.
5.1.2 Is component Y an ohmic conductor? Give a reason for your answer. (2)
5.2 The component Y and the resistor R are connected in parallel.

A power pack (or a battery with a variable voltage E) with negligible internal resistance is connected
across the parallel combination. Use data from the graph to determine:
5.2.1 The current in the battery for an voltage of 4,0 V. (3)
5.2.2 The total resistance of the circuit for a voltage of 8,0 V (3)
5.2.3 The electrical energy used in R with a voltage of 8,0 V for 20 s. (4)
[15]

45
ATOMIC COMBINATIONS
DEFINITIONS
• Chemical bond – a mutual attraction between two atoms resulting from the simultaneous attraction between their
nuclei and the outer electrons.
• Intramolecular bond – bond which occurs between atoms within molecules
• Lewis dot diagram – a structural formula in which valence electrons are represented by dots or crosses.
• Valence electrons – the electrons in the highest energy level of an atom in which there are electrons.
• Covalent bond – the sharing of electrons between two atoms to form a molecule.
• Ionic bond – a transfer of electrons and subsequent electrostatic attraction
• Metallic bond – metallic bonding as the bond between positive ions and delocalized valence electrons in a metal
• Molecule – a group of two or more atoms covalently bonded and that function as a unit.
• Bonding pair – a pair of electrons that is shared between two atoms in a covalent bond.
• Lone pair – a pair of electrons in the valence shell of an atom that is not shared with another atom.
• Electronegativity – a measure of the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract bonding electrons.
• Non-polar covalent bond – a bond in which the electron density is shared equally between the two atoms.
• Polar covalent bond – a bond in which the electron density is shared unequally between the two atoms.
• Bond energy of a compound – the energy needed to break one mole of its molecules into separate atoms.
• Bond length – the average distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
• The structure mainly depends on the type of chemical bond (force) that exists between the atoms that the molecule
consists of.
RULES FOR BOND FORMATION
Different atoms:
➢ each with an unpaired valence electron, can share these electrons to form a chemical bond
example: two H atoms form a H2 molecule by sharing an electron pair
➢ with paired valence electrons, called lone pairs, cannot share these 4 electrons and cannot form a chemical bond
example: no bond forms between 2 He atoms
➢ with unpaired valence electrons, can share these electrons and form a chemical bond for each electron pair shared
(multiple bonds can be formed)
example: two O atoms form an O2 molecule
Atoms with an empty valence shell can share a lone pair of electrons from another atom to form a coordinate bond or a
dative covalent
➢ example: in NH4+ the lone pair of nitrogen from NH3 is shared with H+
CHEMICAL BONDS
A chemical bond is the net electrostatic force that two atoms sharing electrons exert on each other.
• Bonding occurs when valence electrons are shared between two atoms or transferred from one atom to another.
• Valence electrons correspond to the group number of an element in the Periodic table
• Valence electrons: Valence electrons or outer electrons are the electrons in the highest energy level of an atom in
which there are electrons.
• The type of bond that forms is dependent on the electronegativity difference (ΔEN) between the atoms.
• Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract bonding electrons. If one atom
has a greater electronegativity than another, the electrons will be pulled more towards one atom than another.
Such a shift of electrons creates negative and positive charge distributions inside the molecule.

o ΔEN = 0: Non-polar (pure) covalent

o ΔEN < 1: Weakly polar covalent
o ΔEN >1: polar covalent
o ΔEN > 2,1: Ionic (transfer of electrons)
o ΔEN > 3: purely ionic
Types of bonds and molecules
• Non-polar bond: a bond in which the electron density is shared equally between the two atoms
Example: H – H
• EN (H) = EN (H): Bonding electrons are evenly shared. Charge is evenly distributed and no dipole formed.
∆EN = 2,1 – 2,1 = 0
• Polar bond: a bond in which the electron density is shared unequally between the two atoms.

46
 • Example: H – C𝑙
• EN (C𝑙) > EN (H): Electrons shift towards chlorine. Chlorine is slightly negative (δ−) and hydrogen is slightly positive
(δ+).
∆EN = 3,0 – 2,1 = 0,9
• Polar molecule: A molecule over which charge is distributed unevenly.
Example: H2O
• Non-polar molecule: A molecule over which the charge is evenly distributed.
Covalent Bonding (Between non-metals)
• Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between two atoms to form a molecule.
• The covalent bond may be non-polar, weakly polar or polar.
• A non-polar (pure) covalent bond is a bond in which the electron density is shared equally between the two atoms.
example:
Two chlorine atoms are joined by a non-polar covalent bond (C𝑙 – C𝑙)
EN for chlorine atom is 3,0.
∆EN = 3,0 – 3,0 = 0

• In a weakly polar covalent bond there is an unequal sharing of electrons

example:
A hydrogen atom and a bromine atom are joined by a weakly polar bond
(H – Br)
EN for hydrogen is 2,1 and EN for Br is 2,8.
∆EN = 2,8 – 2,1 = 0,7

• A polar covalent bond has an unequal sharing of electrons leading to a dipole forming
• example:
A hydrogen atom and an oxygen atom are joined by a polar covalent bond
(H2O)
EN for oxygen atom is 3,5.
∆EN = 3,5 – 2,1 = 1,4
• bonds between them. If two pairs of electrons are shared, a double bond is formed, e.g. between two O atoms to
form H 2O.
• Atoms with an empty valence shell can share a lone pair of electrons from another atom to form a coordinate
covalent or dative covalent bond, e.g. in NH+4 the lone pair of nitrogen is shared with H+ and in H3 O+ the lone pair
of oxygen is shared with H+.

Ionic Bonding (between metals and non-metals)

• metal atom gives electron or electrons to non-metal atom
• metal forms a positive ion and positive ion is called a cation
• non-metal forms a negative ion and negative ion is called an anion
• electrostatic attraction of ions leads to formation of giant crystal lattice

47
 Example:
Show how the ionic bond is formed between the sodium and the chlorine atoms.

1. Na – 1e- → Na+ (Na atom loses one electron)

2. C𝑙 + 1e- → C𝑙- (C𝑙atom gains one electron)
3. Na+ + C𝑙- → NaC𝑙 (electrostatic attraction between the two ions)

Metallic Bonding (between metals)

-Metallic bonding forms between the positive metal kernels and the sea of delocalized electrons.
-The metal atoms release their valence electrons to surround them.
-There is a strong but flexible bond between the positive metal kernels and a sea of delocalised electrons

BOND ENERGY
• Bond energy is required to break one mole of its molecules into separate atoms.

• There are various attractive and repulsive forces at play between the two atoms during bonding.
• Attractive forces between the protons of one atom and the electrons of another.
• Attractive forces between the protons and electrons from the same atom.
• A repulsive force between the protons from each atom.
• A repulsive force between the electrons from each atom.
• The net electrostatic forces will determine bond strength, which can be quantified as the bond energy. This is the
energy required to break the bond, or it is the energy released when bonds are formed.
FACTORS INFLUENCING BOND STRENGTH
*Bond length
The shorter the length of the bond, the stronger the bond.
*Atom size
The smaller the atoms, the stronger the bond.

48
*Bond order
The more bonds (double, triple bonds etc.) between the atoms, the stronger the bond.
BOND LENGTH
Bond length: The average distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms.
As the atoms get closer, the attractive forces get stronger until the minimum possible potential energy is reached (bond
energy). The distance between the nuclei of the atoms at the minimum potential energy is the bond length. If the two atoms
get closer than the bonding length, they will be forced apart by the repulsive forces, increasing the potential energy.

FACTORS INFLUENCING BOND LENGTH

*Atom size- The smaller the atoms, the shorter the bond.
*Bond order -The more bonds (double, triple bonds etc.) between the atoms, the shorter the bond.
*Difference in electronegativity (ΔEN). The greater the ΔEN, the shorter the bond.
Process of bond formation
*Atoms are infinitely separated; potential energy is nearly zero.
*As the atoms move closer, the forces of attraction and repulsion increase until the forces of attraction dominate.
*The lowest, most stable energy state reached, chemical bond forms.
*Atoms move too close, forces of repulsion increase, potential energy increases

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Both aluminium fluoride (AℓF3) and phosphorus trifluoride (PF3) contain fluorine. Aluminium fluoride is a colorless solid in
the production of aluminum, whilst phosphorus trifluoride is a poisonous, colorless gas.
1.1 Explain the difference between a covalent bond and ionic bond (2)
1.2 Name the type of chemical bond between particles in:
1.2.1 AℓF3 (1)
1.2.2 PF3 (1)

1.3 Draw a lewis structure for:

1.3.1 AℓF3 (3)
1.3.2 PF3 (2)
1.4 Write down the molecular shape of PF3. (1)

1.5 The melting point of AℓF3 is 1 291°C and that of PF3is -151°C.Fully explain this difference in melting (4)
point.
[14]
SOLUTIONS
1.1 A covalent bond is a sharing of electrons between two atoms, whilst, ionic bond forms when there is
a transfer of electrons from one atom to another (non-metal to metal) and oppositely charge atoms
attract each other. √√ (2)

49
1.2 1.2.1 Ionic bond √ (1)
1.2.2 Covalent bond √ (1)
1.3 1.3.1

(3)
1.3.2

(2)
1.4 Pyramidal ✓ (1)
1.5 The ionic bonds between the aluminum fluoride are stronger than the dipole-dipole forces in between
phosphorus fluoride molecules. ✓ ✓
More energy is needed to overcome ionic bond in AlF3 than intermolecular forces in PF3 ✓ ✓ (4)
[14]
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
2. Hydrogen fluoride (HF) is used in the manufacturing of refrigerants, herbicides, pharmaceuticals and
gasoline. Hydrogen fluoride (HF) can be prepared by treating calcium fluoride with sulphuric acid,
according to the following balanced equation.

CaF2 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + 2HF

2.1 Draw a Lewis diagram for:
2.1.1 HF (2)
2.1.2 CaF2 (2)
2.2 Define a polar covalent bond (2)
2.3 Which of the product will likely be:
2.3.1 A gas at room temperature (1)
2.3.2 A crystalline solid at room temperature (1)
2.4 Define the term electronegativity (2)
2.5 Use electronegativity to determine the types of bonds in CaF 2 (2)
2.6 Will HF be a polar or non-polar molecule? (1)
2.7 Explain your answer in question using calculation (2)
[15]
SOLUTION
2.1 2.1.1

(2)

2.1.2

✓✓ (2)
2.2 A polar covalent bond is a bond in which the electron density is shared unequally between the two
atoms✓✓ (2)
2.3 2.3.1 HF/Hydrogen fluoride ✓ (1)
2.3.2 CaSO4/Calcium sulfate✓ (1)

50
2.4 Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom in a molecule to
attract bonding electrons. ✓✓ (2)
2.5 ΔEN = 4 – 1 = 3 ✓
Ionic bond ✓ (2)
2.6 Polar molecule ✓ (1)
2.7 ΔEN = 4 – 2,1 = 1,9 ✓ polar bond ✓
Thus, the molecule is polar (2)
[15]
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.1 The diagram below is used to demonstrate the differences between interatomic bonds (chemical bonds) and
intermolecular forces.

A X is stronger than Y
B X is an interatomic bond
C X is an intermolecular force
D Y is an intermolecular force (2)

1.2 Which ONE of the following bonds will have the highest bond energy?
A H–H
B C–H
C C=C
D C C (2)

1.3 Consider the following compounds and their respective boiling points.
COMPOUNDS BOILING POINT (°C)

He -268,9
HBr -66
HF 19,5
The correct arrangement for the decreasing strength of the intermolecular forces of the given
compounds is …
A HF, He, HBr.
B HBr, He, HF.
C HF, HBr, He.
D He, HBr, HF.
(2)
1.4 Consider the substances P, Q and R. P dissolves in Q but not in R.
The MOST LIKELY bonds or intermolecular forces in substances P, Q and R are :
P Q R

A Ionic bonds Dipole-dipole forces London forces

B London forces Dipole-dipole forces Ionic bonds

C Dipole-dipole forces London forces Ionic bonds

51
 D Ionic bonds London forces Dipole-dipole forces
(2)

1.5 The intermolecular forces holding the molecules in ice together are …
A ion-dipole forces.
B Van der Waals forces.
C covalent bonds.
D hydrogen bonds. (2)
[10]
LONG QUESTIONS
QUESTION 2
Consider the following compounds.
O 2; H2O; H3O+
2.1 Define the term molecule. (2)
2.2 Draw the Lewis structures for:
2.2.1 O2 (2)
2.2.2 H2O (2)
2.3 The H3O+- ions forms when the oxygen atom in H2O donates its lone pair of electrons into the vacant
orbital of H+.
2.3.1 Write down the NAME of the type of bond described by the underlined
phrase. (2)
2.3.2 Draw the Lewis structure for the H3O+-ion. (2)
2.4 Which molecule is polar, H2O or O2? Explain your answer. (2)
[12]
QUESTION 3
3.1 Draw a Lewis diagram of methane. (2)
3.2 What is the name of the special kind of bond found inside the methane
molecule? (1)
3.3 Answer the following questions about magnesium chloride:
3.3.1 Make a Lewis diagram to indicates the transfer of electrons between magnesium and chlorine (4)
3.3.2 Magnesium chloride is ionic substance. Prove this statement with relevant calculation (2)
[9]
QUESTION 4
4 Ammonia (NH3) is represented in the diagram below.

4.1 Write down the number of valence electrons for nitrogen (1)
4.2 Draw the Lewis structure for ammonia (3)
4.3 Write down the molecular shape of the ammonia molecule (1)
4.4 Explain why ammonia does not have a trigonal planar shape. (2)
4.5 Is ammonia a polar or non-polar molecule? (1)
4.6 Refer to the structure and difference in electronegativity to explain the answer to QUESTION
4.5. (2)
When a hydrogen ion reacts with an ammonia molecule, it forms the ammonium ion.
4.7 By referring to the ammonium ion, explain what is a dative covalent bond (2)
[12]

52
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
• Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction between molecules in a substance.
• Intermolecular forces are weak forces of attraction between molecules or between atoms of noble gases
• Intermolecular forces are not the same as intramolecular bonds.
• Intramolecular (interatomic) bonds exist between atoms in a molecule.
• The intermolecular forces are weaker than interatomic forces.

Examples of intermolecular forces and intramolecular (interatomic)forces

• Molecules can be polar or non-polar.

• The polarity of a molecule is determined by two factors:
o The difference in electronegativity between the bonding atoms.
o The geometry (shape) of a molecule
• Non-polar molecules have no dipoles (positive and negative ends) e.g., CO 2

Polar molecule
• In polar molecule there are ∂+ and ∂- ends e.g., H2O and the geometry of the water molecule is angular (bent).

• H2O molecule has H-end being ∂+ and O-end being ∂-, it has dipoles. The molecule is polar

53
 • Non-polar bonds:
o H2 is non-polar because the two atoms are identical, there is even or symmetrical distribution of charge, this
makes H2 a non-polar molecule.

TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

• Different intermolecular forces (Van der Waals forces) ARE

o Mutually induced dipole forces or London forces: Forces between non-polar
Molecules
o Dipole-dipole forces: Forces between two polar molecules
o Dipole-induced dipole forces: Forces between polar and non-polar molecules
o Hydrogen bonding: Forces between molecules in which hydrogen is covalently
bonded to nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine – a special case of dipole-dipole forces
o Ion-dipole forces: Forces between ions and polar molecules

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (factors affecting intermolecular forces)

Boiling point and melting point

• Intermolecular forces dictate several properties, such as melting points, boiling points, solubility of substances,
vapour pressure, viscosity etc.

• Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a substance equals atmospheric pressure. The
stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the boiling point.

• Melting point is the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are at equilibrium. The
stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the melting point.

• A liquid with high boiling point, like water (H2O, b.p. 100 °C), exhibits stronger intermolecular forces compared to
a liquid with low boiling-point, like hexane (C6H14, b.p. 68,73 °C).

Solubility
• Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance (solute) to
dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous solvent to form a homogeneous solution.
• Miscible liquids have similar polarities.
• For example, methanol and water are miscible and are both polar and capable of hydrogen bonding.
• When methanol and water are mixed, they interact through intermolecular hydrogen bonds of comparable
strength to the methanol–methanol, and water–water interactions; thus, they are miscible.
• Likewise, nonpolar liquids like hexane and bromine are miscible with each other through dispersion forces.
• The chemical axiom “like dissolves like” is useful to predict the miscibility of compounds.
• For example, nonpolar hexane is immiscible in polar water. Relatively weak attractive forces between the hexane
and water do not adequately overcome the stronger hydrogen bonding forces between water molecules.

54
 Vapor Pressure
• Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapour at equilibrium with its liquid in a closed system. The stronger
the intermolecular forces, the lower the vapour pressure.
• At the surface, some molecules of a liquid have enough kinetic energy to break their attractive forces with
neighbouring molecules.
• These molecules escape from the liquid phase and form a gas above the surface of the liquid. If there is a lid,
pressure develops.

•In the picture above, A has more gas, meaning gas molecules are breaking away from the liquid state easier
than molecules in B.
• The intermolecular forces must be weaker in A than in B.
• Molecules in A are less attracted to each other than molecules in B.
• Intermolecular forces in A are weaker than those in B
WORKED EXAMPLES
QUESTION 1
The graph below shows the change in energy that takes place when a hydrogen (H) atom approaches a bromine (Br)
atom.

1.1 Define the term bond length (2)

1.2 From the graph, write down the:
1.2.1 Bond length, in pm, of the H-Br bond (2)
1.2.2 Energy,in kJ mol-1 (1)
1.2.3 Name of the potential energy represented by E (2)
1.3 How will the bond length of H-F bond compare to that of H-Br bond?
Write down EQUAL TO, SHORTER THAN, LONGER THAN. Give a reason for your answer (2)
[9]
SOLUTION
1.1 The average distance between nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule. (2)
1.2 1.2.1 60 (pm) ✓✓ (2
1.2.2 350 ( kJ.mol-1) ✓✓ (2)
1.2.3 Bond energy✓ (1)
1.3 Shorter than,√ F atoms are smaller than Br atoms and come closer to H atom.√ (2)
[9]

55
QUESTION 2
The graph below shows the relationship between the boiling points of the hydrides of the Group 16 elements and
molecular mass.

2.1 Define the term boiling point. (2)

2.2 Consider the boiling points of hydrides, excluding H 2W.
2.2.1 What is the relationship between molecular mass and boiling points of (2)
compounds?
2.2.2 Explain the trend in boiling points. Refer to molecular mass, intermolecular (3)
forces and energy to explain your answer.
2.3 H2W does not follow the trend in boiling points for the 16 hydrides.
2.3.1 Identify the compound H2W (1)
2.3.2 Name the types of intermolecular forces found in this compound (2)
2.3.3 Explain why the boiling point is higher than expected (2)
[12]

SOLUTION
2.1 The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a substance equals atmospheric pressure (2)
2.2 2.2.1 As the molecular mass increases, the boiling point increases. ✓✓ (2)
2.2.2 As the molecular mass increases, ✓ the strength of the intermolecular forces increases. ✓
Therefore more energy is needed to overcome/ weaken the intermolecular forces. ✓(No mark
if BROKEN is used instead of overcome or weaken.) Thus the boiling point increases. (3)
2.3 2.3.1 water✓ (1)
2.3.2 Hydrogen Bond✓ (2)
2.3.3 Hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole forces ✓ therefore more energy is needed to
overcome/weaken the forces. ✓ Thus the boiling point is higher than expected. (2)
[12]

ACTIVITIES: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

QUESTION 1
Which intermolecular forces are found in:
1.1 hydrogen fluoride (HF) (1)
1.2 methane (CH4) (1)
1.3 potassium chloride in ammonia (KCl in NH3) (1)
1.4 krypton (Kr) (1)
[4]
QUESTION 2
Refer to the table below and answer questions that follow.

S distance Melting Boiling Point Relative molecular/

Point atomic mass

56
 Sodium 97,79 882,8 23

Bromine (Br2)
58,8 160

Hydrogen chloride
-1 14,2 -85,1 36,5
(HCℓ)
Water (H20)
100 18
2.1 Define the term boiling point. (2)
2.2 By referring to the forces present in hydrogen chloride, explain the difference between
intermolecular forces and interatomic forces. (2)
2.3 Which of these substances will be a liquid at +50 0 C? (1)
2.4 Refer to intermolecular forces and energy and explain why the boiling point of HCℓ is lower than
the boiling point of H20 (4)
2.5 NaCℓ dissolved in 1-120.
2.5.1 Write down the name the intermolecular forces between NaCl and 1-120. (1)
2.5.2 Are the intermolecular forces stated in QUESTION 2.5.1 weaker or stronger than those of
H20 molecules. (1)
2.6 Refer to TYPE of INTERMOLECULAR FORCES, MOLECULAR MASS, STRENGTH of
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES and ENERGY to explain the big difference in boiling points of Br2
and HCl. (4)
[15]
QUESTION 3
The table below shows the relationship between the melting points of three molecules:
Molecule Melting point (°C)

CH4 -182,5

CF4 -150

CCℓ4 -23

3.1 Define the term melting point. (2)

3.2 Explain the trend in melting points of the molecules in the above table by referring to the
intermolecular forces and energy involved. (4)
3.3 Which molecule in the table will have the highest vapour pressure at a given temperature?
Explain the answer by referring to the data in the table. (2)
3.4 Water (H2O) is a smaller molecule than CCℓ4, but water has a higher melting point than CCℓ4.
Explain this observation by referring to the type of intermolecular forces involved. (2)
3.5 Write down the name of intermolecular force that will exist in a mixture of
H2O and CCℓ4. (2)
[12]
QUESTION 4
In the table below the boiling points of four hydrogen halides are given.
A B C D
Hydrogen halides
HF HCℓ HBr HI
Boiling points (˚C) 19,4 -85 -67 -35,5
4.1 Define the term boiling point. (2)
4.2 What is the relationship between strength of the intermolecular forces and boiling point? (1)
4.3 Which of the hydrogen halides (A, B, C or D) in the table above has the …

57
 4.3.1 highest vapour pressure? (Refer to the boiling point in the table above to give a reason
for the answer.) (2)
4.3.2 strongest intermolecular forces? (1)
4.4 Draw a line graph to represent the boiling points of the hydrogen halides.
Label the axes clearly and give the graph a heading. (6)
4.5 Compare compound A and B. Refer to the TYPE and STRENGTH of the intermolecular forces
and ENERGY needed to explain the difference in boiling points between hydrogen halides. (4)
[16]

QUANTITATIVE ASPECT OF CHEMICAL CHANGE

➢ The mole is the SI unit for the amount of substance (describe as mole)
➢ The Mole is a name for a specific number. The Mole is the SI unit for quantity of substance.
➢ One mole is the amount of a substance having the same number of particles as there are atoms in 12 g carbon-12
(define a mole).

Abbreviation of units – the official SI abbreviation of the unit mole is mol.

The mole - mass relationship is summarised in the formula:
m
n=
M
Where: n: number of moles of substance in mol
m: mass of sample of substance in g
M: molar mass of substance in g∙mol-1

Worked Example 1
Calculate the number of moles of water in 100 g of water.

Solution
m 100
n= = = 5,56 mol
M 16+(2×1)

Worked Example 2
Calculate the molar mass of a 5 mol substance with a mass of 295,5 g.

Solution
m
n=
M
295,5
5= (cross multiply and let M be the subject of the formula
M
295
M= = 58,5 g∙mol-1
5

Worked Example 3
Calculate mass of NH3 with 0,15 mol:

Solutions
Molar mass of NH3
MNH3 = 14 + 3(1) = 17 g∙mol-1
m
n=
M
m
0,15 = = 2,55 g
17
Practice Exercises
1. Calculate the number of moles in:
(i) 213 g of Cl2 (ii) 128 g of SO2

58
 (i) 39,5 g KMnO4 (iv) 20,5 g of Ba(OH)2
2. Calculate the mass of:
(i) 0,2mol of NH3 (ii) 0.7 mol of O2
(iii) 2,5mol of Mg(OH)2 (iv) 3,5mol of Fe

3. Calculate the molar mass for each of the following:

(i) Ca (ii) MgCl2
(iii ) CO2 (iv) CaCO3

Relationship Derived from Balanced Chemical Equation

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)
Iron + oxygen → iron(iii) oxide
4 atoms Fe + 3 molecules O2 → 2 formula units of Fe2O3
4 mol Fe + 3 mol O2 → 2 mol of Fe2O3
223,4 g Fe + 96 g O2 → 319 g of Fe2O3
319,4 g reactants → 319,4 g products

The Mole and the Gases

Avogadro’s Law:
Avogadro determines that: One mole of any gas occupies the same volume at the same temperature and pressure.

1 mole of ANY gas at STP is occupies a volume of 22,4 dm3

For the reactions at STP, gas volumes will be according to their molar ratio:
N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2
1 mol + 2 mol → 2 mol
1(22,4 dm3) + 2(22,4dm3) → 2(22,4dm3)

➢ The molar volume of ANY gas at STP is given the symbol V m

(i.e. Vm = 22,4 dm3mol-1)

NOTE: STP stands for Standard Temperature (273 K) and Pressure (1,01×105 Pa).
v
➢ For any gas at STP, n =
vm
➢ Where: n: number of moles of gas
V: volume of gas sample
Vm: molar volume of gas (22,4 dm-3∙mol-1)
➢ The volume of the gas sample (V) must always be measured in dm3
(1 dm3 = 0,001 m3 = 1000 cm3)

Worked Example 4
4.1) Determine the volume of 0,2 moles of H2 at STP.
4.2) Determine the mass of 60 cm3 of NH3 at STP.
Solutions
V
4.1 n =
Vm
V
0,2 =
22,4
Vm = 0,448 dm3
4.2) convert units first

V= 60 = 0,06 dm3

59
 1000
V 0,06
n= = = 0,0027 mol
Vm 22,4
m
n=
M
m
0,0027 =
17
m = 0,046 g

The Mole and Concentrations of Solutions

❖ Solutions are homogeneous (uniform) mixture of solute and solvent.
❖ Solute and solvent can be a gas, liquid or solid.
❖ The most common solvent is liquid water (called aqueous solution).
❖ Concentration is the mount of solute per litre of solution.
n m
❖ Concentration can be calculated with c = =
V MV
Where: c: concentration (mol∙dm-3)
n: number of moles (mol)
V: volume (dm3)
m: mass (g)
M: molar mass (g∙mol-1)

Worked Example 5
5.1) Calculate the concentration of a solution of calcium chloride made by dissolving
5,55 g of dry CaCl2 crystals in enough water to make 750 cm3 of solution.
5.2) What mass of copper (II) sulphate must be dissolved in 200 ml water to yield a
0,4 mol∙dm-3 solution?

Solutions
m 5,55
5.1) c = = (111)(0,75) = 0,067 mol∙dm−3
MV
m
5.2) c =
MV
m
0,4 = (159,5)(0,2)
m = 12,76 g

The Mole and Percentage Composition of Substances

❖ The subscripts in a chemical formula give the mole ratio in which the elements combine.
❖ The mole ratio enables one to calculate the percentage composition, of the elements in the compound.
Empirical formula of compounds.
❖ The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest mole ratio in which the elements of the compound combine.
Empirical formula simply tells us the ratio of the different elements in a compound, not number of atoms of each element
in molecule.

60
STEPS TO FIND THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA

STEP 1
Find the mass
Convert the % mass into grams by assuming 100 g of a given sample.

STEP 2
𝑚
Convert the moles of each element by using the n=𝑀

STEP 3
Determine the empirical formula by diving each number of moles by the smallest
number of moles to get the simplest whole number ratio.

Worked Example 6
In a combustion reaction, 0,48 g of Mg ribbons is burnt. The amount of MgO produced is 0,8 g. Calculate the empirical
formula for MgO.

Solution

Steps Magnesium Oxygen

Step 1: mass (g) 0,48 0,80 – 0,48= 0,32
∴ the
m m 0.48 m 0.32
Step 2: mol (n = ) n= = = 0,02 n= = = 0,02
M M 24 M 16
Step 3: Atom ratio 0,02 0,02
=1 =1
0,02 0,02
(divide by smallest number
in ratio)
empirical formula is MgO
Worked example 7
The action of bacteria on meat and fish produces a stinking compound called cadaverine. The compound has a
composition of 58,77% C; 13,81% H and 27,42% N by mass.
Determine the empirical formula of cadaverine.

Solution
In 100 g of compound, we have 58,77 g C; 13,81 g H; and 27,40 g N

m
n=
M
58,77
n(C) =  = 4,8975 mol C
12
13,81
n(H) =  = 13,81 mol H
1
27,40
n(N) =  = 1,9571 mol N
14
mole ratio = C: H: N

61
 4,8975 13.81 1,9571
= : :
1,9571 1,9571 1,9571
= (2,50: 7,06: 1,00) x 2 
Nearest whole number ratios = 5: 14: 2 
∴ empirical formula is C5H14N2 
Empirical Formula to Molecular Formula
❖ Molecular formula is the actual ratio of atoms in a molecular mass.
❖ The molecular formula can be calculated from the empirical formula and the relative molecular mass.

STEP 1
Find the molar mass of the empirical formula.

STEP 2
Divide the given molar mass by the molar mass of the empirical
formula that was calculated.

STEP 3
Determine the molecular formula by multiplying all subscripts in
the empirical formula by the whole number that you calculated in
step 2.

Worked Example 8
Butene has the empirical formula CH2 .The molecular mass of butene is 56 g∙mol-1 determine the molecular formula of
butene.

Solution
Empirical formula given: CH2
Step 1 calculate M(CH2 )= 12+2(1) = 14 g∙mol-1
molecular formula mass 56
Step 2 find ratio number = = =4
empirical formula mass 14
Step 3 multiply each subscript of the empirical formula by 4: C(1x4)H(2x4)

Molecular formula is C4H8

Limiting Reactant
❖ In a reaction between two substances, one reaction is likely to be used up completely before the other and this limit
the amount of product formed.
❖ The amount of limiting reactant will determine:
✓ The amount of product formed.
✓ The amount of other (excess) reactant used.

Determining Limiting Reactants

✓ Calculate the number of moles of each element.
✓ Determine the ratio between reactants.
✓ Determine limiting reactant using the ratio.

62
NOTE: If one reactant is in excess, it means that there is more than enough of it. If there are only two reactants and one
is in excess, it means that the other is the limiting reactant.

Worked example 9
A nitrogen sample of mass 8,4 g reacts with 1,5 g of hydrogen. The reaction is represented with the unbalanced equation
below.
N2 (g)+ H2 (g) → NH3 (g)
9.1) Write down a balanced reaction equation.
9.2) Determine:
9.2.1) The limiting reactant
9.2.2) The mass of ammonia that can be produced

Solutions
9.1) N2 +3H2 → 2NH3
m 8,4
9.2.1) n(N2 )= = =0,3 mol
M 28
m 1,5
n(H2 )= = =0,75 mol
M 2
N2 : 3H2
1 : 3
0,3 : x
∴n(H2) = 0,9 mol
If all nitrogen is used, 0,9 mol of hydrogen is needed, however, only 0,75 mol of hydrogen is available. The hydrogen will
run out first therefore hydrogen is the limiting reactant.

9.2.2) Since hydrogen is the limiting reactant, it will determine the mass of ammonia
produced:
3H2 : 2NH3
3 : 2
0,75 : x = 0,5 mol
m
n(NH3 ) =
M
m = (0,5)(17)
= 8,5 g

Percentage Purity
➢ Sometimes chemicals are not pure, and one needs to calculate the percentage purity.
➢ Only the pure component of the substance will react.
➢ For impure sample of a substance:
mass of pure substance
Percentage purity = ×100 %
mass of impure substance

STEPS TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE PURITY

✓ Determine moles of a product.
✓ Balance the equation.
✓ Determine the ratio between reactants and products.
✓ Using the ratio, determine the number of moles of reactants.
✓ Determine the mass of pure substance.
✓ Calculate the percentage purity of the sample.
Percentage Yield
➢ The percentage yield shows how much product is obtained compared to the maximum possible mass.

63
➢ Some of the product may be lost due to evaporation into the surrounding air, or to a little being left in solution. This
results in the amount of produced being less than maximum theoretical amount you would expect.
➢ We can express this by the percentage yield:
Actual yield
Percentage yield = ×100%
Theoretical yield
➢ Percentage yield is usually determined using mass but can also be determined with mol and volume.

STEPS TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE YIELD

✓ Determine the moles of reactant
✓ Balance the equation.
✓ Using the ratio from the balance equation, determine the numbers of moles of product.
✓ Determine the theoretical mass of product.
✓ Calculate the percentage yield.

Worked Example 10
An excess of Pb(NO3)2 reacts with 0,75 g of KI according to the reaction:

Pb(NO3) + KI → PbI2 + KNO3

After titration and drying, a mass of 0.583 g of PbI2 is measured.

Determine the percentage yield of PbI2

Solution
Step 1: (balance chemical equation)
Pb(NO3) + 2KI → PbI2 + 2KNO3

Step 2: (convert all given information to mole)

m 0,75
n(KI) = = = 4,52 x10-3 mol
M 166

Step 3: (use stoichiometric ratio)

From the balance equation:
(n)KI : (n)PbI2
2 :1
4.52x10-3 :?
1
(n)PbI2 = (4,52 x10-3 ) = 2,26 x10-3 mol
2

Step 4: (convert the number of moles to mass)

m
n=
M
-3 m
2,26 x10 =
461
m = 1,04 g

Step 5: (percentage yield)

actual yield mass
Percentage yield = X100
theoretical yeild mass
0,583
= x100
1,04
= 56,1%

64
Worked Example 11
A sample of NaNO3(s) of mass 4,25 g was heated and 500 cm3 of O2(g) was collected at STP. The chemical reaction that
takes place is:

2NaNO3(s) → 2NaNO2(g) + O2(g)

Calculate the:
10.1) Theoretical volume of O2(g) that was formed
10.2) Percentage yield of O2(g)

Solutions
11.1) ) M(NaNO3 ) = 23+14+16×3 = 85 g∙mol-1
m
n=
M
4,25
n=
85
= 0,05 mol
n(NaNO3 ) : n(O2)
2:1
0,05
n(O2) =
2
= 0,025 mol
Volume of oxygen produced:
V(O2) = nVm
V(O2) = 0,025 × 22,4
= 0,56 dm3

11.2) Actual Volume

%yield = ×100%
Theoretical Volume
0,50
= ×100%
0,56
= 89,29%

Stoichiometric calculations summary

Mass
Mass m
m
n= n=
M M
Reactant Balanced Product Concentration
Concentration Moles moles
equation
n n
c= c=
V V
Limiting and Excess Reagents
Volume Volume
pV=nRT pV=nRT

65
ACTIVITIES – QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS
QUESTION 1: MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the answer and write only the letter (A−D) next to the question numbers.
1.1 ….of a gas is the volume of one mole of a gas at STP.
A. Molar mass
B. Molar volume
C. Atomic weight
D. Molar weight (2)

1.2 Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of…
A. protons.
B. neutrons.
C. electrons.
D. molecules. (2)

1.3 How many moles of chloride ions are present in 111 g of calcium chloride?
A. 0,5
B. 2
C. 1
D. 1,47 (2)

1.4 What amount of oxygen gas (in moles) contains 1,8 x 1022 molecules?
A. 0,03
B. 33,34
C. 1,2 X 1024
D. 1,08 X046 (2)
1.5 The molecular formula of a compound is C6H12O2
A. C3H6O
B. C3H12O2
C. C12H24O4
D. C2H4O (2)
[10]

QUESTION 2 – CONCENTRATION
2.1 Learners prepare a solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in water by placing 8 g of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) in a volumetric flask and adding water to produce 250 cm3 of solution after stirring.

2.1.1 Define the term concentration. (2)

2.1.2 Calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in solution. (4)

2.2 Sodium azide (Na3N) is used in car airbags. For the airbag to inflate, the following reaction must take
place:
2Na3N (s) 6Na (s) + N2 (g)
Calculate the volume of nitrogen gas (N2) that would be produced at STP if 55 g of sodium azide reacts
completely. (5)
[11]
QUESTION 3 – EMPIRICAL FORMULA
3.1 Methyl propanoate is an organic compound with the following percentage composition:
54,55% C; 9,09% H; 36,36% O
The molar mass of the compound is 88 g∙mol-1

66
 3.1.1 Define the empirical formula. (2)
3.1.2 Determine, by calculation, the empirical formula. (6)
3.1.3 Determine the molecular formula. (2)

3.2 In order to determine the empirical and molecular formulae of a compound, C xHy, a certain mass of
compound is burnt completely in excess oxygen to produce 47,1 g CO 2 and 19,35 g H2O as the only
products.

3.2.1 Use relevant calculations to determine the empirical formula of the compound. (8)
3.2.2 Determine by calculations, the values of x and y if molar mass of the compound is 28 g∙mol-
1. (2)
[20]

QUESTION 4 – COMPLEX STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS

4.1 A sample of IMPURE calcium carbonate (limestone) of unknown mass required a continuous supply of
strong heat to decompose according to the following equation:
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Upon completion of the reaction, 11.76g of CaO was obtained, and the percentage purity of calcium
carbonate was found to be 80%.
Calculate the mass of impure calcium carbonate. (6)

4.2 During a chemical reaction, 7,62 g potassium was added to a test tube containing 4,34 g molten sulphur.
The potassium and the sulphur reacted to form a potassium sulphide according to the following balanced
equation:
2K(S) + S(s) → K2S(S)

4.2.1 Calculate the number of moles of potassium. (3)

4.2.2 Determine the limiting reagent. (5)
4.2.3 Calculate the mass of K2S produced (3)

4.3 During the reaction in an experiment, a learner adds 500 cm 3 of hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) with a
concentration of 0,36 mol∙dm-3 to 1,2 g of magnesium in a test tube.
She records the change in the mass of magnesium as the reaction proceeds at regular intervals. The
balanced chemical equation for the reaction is:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

The mass change of magnesium graph is shown on the graph below.

Use the graph given to answer following questions.

4.3.1 Identify the limiting agent in the reaction. Give a reason for your answer. (2)
4.3.2 Calculate the number of moles of unreacted hydrochloric acid in 3 minutes.
(5)
4.4 An excess of Pb(NO3)2 reacts with 0,75 g of KI according to the reaction:
Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → PbI2 + 2KNO3
After titration and drying, a mass of 0,583 g of PbI2 is measured.

67
 Determine the percentage yield of PbI2 (6)

4.5 Zinc reacts with sulphuric acid according to the reaction below.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
The mass of zinc is recorded during the experiment and is shown on the graph below. The reaction stops
after 2 minutes.

4.5.1 Name the substance that is the limiting reagent.

Give a reason for your answer. (2)
4.5.2 Calculate the initial concentration of the sulphuric acid if 50 cm3 of the acid was used.
(5)

4.6 Decomposing hydrogen peroxide in the presence of a catalyst at a specific pressure and room
temperature is given by the unbalanced chemical equation below:
H2O2 H2O + O2
Oxygen gas is collected, and the volume is recorded over time (s). The results are then used to draw
the graph below.

Take the molar gas volume (Vm) to be 24,45 dm3 at room temperature and standard pressure.

4.6.1 Balance the equation given above. (2)

4.6.2 Using the information from the graph, calculate the mass of hydrogen peroxide that
decomposed. (5)
[44]
QUESTION 5 – PERCENTAGE PURITY
15 g of impure Mg(OH)2 was reacted with excess phosphoric acid to produce 16 g of Mg3(PO4)2 according to the
following balanced equation:
3Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2H3PO4 (aq) → Mg3(PO4)2 (s) + 6H2O (l)

5.1 Calculate the percentage purity of the Mg(OH)2. (5)

5.2 If 20 g of the same impure Mg(OH)2 was used in the above reaction, how will each of the following be
affected?
Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES, or REMAINS THE SAME.
5.2.1 The mass of Mg3(PO4)2 produced. (1)
5.2.2 The percentage purity of the Mg(OH)2. (1)
5.3 Explain the answer to QUESTION 5.2.2. (2)
5.4 A 5 g of impure magnesium carbonate (MgCO3), is added to 9,033 x 1022 molecules of hydrochloric acid
(HCl), according to the following balanced equation:

68
 MgCO3 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The reaction is allowed to proceed until all the pure magnesium carbonate Completely reacts. The excess
hydrochloric acid is neutralised by adding 55 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution of concentration 0,8
mol∙dm-3. The balance equation for neutralisation reaction is:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Calculate the:
5.4.1 Initial number of moles of hydrochloric acid (3)
5.4.2 Percentage purity of magnesium carbonate (8)
[20]

QUESTION 6
The fizz produced when an antacid dissolve in water is caused by the reaction between sodium hydrogen
carbonate (NaHCO3) and citric acid (H3C6H5O7). The balanced equation for the reaction is:
3NaHCO3(aq) + H3C6H5O7(aq) → Na3C6H5O7(aq) +3CO2(g) + 3H2O (l)

6.1 Write down the formula of the substance that causes the fizz when the antacid dissolves in water.
(1)
6.2 A certain antacid contains 1,8 g of H3C6H5O7 and 3,36 g of NaHCO3. The antacid is dissolved in
100 cm3 distilled water in a beaker.

6.2.1 Define 1 mole of a substance. (2)

6.2.2 Calculate the number of moles of NaHCO3 in the antacid. (3)
6.2.3 Determine, using calculations, which substance is the limiting reagent. (4)
6.2.4 Calculate the mass of the reactant in excess. (3)
6.2.5 Calculate the mass decrease of the beaker contents on completion of the reaction.
(3)
[16]
QUESTION 7
7.1 Compound Q (CXHY) reacts with oxygen according to the balanced equation:

P CXHY + 13 O2 → 8 CO2 + 10 H2O

The molar mass of compound Q is 58 g·mol-1.

7.1.1 Define empirical formula. (2)

7.1.2 Use the principle of conservation of mass and determine the value P. (3)

The percentage composition of compound Q is:

Carbon Hydrogen
82,76% 17,24%

7.1.3 Determine the molecular formula of compound Q. (5)

7.2 5 g of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) reacts with 250 cm3 of hydrochloric acid (HCℓ).

Na2CO3(s) + 2HCℓ(aq) → 2NaCℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)

The percentage of hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) that reacted with sodium carbonate (Na 2CO3) is 76%.
7.2.1 Define the term limiting reagent. (2)
Calculate the:
7.2.2 Amount of hydrochloric acid that reacted with sodium carbonate (4)
7.2.3 Volume of carbon dioxide that was produced (4)

69
 Take the molar gas volume at room temperature as 24,24 dm3
7.2.4 The hydrochloric acid that was used in the reaction was obtained by diluting 100 cm 3
HCℓ to 250 cm3 hydrochloric acid (HCℓ) solution.
Calculate the concentration of the concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCℓ).
(4)
[24]
ENERGY AND CHEMICAL CHANGE

Enthalpy: The total energy of a system.

Heat of Reaction (∆H): The energy absorbed or released per mole in a chemical reaction.
Energy is absorbed to break bonds; energy is released when bonds form.
• Exothermic reactions: Reactions that release energy.
o Bond forming is exothermic.
• Endothermic reactions: Reactions that absorb energy.
o Bond breaking is endothermic.

Calculating Changes in Enthalpy from Bond Energies

Change in Enthalpy (∆H) = Energy needed to break bonds – Energy released when bonds form
∆ H= Energyabsorbed - Energy released

If ∆H < 0 (negative): Exothermic reaction If ∆H > 0 (positive): Endothermic reaction

Calculating Energy Required from Change in Enthalpy

Energy released = n x ∆H (where n represents number of moles (mol))

Examples of Exothermic and Endothermic reactions

Exothermic Reactions
• Respiration: Energy is released for the organism to carry out its life processes.
C6H12O6 + O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
• Combustion of fuels (Wool, coal, petrol, alcohol): Energy is released into the surroundings as “heat of combustion”.
• Heat/ hot patches: Energy is released to dilate blood vessels to promote blood flow and help relax muscles.

Endothermic Reactions
• Photosynthesis: Light energy from the sun is absorbed by the plant.
CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
• Cold patches/ packs: Heat energy is absorbed when cooling injuries and reduces swelling.

Activation energy: The minimum energy required for a reaction to take place.
Activated complex: The unstable transition from reactants to products.
Catalyst/ Positive Catalyst: A chemical substance that speeds up a chemical reaction (without itself being used up in the
reaction) by lowering the activation energy.

Energy Graphs/ Profiles

∆ H= Hproducts - H reactants

N.B. ∆H does not change with the addition of a catalyst, ONLY activation energy and energy of the activated complex is
decreased.

70
Forward reaction: The reaction of the reactants to form products. (Left to Right)
Reverse reaction: The reaction of the products to form reactants. (Right to Left)
If the forward reaction is endothermic, the reverse will be exothermic and vice versa.
∆H will be the same but with opposite signs.

WORKED EXAMPLES
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.
Consider the following reaction and bond energy values:
3H2 + N2 → 2NH3 (H – H 436 kJ.mol-1, N ≡ N 946 kJ.mol-1, N – H 389 kJ.mol-1)
1.1. Calculate the enthalpy change by making use of bond energy values. (4)
Energy absorbed = 3(H – H) + (N ≡ N)
Energy absorbed = 3(436) + 946 ✓ = 2254 kJ.mol-1
Energy released = 6(N – H)
Energy released = 6 (389) ✓ = 2334 kJ.mol-1
∆ H = 2254 – 2334 ✓ = - 80 kJ.mol-1✓
1.2. Identify whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic. Provide a reason for your answer. (2)
Exothermic✓ ∆ H < 0 / ∆ H is negative✓
1.3. Determine the energy released when 10 g of N2 completely reacts. (5)
m 10
n= ✓ = ✓ =0,357142857 mol
M 28
Energyreleased =n∆H ✓
Energyreleased =(0,357142857)(80)✓=28,57 kJ ✓

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.
The diagram shows the potential energy changes during the following chemical reaction: 2 H 2 (g) + Cℓ2 (g) → 2 HCℓ (g)

71
2.1. Is the reaction EXOTHERMIC or ENDOTHERMIC? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
Exothermic✓ Enthalpy of products is less than enthalpy of reactants ✓
2.2. What is the total bond energy (H2 and Cℓ2) of the reactants? Give a reason (3)
for the answer.
679,1 kJ·mol-1 ✓
The energy needed to break all the bonds✓✓ / Activation energy
2.3. Determine the energy released by the bond formation of the HCℓ molecule. (2)
Bond formation/ = 184,7 + 679,1✓= 863,8 kJ·mol-1 ✓
2.4. What effect will adding a catalyst have on the value 184,7 kJ·mol -1? Write down only (2)
INCREASE, DECREASE or NO EFFECT. Give a reason for the answer.
No effect. ✓
Catalyst only has an effect on the activation energy and no effect on the heat of the reaction ✓

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.
The decomposition of hydrogen iodide into hydrogen and iodine can be represented as follows: 2HI(g) → H2(g) +
I2(g) ∆H = +21 kJ.mol-1
3.1 Calculate the amount of energy needed to decompose 50 g of HI. (5)
m 50
n= ✓ = ✓ =0,390625 mol
M 128
21
∆H per mol HI= - ✓ =10,5 kJ.mol-1
2
Energyrequired =n∆H
Energyrequired =(0,390625)(10,5)✓=4,10 kJ ✓

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1 When sulphuric acid reacts with water, the temperature of the reaction mixture increases. Which (2)
ONE of the following correctly describes the heat of the reaction (∆H) between sulphuric acid
and water from the graph below?

A P3 – P2
B P1 – P2
C P3 – P1
D P2 – P1

2 The activation energy for the forward reaction of the reaction below is 230 kJ.mol-1. A2 + (2)
B2 → 2C ∆H = +150 kJ.mol-1

72
 What is the activation energy of the reverse reaction in kJ.mol-1?

A 380
B 230
C 150
D 80

3 In a chemical reaction, the difference between the potential energy of the products and the (2)
potential energy of reactants is equal to:

A Enthalpy of the reaction

B Rate of reaction
C Enthalpy change of reaction
D Total potential energy of the particles
[6]

QUESTION 1
1. The equation for combustion of butane gas is given below.
butane (g)+13O2 →8CO2 (g)+10H2 O ∆H<0
1.1. Define the term activation energy . (2)
1.2. Is the combustion reaction of butane exothermic or endothermic? Give a reason for the answer, (2)
1.3. Draw a sketch graph of potential energy versus course of the reaction for the reaction. (3)
Clearly indicate the following on the graph:
• Activation energy
• Heat of reaction (∆𝐻)
• Reactants and products
[7]

QUESTION 2
2. The following reaction between ammonia and oxygen takes place in a closed system of constant pressure
and temperature:
4 NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

2.1. Define activated complex. (2)

2.2. Give reason why this reaction is exothermic. (1)
2.3. What is the total bond energy of 𝑁𝐻3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂2 (the reactants) give reason for your answer. (3)
2.4. Determine the energy released by bond formation of NO and H20 (2)
2.5. Calculate the heat of reaction. (3)
2.6. Redraw the graph and indicate with a dotted line the effect of catalyst on the activation energy. (2)
[13]

QUESTION 3 (8 MARKS)
3. The balanced equation for the reaction of carbon with steam is as follows:
C(s)+H2 O(g)→CO(g)+H2 (g)
The graph below, NOT drawn to scale, represents the change in potential energy of substances during the
reaction.

73
3.1. Define heat of reaction. (2)
3.2. Is the reaction ENDOTHERMIC or EXOTHEMIC? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
3.3. Use the information on the graph and write down the value of the
3.3.1 Activation energy. (2)
3.3.2. Heat of reaction. (2)
[8]

QUESTION 4 (10 MARKS)

4. Learners study ENDOTHERMIC and EXOTHERMIC reactions by conducting experiments 𝚰 and 𝚰𝚰 in which
the reactions shown in the table below take place.

The learners measured the initial and the final temperatures of the reaction mixtures. They also obtained
activation energies for the reactions from a data table.
The learners represented their findings in a table as shown below.

4.1. Define ENDOTHERMIC reaction (1)

4.2. In which experiment (𝚰 and 𝚰𝚰) is the reaction EXOTHERMIC? Explain your answer. (2)
4.3. Is the heat of reaction, ∆𝐻, POSITIVE or NEGATIVE for an EXOTHERMIC reaction? (1)
4.4. Write down the general name of a substance that can be added to the reaction mixture in the (1)
experiment( 𝚰𝚰) to reduce the activation energy.
4.5. Both reactions produce the same number of moles of oxygen gas. (2)
How does the mass of 𝐻2 𝑂2 used in experiment 𝚰 compare the mass of 𝐻2 𝑂 used in experiment
𝚰𝐈 ?
Write down only SMALLER THAN, LARGER THAN or THE SAME.
4.6. Draw a potential energy versus time graph for the reaction in experiment 𝚰𝐈. (3)
The following must be shown on the graph.
• Heat of reaction (∆𝐻)
• Activation energy (𝐸𝑎 )
[10]

74
QUESTION 5
5. Consider the decompositions reaction of dinitrogen pentoxide:
2N2 O5 (g)→2N2 O4 (g)+O2 (g)
The table below shows the different energies for the above reaction.

5.1. Define the term catalyst. (2)

5.2. Is the above reactions ENDOTHERMIC or EXOTHERMIC? Give reason for your answer. (2)
5.3. Calculate the heat of products. (2)
5.4. Draw the potential energy versus course of the reaction graph for the above reaction. (5)
On the graph indicate values for:
• Heat of reactants(Hreactants)
• Heat of products(Hproducts)
• Energy at the activated complex
• Heat of reaction (∆𝐻)
5.5. On the same graph drawn in QUESTION 5.4, use a dotted line and draw the shape of the graph (2)
when a catalyst is added to the original reaction.
[13]

TYPES OF REACTIONS

1. ACIDS AND BASES

Define acids and bases according to Arrhenius and Lowry-Brønsted:
Arrhenius theory:
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+)/hydronium ions (𝐻3 𝑂+ ) when it dissolves in water.
A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions (𝑂𝐻 − ) when it dissolves in water.
Lowry-Brønsted theory:
An acid is a proton/H+ ion donor.
A base is a proton/H+ ion acceptor.

Common acids: hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulphuric acid and ethanoic acid (acetic acid).
Common bases: ammonia, sodium carbonate (washing soda), sodium hydrogen carbonate, sodium hydroxide (caustic
soda) and potassium hydroxide.

1.1. Strength of acid and base

STRONG ACIDS STRONG BASES

HCℓ – Hydrochloric acid monoprotic) NaOH – Sodium hydroxide
HNO3 – Nitric acid (monoprotic KOH – Potassium hydroxide
H2SO4 – Sulphuric acid (diprotic LiOH – Lithium hydroxide
H3PO4 – Phosphoric acid (triprotic) Ba(OH)2 – Barium hydroxide
WEAK ACIDS WEAK BASES
CH3COOH – Acetic acid NH3 – Ammonia
(COOH)2 – Oxalic acid Zn(OH)2 – Zinc hydroxide
Na2CO3 – Sodium carbonate

• Strong acids ionise completely in water to form a high concentration of 𝐻3 𝑂 + ions.

• Weak acids ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of 𝐻3 𝑂 + ions.
• Strong bases dissociate completely in water to form a high concentration of 𝑂𝐻 − ions.

75
• Weak bases dissociate/ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of 𝑂𝐻 − ions.
o Concentrated and dilute acids/bases.
• Concentrated acids/bases contain a large amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to volume of water.
• Dilute acids/bases contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to volume of water.

Concentrated solution Dilute solution

Water Water

Acid/Base Acid/Base

Dilutions : C1V1 = C2V2 V2 = V1 + Vwater (Note: to calculate V2)

Example:

Calculate how much water must be added to 30 cm3 of a 0.2 mol.dm-3 HCl solution to change the concentration to 0.03
mol.dm-3.

Solution
C1V1 = C2V2
0.2 × 0.03 = 0.03𝑉2
0.006
𝑉2 =
0.03
𝑉2 = 0.2𝑑𝑚−3 therefore the volume of water to be added is:𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉𝐻2𝑂
𝑉𝐻2𝑂 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 =0.2-0.03
𝑉𝐻2𝑂 = 0.17𝑑𝑚3
o Reaction equations of aqueous solutions of acids and bases.
Examples:

Ionisation equations.

HCℓ(g) + H2O(ℓ) → 𝐻3 𝑂 + (aq) + 𝐶𝑙 − ( (aq) (HCℓ is a monoprotic acid.)

NH3(g) + H2O(ℓ) → NH3 (aq) +𝑂𝐻 − (aq)
H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ) → 2𝐻3 𝑂+ (aq) + HSO4− (aq) (H2SO4 is a diprotic acid.)

Dissociation equations

+ −
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
+ −
𝐾𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐾(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
2+ −
𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑀𝑔(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)

o Identifying conjugate acid-base pairs.

When the acid, HA, loses a proton, its conjugate base, A-, is formed. When the base, A-, accepts a proton, its conjugate
acid, HA, is formed. These two are a conjugate acid-base pair.
Example
(I) HCℓ(g) + H2O(ℓ) → 𝐻3 𝑂+ (aq) + 𝐶𝑙 − (aq)
Acid 1 Base 2 Acid 2 Base 1

(II) NH3(g) + H2O(ℓ) → 𝑁𝐻4+ (aq) + 𝑂𝐻 − (aq)

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 Base 2 Acid 1 Acid 2 Base 1

(III) 𝐻𝑆𝑂4− aq) + H2O(ℓ) → 𝐻3 𝑂 + (aq) + 𝑆𝑂42− (aq)

Acid 1 Base 2 Acid 2 Base 1

(IV) 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (aq) + H2O(ℓ) → 𝐻3 𝑂 + (aq) + 𝐻𝑆𝑂4− (aq)

Acid 1 Base 2 Acid 2 Base 1

o Ampholytes

• Substance that can act as either acid or a base.

• Water is a good example of an ampholyte substance in reaction (I) water act as a base receiving a proton but in
reaction (II) water act as an acid donating a proton when reacting with ammonia.
• 𝐻𝑆𝑂4− is also an ampholyte because in reaction (III) it act as an acid but in reaction (IV) it act as an base and accepts
a proton.

o Neutralisation reactions of common laboratory acids and bases.

General equations

When an acid reacts with a metal hydroxide a salt and water are formed. The salt is made up of a cation from the base
and an anion from the acid.
Acid + metal hydroxide (base) → salt + water
Eg. H2SO4 (aq) + Mg(OH)2 (aq) →MgSO4 (aq) + 2H2O (ℓ)

HCℓ(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

HCℓ(aq) + KOH(aq) → KCℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)

When an acid reacts with a metal oxide a salt and water are formed. An example is the reaction between magnesium
oxide (MgO) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Acid + metal oxide → salt + water
E.g. 2HCℓ(aq) + CaO(aq) → CaCℓ2(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
2HCℓ(aq) + MgO(aq) → MgCℓ2(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
2HCℓ(aq) + MgO(aq) → MgCℓ2(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
2HCℓ(aq) + CuO(aq) → CuCℓ2(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate a salt, water and carbon dioxide are formed. An example is the reaction
between calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and HCℓ
Acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
E.g. 2HCℓ (aq) + CaCO3 (s) → CaCℓ2(aq) + H2O (ℓ) + CO2(g)
2HCℓ(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → 2NaCℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)

o Indicators

An indicator is a compound that changes colour according to the pH of the substance. During titrations, the indicator
needs to be selected according to the acidity/alkalinity of the salt that will be produced (see hydrolysis).

77
 INDICATOR COLOUR IN COLOUR IN COLOUR AT PH RANGE OF
ACID BASE EQUIVALENCE EQUIVALENCE
POINT
Litmus Red Blue 4,5 - 8,3
Methyl orange Red Yellow Orange 3,1 - 4,4
Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue Green 6,0 - 7,6

Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Pale Pink 8,3 - 10,0

pH calculation

• Explain the pH scale as a scale of numbers from 0 to 14 used to express the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
• Calculate pH values of strong acids and strong bases using pH = -log[𝐻3 𝑂+ ].
• Explain the auto-ionisation of water, i.e. the reaction of water with itself to form H3O+ ions and OH- ions.
To calculate the pH of a solution the concentration of 𝐻3 𝑂+ must be known or be determined. The reaction of
water with itself produces 𝐻3 𝑂+ and OH- ions, it is called the auto-ionisation of water. The equation is given
below:
H2O (l) +H2O(l) ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂+ (aq) +𝑂𝐻 − (aq)
neutral solution [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = [OH-] = 1×10-7 mol·dm-3
acidic solution [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] > 1×10-7 mol·dm-3 and [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] > [OH-]
basic solution [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] < 1×10-7and [𝐻3 𝑂 + ] < [𝑂𝐻 − ]
Calculate pH values of strong acids and strong bases using pH = -log[𝐻3 𝑂+ ].

Steps to calculate pH of acids

1. Write down a balanced equation for the ionisation reaction of the acid (reaction with water)
2. Use ratios to determine the concentration of [𝐻3 𝑂+ ]
3. Substitute the concentration of [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] in the formula pH = -log[𝐻3 𝑂 + ]
Example 1
A few drops of bromothymol blue indicator are added to a potassium hydroxide solution in a beaker. A dilute sulphuric
acid solution is now gradually added to this solution until the colour of the indicator changes.
Write down the:
1. Colour change of the indicator
Solution: green
Activity 1
1. Identify the conjugate acid base pair for the reactions below
1.1. H2CO3 + H2O → 𝐻3 𝑂 + + HCO3− (2)
1.2. H2O + HCO3− → 𝐻3 𝑂 + + 𝐶𝑂32− (2)
+ 2−
1.3. H2SO4 + 2H2O → 2𝐻3 𝑂 + 𝑆𝑂4 (2)
Solutions 1
1.
1.1. H2CO3 is the conjugate acid of HCO3− (base) ✓ (2)
−
𝑂𝐻 is the conjugate base of H2O (acid) ✓
1.2. HCO3− is a conjugate acid of 𝐶𝑂32− base ✓ (2)
𝐻3 𝑂 + is a conjugate acid of H2O base. ✓
1.3. 𝑆𝑂42− is a conjugate base for H2SO4 acid✓ (2)
𝐻3 𝑂+ is a conjugate acid for H2O base✓
Activity 2
2. Calculate the pH of a 0,25 mol·dm-3 H2SO4 solution (4)
Solutions

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2. H2SO4(aq) + H2O(ℓ) ⇌ 2𝐻3 𝑂+ (aq) + 𝑆𝑂42− (aq) (4)

0,25 mol·dm-3 2(0,25) mol·dm-3 (1:2 ratio) ✓

(diprotic acid)
Marking criteria tick
Ratio 1(H2SO4): 2(𝐻3 𝑂 + ) ✓
Formula pH = -log [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] ✓
Correct Substitution ✓
Correct Answer ✓

[𝐻3 𝑂 + ] = 0,5 mol·dm-3

pH = -log [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] ✓
= -log (0,5) ✓
= 0,301✓
Activity 3
The reaction between a sulphuric acid (H2SO4) solution and a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution is
investigated using the apparatus illustrated below.

3.

3.1 Write down the name of the experimental procedure illustrated above. (1)
3.2 What is the function of the burette? (1)
3.3 Define an acid in terms of the Arrhenius theory. (2)
3.4 Give a reason why sulphuric acid is regarded as a strong acid. (1)
3.5 Bromothymol blue is used as indicator. Write down the colour change that will take place in the (1)
Erlenmeyer flask on reaching the endpoint of the titration. Choose from the following:
BLUE TO YELLOW YELLOW TO BLUE GREEN TO YELLOW
3.6 During the titration a learner adds 25 cm3 of NaOH(aq) of concentration 0,1 mol·dm-3 to an
Erlenmeyer flask and titrates this solution with H 2SO4 (aq) of concentration 0,1 mol·dm-3 . The
balanced equation for the reaction that takes place is:
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)
3.6.1 Determine the volume of H2SO4(aq) which must be added to neutralise the NaOH(aq) in the (4)
Erlenmeyer flask completely.
If the learner passes the endpoint by adding 5 cm3 of the same H2SO4(aq) in excess, follow the
questions below to calculate the pH of the solution in the flask.
3.6.2 Calculate initial number of moles of sulphuric acid (2)
3.6.3 Calculate the number of moles of sulphuric acid in excess (2)
3.6.4 Calculate the concentration of hydronium ion in excess (2)
3.6.5 Calculate the pH of the solution (3)

79
 NB!! YOU CAN BE ASKED TO CALCULATE THE pH OF THE SOLUTION WITHOUT BEING GIVEN
SUB-QUESTIONS. ENSURE YOU FOLLOW THE SAME ROUTINE.
3 Solution
3.1 Titration/Volumetric analysis ✓ (1)
3.2 To measure the (exact) volume of acid needed to reach endpoint/to neutralise the base. ✓ (1)
3.3 Acids produce hydrogen ions (H+ )/hydronium ions (H3O+ ) in solution/water. ✓✓ (2)
3.4 H2SO4 ionises completely. ✓ (1)
3.5 Blue to yellow✓ (1)
3.6.1 OPTION 1 OPTION 2
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑐𝑎 𝑣𝑎 𝑛𝑎
= ✓
𝑛
𝑐𝑏 = ✓ ∴ 0.1 =
𝑛
✓ ∴ 𝑛𝑏 = 2.5 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑐𝑏 𝑣𝑏 𝑛𝑏
𝑉 0.025 0.1𝑣𝑎 1
∴ = ✓
(0.1)(25) 2
𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 ∴ 𝑣𝑎 = 0.125𝑑𝑚3 ✓
𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
1 1
𝑛𝑎 = 𝑛𝑏 = (2.5 × 10−3 )✓ = 1.25 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
2 2
𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅
𝑛 1.25×10−3
𝑐𝑎 = ∴ 0.1 = ∴ 𝑉 = 0.0125𝑑𝑚3 ✓
𝑉 𝑉
3.6.2 𝑛 = 𝑐 × 𝑣 = 0.1 × 0.0175✓ = 1.75 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠✓ (2)
3.6.3 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 − 𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 (2)
∴ 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 1.75 × 10−3 − 1.25 × 10−3 ✓
∴ 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 5 × 10−4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠✓
3.6.4 5 × 10−4 (2)
[H3 O+ ] = 2(𝑐𝑎 ) = 2 ( ) = 2 × 1.18 × 10−2 ✓ = 2.36 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚3 ✓
4.25 × 10−2

3.6.5 pH = −log [H3 O+ ] ✓ (3)

= log(2.36 × 10−2 ) ✓
= 1.63 ✓
ACIDS AND BASES
QUESTION 1: Multiple choice questions
1.1 Consider the equilibrium H2SO4 + HSO3− ⇌ HSO4− + H2SO3.
The two Lowry-Brønsted bases are: (conjugates)
A HSO4− and H2SO4
B HSO3− and HSO4−
C HSO3− and H2SO3
D HSO4− and H2SO3 (2)
1.2 Water can act as either an acid or a base. Which equation represents water reacting as an acid? (donating
proton)
A H2O(ℓ) + NH3(g) ⇌ 𝑂𝐻 − (aq) + 𝑁𝐻4+ (aq)
B H2O(ℓ) + HCℓ(aq) ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂 + (aq) + 𝐶𝑙 − (aq)
C H2O(ℓ) ⇌ H2(g) + ½O2(g)
D H2O(ℓ) + C(s) ⇌ CO(g) + H2(g) (2)
1.3 Consider the following equilibrium: HC2O-4 + HCO− 3 ⇌ H 2CO 3 + C O2−
2 4
Which ONE of the following CORRECTLY identifies the order of Lowry-Brønsted acids and bases in the above
reaction? (conjugates)
A Base, acid, acid, base
B Acid, base, base, acid
C Acid, base, acid, base

80
 D Base, acid, base, acid (2)
1.4 Which ONE of the reactions below will produce the salt sodium ethanoate (sodium acetate)? (acid and base
salts formation)
A HCℓ(s) + CH3COOH(aq) →
B CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(ℓ) →
C CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) →
D H2CO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → (2)
1.5 If base P is titrated against acid Q, the pH of the solution at the end point is 9.
Which ONE of the following combinations CORRECTLY represents base P and acid Q?
BASE P ACID Q (2)
A KOH HNO3
B NaHCO3 HCl
C NH3 H2SO4
D NaOH CH3COOH
[10]
QUESTION 2 (conjugates and ampholytes)
NH4+ ions are mixed with HCO− 3 ions.
2.1 Write a balanced equation for the reaction that takes place (3)
2.2 Define the term conjugate acid−base pair (2)
2.3 Identify the two bases in the above reaction (2)
2.4 The hydrogen sulphate ion can act as both an acid and a base. It reacts with water according to the
following balanced equation.

𝐻𝑆𝑂4− + H2O → H2SO4 + 𝑂𝐻 −

2.4.1 Write down ONE word for the underlined sentence (1)
2.4.2 Show with the aid of equations that 𝐻𝑆𝑂4− can act as a base or acid (4)
[12]
QUESTION 3 (interpretation and stoichiometry calculations)
3.1 Two reactions of sulphuric acid are shown in the diagram below.

3.1.1 Define a Lowry-Brønsted base. (2)

3.1.2 Write down a balanced equation for Reaction 1 (3)
3.1.3 Write down the NAME of the salt represented by X (2)
3.1.4 Write down the FORMULA of ampholyte A (2)
3.1.5 Write down the formulae of the TWO conjugate acid-base pairs in Reaction 2.
(4)
3.2 A solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is prepared by dissolving 6 g solid NaOH in 500 cm 3 water.
This solution reacts completely with 10 g impure ammonium chloride (NH4Cℓ) according to the equation below.
NaOH(aq) + NH4Cℓ(s) → NaCℓ(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + NH3(aq)
3.2.1 Calculate the concentration of the NaOH solution. (4)
3.2.2 Calculate the percentage impurities in the NH4Cℓ (6)
[23]

81
QUESTION 4 (Strength and titration stochiometry)
Three test-tubes A ,B and C contain three solutions :HCl(aq), 0.12 mol.dm -3 CH3COOH and 0.12 mol.dm-3 K2CO3
respectively as indicated below

4.1 Which of these solutions

4.1.1 Is a strong acid (1)
4.1.2 Is an organic acid (1)
4.1.3 Will turn red litmus paper blue (1)
4.2 Solution A is formed when hydrogen chloride gas is added in water
4.2.1 Write down the balanced equation for the reaction taking place here (3)
4.3 You are required to prepare 200 cm3 of solution C. Calculate the mass of solute that must be used. (4)
4.4 In a titration ,25.10 cm3 of solution B is neutralised by unknown volume of solution C in the presence
of an indicator.
The following reaction takes place.

2CH3COOH (aq) + KOH (aq) →2CH3COOK(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)

4.4.1 What is an indicator (1)

4.4.2 Calculate the volume of solution C that was neutralised (4)
4.5 Write down the balance equation for each of the following reactions using appropriate chemical
formulae
4.5.1 Magnesium + solution A (4)
4.5.2 MgO + H2O → (2)
4.6 You are required to prepare some sodium sulphate in the laboratory using acid and a base.
4.6.1 Name the acid and base that you would use. (2)
4.6.2 Write down the balanced equation for the reaction that will take place (3)
[26]
QUESTION 5 (pH calculations and diprotic acid)
5.1 Define an acid in terms of the Lowry-Brønsted theory. (2)
5.2 Carbonated water is an aqueous solution of carbonic acid, H2CO3. H2CO3 (aq) ionises in two steps
when it dissolves in water.
5.2.1 Write down the FORMULA of the conjugate base of H2CO3(aq). (1)
5.2.2 Write down a balanced equation for the first step in the ionisation of carbonic acid. (3)
5.2.3 The pH of a carbonic acid solution at 25 °C is 3,4. Calculate the hydronium ions (3)
concentration in the solution.
[9]
QUESTION 6 (pH calculations)
6.1 A laboratory technician prepares the following two dilute nitric acid solutions:
0,20 mol.dm-3 HNO3 solution ……………………...(I)
0,30 mol.dm-3 HNO3 solution ……………………...(II)

82
 6.1.1 Distinguish between a concentrated acid and a dilute acid. (2)
6.1.2 Give a reason why nitric acid is classified as a strong acid. (2)
6.1.3 Determine the pH of solution (I) at 25 °C . (3)
[7]

IDEAL GASES AND THERMAL PROPERTIES

According to the Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT), molecules of a gas:

• Have the highest kinetic energy (move the fastest with different speeds)
• Are further apart, forces of attraction are very weak
• Easy to compress
• Exert pressure when they collide with each other and the sides of the container
F
o Pressure is the force per unit area. p= (p ∝number of collisions)
A

Ideal Gases
Molecules of an ideal gas:
• Are identical and in constant motion
• Are very small and do not occupy a volume (Gas volume is determined by the volume of the container)
• Exert no forces on each other and the sides of the container, except when they collide with each other or the sides
of the container
• Collisions are elastic (No energy is lost)
• Exert no pressure at 0K (0K – Absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature)

Temperature: The measure of the average kinetic energy of particles.

NB. T(K) = T(°C) + 273 T(°C) = T(K) – 273

Non-Ideal/ Real Gases deviate from ideal gas behaviour at: High Pressure and low temperature

Real gases act like ideal gases at (1) High Temperature and (2) Low Pressure

At high temperature: The gas molecules have higher average kinetic energies, they move faster and further apart so that
attractive forces become very weak.
At low pressure: Gas molecules move further apart, the forces of attraction are negligible, gas molecules will not
contribute to the volume.

83
Boyle’s Law
The pressure of an enclosed gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies at a constant temperature.
1
p∝
v

gradient=pV
k=pV
units of k=Pa × m3
units of k=N.m-2 × m3
units of k =N.m
units of k=J

Boyle’s Law Equation: p1 V1 =p2 V2

Common conversions:
kPa=1000 Pa 1cm3 =10-6 m3 1dm3 =10-3 m3

Boyle’s Law Apparatus

WORKED EXAMPLES
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.
An experiment was conducted to investigate the relationship between pressure and volume of a fixed gas at a constant
temperature of 20,5 °C.

The following graph was obtained from the results.

1.1. Write down the name of the law which formulates the pressure-volume relationship shown by the (1)
graph.
Boyle’s Law✓
1.2. Write down the investigative question for this experiment. (2)
What is the relationship between pressure and volume of enclosed gas at constant temperature? ✓✓
1.3. The experiment is repeated at a different temperature. The results of the experiment are plotted (3)
on the same axis.

84
 Which experiment (1 or 2) was carried out at a HIGHER temperature? Explain your answer.
Experiment 2✓
Kinetic energy of the molecules will be higher and they will move more freely✓ increasing the volume.✓
1.4. Explain why real gases deviate from ideal gas behaviour at high pressure. (2)
They occupy a volume ✓ and intermolecular forces become significant. ✓

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.
A group of learners perform an experiment to verify a gas law. The results are shown in the graph of pressure versus
inverse of volume drawn below.

2.1. Write a suitable hypothesis for the experiment. (2)

As the volume of a fixed mass of gas increases, the pressure decreases. ✓✓
2.2. For this experiment, identify the following:
2.2.1 Two controlled variables (2)
Mass of gas ✓ Temperature ✓
2.2.2 Dependent variable (1)
Pressure ✓
2.3. Calculate the volume occupied by the gas when the pressure exerted by the gas is 200 kPa. (3)
1
At 200 kPa: =6,7 x 10-2 ✓
V
1
∴v= ✓
6,7 x 10-2
v=14,93 cm3 ✓
2.4. Determine the pressure exerted by the gas when its volume is 11,11 cm3. (3)
p1 V1 =p2 V2 ✓
(120)(25)= p2 (11,11) ✓ Or any other correct combinations from the graph)
p2 =270,03 kPa ✓
2.5. State two properties of an ideal gas. (2)
Any two ✓✓
Are identical; Occupy no volume; Exert no forces on each other, except during collisions; All collisions are
elastic

85
WORKED EXAMPLE 3.
A sealed gas syringe laying on a table contains 80 cm 3 of air. The plunger is air-tight, but moves freely. The atmospheric
pressure is 100 kPa.
3.1 What is the pressure of the gas in the syringe? (1)
100 kPa ✓
3.2 What additional pressure has to be applied on the plunger so that the air is compressed to a (3)
volume of 50 cm3 while the temperature remains constant?
p1 V1 =p2 V2 ✓
(100)(80)= p1 (50) ✓
p1 =160 kPa ✓

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.
4.1 The diagram depicts two containers that are connected by a tube with a closed stopcock. (3)
Container A contains air at a pressure of 100 kPa. Container B is void of air. What will the pressure
in both containers be when the stopcock is opened, while the temperature remains constant?

p1 V1 =p2 V2 ✓
(100)(2)= p2 (3) ✓
p2 =66, 67 kPa ✓

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1 The sketch shows two containers, X and Y, connected by a tube containing a closed stopcock. (2)

The volume of container X is V and contains a gas at a pressure p. Container Y is evacuated. The
volume of the tube is negligible. When the stopcock is opened at constant temperature the
3
pressure of the gas in container X changes to p. What is the volume of container Y?
4

1
A v
3
2
B v
3
3
C v
4
4
D v
3

2 Air in a gas syringe is compressed to half its original volume while the temperature remains (2)
constant. Which one of the following combinations are CORRECT regarding the gas pressure
and the average speed of gas particles?
Pressure Average Speed of Gas Particles
A Increases Decreases
B Decreases Increases
C Increases Remains constant
D Decreases Remains constant

86
3 The graphs below for four gases: He, CO, CH4 and an ideal gas are shown below. Which graph (2)
CORRECTLY depicts He gas?

4 In an experiment to verify Boyle’s Law, learners are advised to wait for the oil on the inside of the (2)
glass tube to run down the sides because …

A it is a precaution to maintain constant temperature

B it allows for the pressure gauge to recalibrate
C it allows the oil to settle
D the gas needs to escape

5 The graph of p versus

1
is a straight line through the origin. The relationship between p and v is (2)
v
…

A a linear relationship
B directly proportional
C equivalent to each other
D inversely proportional
[10]

QUESTION 1
1. A certain amount of gas is sealed in a container of which the volume can change.
The relationship between the pressure and volume of the gas at 20 ºC is investigated. The results of the
experiment are given in the table below.

1.1. Name the gas law that is represented by the results of the experiment. (1)
1.2. Write down a hypothesis for the investigation. (2)
1.3. Draw a graph of volume versus pressure. (3)
1.4. Calculate the volume of the gas at 300 kPa. (3)
1.5. 3
When the volume of the gas is measured at 300 kPa, it is 44 dm . Explain why the measured (2)
volume differs from the volume calculated in QUESTION 1.4.

87
1.6. Which temperature condition will cause a gas to deviate from ideal behaviour? Write only HIGH (3)
or LOW. Explain your answer
1.7. Calculate the number of moles of the gas in the container at the INITIAL pressure and volume. (4)
[18]

QUESTION 2
2. The relationship between pressure and volume of an enclosed gas at 25 °C is
investigated. The results obtained are shown in the table below.

2.1. State Boyle`s law in words (2)

2.2. Use the data in the table above to draw a graph of pressure (p) versus the inverse of the volume (4)
1
( ).
𝑣
2.3. Which physical quantity can be determined from the gradient of the graph? Give a reason for your (2)
answer.
2.4. It is found that, at high pressures, the shape of the graph deviates from that of the graph obtained (3)
in question 2.2. Explain this deviation.
[13]
QUESTION 3
3. A group of learners investigate the relationship between pressure and the volume of an enclosed gas at room
temperature. They recorded their result in the table below:

3.1. For this investigation write down the :

3.1.1. Name of the gas law that is being investigated (1)
3.1.2. Controlled variable (1)
3.1.3. Relationship between pressure and volume of the gas as described by the first 3 data (2)
sets in the table.
3.2. Calculate the value of X. (4)
3.3. Write down TWO conditions under which real gases behave more like an ideal gas. (2)
3.4. Write down the NAME of a gas whose behaviour is close to that of an ideal gas, under the (1)
conditions mentioned on QUESTION 3.3. above.
[11]
QUESTION 4
4. A group of learners investigate the relationship between the pressure and the volume of a gas. The gas syringe
is connected to apparatus X as shown below.

88
 The learners vary the volume and record the pressure and volume. They calculated the inverse of the volume
and recorded it with its pressure readings in the table shown below.

4.1. Write down the mathematical relationship between pressure and volume. (1)
4.2. For this investigation, write down ONE controlled variable. (1)
4.3. Give the name of apparatus X. (1)
4.4. 1 (4)
Use the data in the table and draw a pressure against .
volume
4.5. Using the information from the graph write down the learner`s conclusion. (2)
4.6. Calculate the volume of the gas at pressure of 184 kPa. (4)
[13]
QUESTION 5
5. Learners investigated the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas. The graph below shows the
results obtained during the investigation.

5.1. Name and state the law the experiment is based on. (3)
5.2. Write down the hypothesis for this investigation. (2)
5.3. Read and write down the pressure from the graph when the volume is 12 cm3. (1)
5.4. Calculate the volume at 200 kPa. (4)
5.5. The above graph has been recopied, label it A on same set of axes and draw the graph to show (3)
how real gas will deviate at high pressure. Label this graph B.
[12]

89
REDOX REACTIONS
Definitions and Key Concepts

Oxidation numbers of atoms in molecules

• Explain the meaning of oxidation number.
• Assign oxidation numbers to atoms in various ions and molecules, e.g. H 2O, CH4, CO2, H2O2 and HOCℓ, by
using oxidation number guidelines or rules.

Redox reactions
• Describe a redox (oxidation-reduction) reaction as involving electron transfer.
• Describe a redox (oxidation-reduction) reaction as always involving changes in oxidation numbers.
• Identify a redox reaction and apply the correct terminology to describe all the processes:
Oxidation: A loss of electrons. /An increase in oxidation number.
Reduction: A gain of electrons. /A decrease in oxidation number.
Reducing agent: A substance that is oxidised/that loses electrons/whose oxidation number increases.
Oxidising agent: A substance that is reduced/that gains electrons/whose oxidation number decreases.
Balance redox reactions by using half-reactions from the Table of Standard Reduction Potentials (Tables 4A and
4B).
❖ An electrolyte is a substance of which the aqueous solution contains ions OR a
substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts electricity.
❖ Electrolysis is the chemical process in which electrical energy is converted to chemical energy OR the
use of electrical energy to produce a chemical change

Summary of notes

OIL: Oxidation is loss LEO: Loss of electrons is oxidation

RIG: Reduction is gain
GER: Gain of electrons is reduction

In order to keep track of the electrons during a chemical reaction oxidation numbers are assigned to each
element in the reaction. The oxidation number is similar to the valency of the element.

Rules for assigning oxidation numbers

1. Pure elements and diatomic elements (eg. O2) = 0.

2. Hydrogen = +1 (except when bonded to a metal, then −1).
3. Oxygen = -2 (except peroxides, eg. H2O2, = −1). (When bonded to fluorine, = +2).
4. Metals = group number, i.e. group 1=+1; group 2 =+2; group 3=+3
5. The oxidation number of monoatomic ions is the same as its charge. eg. Zn 2+: Zn = +2
6. Group 17 elements = −1.
7. The oxidation number of transition metals is indicated by stock notation. eg. iron (III): Fe = +3
8. In a neutral compound, the sum of the oxidation numbers is 0.
9. In a polyatomic ion the sum of the oxidation numbers is equal to the charge of the ion.
REPRESENTING REDOX REACTIONS

Redox reactions can be shown in two half-reactions showing the transfer of electrons. Oxidation half-reaction: X
→ X2+ + 2e− (electrons are shown as products)

Reduction half-reaction: Y2+ + 2e−→ Y (electrons are shown as reactants)

Nett ionic reaction: X + Y2+ → X2+ + Y (no electrons are shown in the nett reaction)

NOTE: The number of electrons in the two half reactions must balance

Redox reactions may be balanced by using half reactions from the table of Standard reduction potentials.

The half- reaction are given on the table of Standard Reduction Potentials, and they are balanced. What you
need to do is to identify which substance is reduced or oxidised.

90
Half – reactions (using table)
Oxidation half-reaction are written from right to left (from products to Reactants)
Reduction half-reaction are written from left to right. As they appear on the table.

The double arrows in the half-reactions indicate that the left hand side can be reduced and the right hand side
can be oxidised. Oxidation or reduction takes place depending on what is reacting. From the given information,
the half-reactions must be constructed. When writing a half-reaction, use one arrow.
Example1: Oxidation half-reaction: Li ⟶ Li+ + e-
Reduction half-reaction: Cu2+ +2 e- ⟶ Cu
Example2: MnO4- + 8 H+ + 5 e- ⟶ Mn2+ + 4 H2O
From the equation give above the oxidation number of Mn in MnO 4- is +7, from the reaction the oxidation
number of Mn decrease from +7 to 2+. Mn7+ gained 5 electrons to reduce the oxidation number to 2+. The 5
electrons appears on the equation is the difference of the oxidation numbers of Mn on the reactants and on the
products.

Worked Example 3
1.1 Give the oxidation number of both elements in ammonia (NH3) (3)
2.1 Determine the oxidation number of : (2)
2.1.1 Sulphur in sulphate (SO42-) ion. (2)
2.1.2 Chromium in Cr2O72-. (2)
2.1.3 Oxygen in H2O2 (2)
2.1.4 Oxygen in O2 (1)
[12]
Consider the following UNBALANCED equation below:
3.1 Fe2+ (aq) + Cl2 (g) ⟶ Fe3+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Define the term reducing agent with reference to electron transfer. (2)
3.2 From the above reaction, write down the:
3.2.1 FORMULA of the reducing agent. (1)
3.2.2 FORMULA of the oxidizing agent. (1)
3.2.3 Reduction half-reaction. (2)
3.2.4 Oxidation half-reaction. (2)
3.2.5 Balanced net redox reaction. (2)
[14]

91
Solutions (Worked examples)
1.1 𝑥+3(1)=0✓
𝑥+3=0
𝑥= -3✓
∴ The oxidation number of Nitrogen is -3 and the oxidation number for hydrogen is +1✓ from (3)
the rules.
2.1.1 𝑥 + (- 8)= - 2✓
𝑥= - 2+8 (2)
𝑥 = +6✓
∴ The oxidation number of Sulphur in sulphate (SO42-) ion is +6
2.1.2 2(𝑥) + 7(−2) = −2✓ (2)
𝑥 = +6
Oxidation number of Cr in Cr2O72-. = + 6 ✓
2.1.3 2(1) + 2(𝑥) = 0✓ (2)
2𝑥 = −2
𝑥 = −1
∴ The oxidation number of oxygen in H2O2 is −1) ✓
2.1.4 O2 is a pure element. Therefore, the oxidation number of oxygen in O 2 is 0✓ (1)
3.1 A reducing agent loses electrons. ✓✓ (2)
3.2 3.2.1 Fe2+ (aq) ✓ (1)
3.2.2 Cl2 (g) ✓ (1)
3.2.3 Cl2 (g) + 2e- ⟶ 2Cl- (aq) ✓✓ (2)
3.2.4 Fe2+ (aq) ⟶ Fe3+ (aq) + e- ✓✓ (2)
3.2.5 2Fe2+ (aq) + Cl2 (g) ⟶ 2Fe3+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) ✓✓ (2)
[14]

REDOX REACTIONS ACTIVITIES

Multiple choice questions
QUESTION 1 [10 marks]
1.1 Oxidation takes place when the …
A Reducing agent loses electrons.
B Oxidising agent loses electrons.
C Reducing agent gains electrons.
D Oxidising agent gains electrons. (2)
1.2 Consider the reaction below.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Which substance is the oxidising agent?
A Zn
B Cu 2+
C Zn 2+
D Cu (2)
1.3 The oxidation number of phosphorus in H3PO4 is …
A +3
B -2
C 2
D 5 (2)
1.4 The oxidation number of sulphur in HSO4- is ….
A +2
B +6
C +1
D +4 (2)
1.5 Consider the following redox reaction:
Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu (s)
Electrons are transferred from …
A Zn (s) to Zn2+ (aq).
B Cu2+ (aq) to Cu (s).
C Zn(s) to Cu2+ (aq).
D Zn2+ (aq) to Cu (s). (2)

92
Redox Reactions Long Questions
QUESTION 2 [13 marks]
A silver Christmas tree can be made by placing copper wire, shaped in the form of a tree, into a silver
nitrate solution. The unbalanced equation for the reaction is:
Cu(s) + AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Ag(s)
2.1 Define the term oxidation in terms of oxidation numbers. (2)
2.2 Write down the following for the reaction above:
2.2.1 Formula of the reducing agent (2)
2.2.2 Name of the oxidising agent (2)
2.2.3 Oxidation half-reaction (2)
2.2.4 Balanced net ionic equation using the ion-electron method (3)
2.3 Use oxidation numbers to explain your choice of oxidising agent in
QUESTION 2.2.2. (2)
QUESTION 3 [17 marks]
3.1 A clean piece of copper (Cu) is placed in a solution of silver nitrate (AgNO 3).
The balanced net ionic equation is:
Cu (s) + 2 Ag+(aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Ag(s)

3.1.1 Define reduction in terms of electrons transfer. (2)

3.1.2 What type of reaction does copper undergo in the above reaction? (3)
Choose from OXIDATION or REDUCTION.
Explain your answer.
Write down the:
3.1.3 Formula or Name of the spectator ions in the reaction. (1)
3.1.4 Reduction half reaction. (2)

3.2 Sulphur dioxide gas (SO2) is bubbled in an acidified solution of potassium permanganate as
shown in the diagram below.

It is observed that the solution turns from purple to colourless due to the reduction of MnO 4-
ions to Mn2+ ions. During the reaction, SO2 is oxidized to sulphate ions (SO42-)
3.2.1 Determine the oxidation number of sulphur, S in SO42- . (2)
Write down the:
3.2.2 Oxidation half reaction (2)
3.2.3 Balanced net ionic equation using the half reaction method (5)
QUESTION 4 [13 marks]
The reaction between dichromate ions (Cr2O7-2) and iron (II) ions (Fe2+) in an acidic medium is given
below.
Cr2O7-2(aq) + Fe2+(aq) + H+(aq) → Cr3+(aq) + Fe3+(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
4.1 Determine the oxidation number of CHROMIUM in Cr2O7-2(aq). (2)
4.2 Define reduction in terms of electron transfer. (2)
4.3 Write down the FORMULA of the substance that undergoes oxidation. Explain the answer in (2)
terms of oxidation numbers.
4.4 Write down the FORMULA of the oxidising agent. (2)
4.5 Write down the reduction half-reaction. (2)
4.6 Write down the net balanced ionic equation for the reaction, using the ion-electron method.
(3)

93
QUESTION 5 [14 marks]

The unbalanced equations for two redox reactions, in which SO2 is involved, are shown below.
Reaction 1: SO2(g) + H2S(g) → S(s) + H2O(ℓ)
Reaction 2: SO2(g) + KMnO4(s) + H2O(ℓ) → MnSO4(aq) + K2SO4(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
5.1 Explain what is meant by the term redox reaction. (2)
5.2 Write down the oxidation number of Mn in:
5.2.1 KMnO4 (1)
5.2.2 MnSO4 (1)
5.3 Is MnO4- in Reaction 2 OXIDISED or REDUCED? Give a reason for the answer. (2)
5.4 In which reaction, Reaction 1 or Reaction 2, does SO2 act as an oxidising agent? Give a (2)
reason for the answer.
5.5 Write down the oxidation half-reaction in Reaction 1 (2)
Use the Table of Standard Reduction Potentials and write down the balanced net ionic
5.6 equation for Reaction 1. Show the half-reactions and how you arrived at the final equation. (4)

94