Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Research papers

Sustainable commercially-scaled greenhouse building cooling solution:

Integrating PCM storage, desiccant wheels, and absorption chillers powered
by dual-source solar/biomass energy
Caozheng Yan a , Azher M. Abed b,c,*, Rishabh Chaturvedi d , Mahidzal Dahari e,** ,
Sherzod Abdullaev f,g, Xiao Zhou h , Ibrahim Mahariq i,j,***, Yasser Elmasry k,**
a
School of Economics and Management, Hubei University of Automotive Technology, Shiyan 442000, Hubei, China
b
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Techniques Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Technologies, Al-Mustaqbal University, Babylon 51001, Iraq
c
Al-Mustaqbal Center for Energy Research, Al-Mustaqbal University, Babylon 51001, Iraq
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University, Mathura, India
e
Deparment of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
f
Faculty of Chemical Engineering, New Uzbekistan University, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
g
Scientific and Innovation Department, Tashkent State Pedagogical University named after Nizami, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
h
School of Mathematics, Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Hubei University of Automotive Technology, Shiyan 442000, Hubei, China
i
GUST Engineering and Applied Innovation Research Center (GEAR), Gulf University for Science and Technology, Mishref, Kuwait
j
Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
k
Department of Mathematics, College of Science, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61466, Saudi Arabia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This research aims to address the critical need for sustainable cooling systems in greenhouses, particularly
Phase change material relevant in mitigating global warming impacts and enhancing food security worldwide. The urgency becomes
Energy storage more pronounced in locations experiencing high ambient temperature and humidity. The study introduces an
Solar energy
innovative cooling system integrating Phase Change Material, a desiccant wheel, and an absorption chiller,
Desiccant wheel
Absorption chiller
powered by solar and biomass energy. This novel system aims to efficiently regulate temperature and humidity in
Biomass boiler greenhouse environments. The performance of this system is examined in Abu Dhabi, Doha, and Riyadh during
the summer months, utilizing TRNSYS software for a medium-scale greenhouse model. Additionally, a
comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment is carried out to quantify the environmental impacts of the proposed
system. Results indicate that in Abu Dhabi, the system yields a Coefficient of Performance (COP) of 1.108,
effectively maintaining indoor climate conditions. Similarly, Doha and Riyadh exhibit COPs of 1.015 and 0.827,
respectively. In terms of solar energy utilization, Abu Dhabi demonstrates a solar fraction of 40.4, corresponding
to the lowest Global Warming Potential (GWP) at 0.106 kg CO2eq per 1 kW of provided cooling capacity.
Conversely, Riyadh records the highest GWP at 0.149 kg CO2eq, followed by Doha at 0.118 kg CO2eq. The
Energy Payback Time (EPBT) for the system in Abu Dhabi is calculated to be 3.96 years, the shortest among the
examined cities. In comparison, Doha and Riyadh present longer EPBTs of 4.48 and 5.83 years, respectively.
These findings suggest that the proposed system offers a viable and environmentally friendly alternative to
conventional greenhouse cooling approaches.

* Correspondence to: A.M. Abed, Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Techniques Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Technologies, Al-Mustaqbal
University, Babylon 51001, Iraq.
** Corresponding authors.
*** Correspondence to: I. Mahariq, GUST Engineering and Applied Innovation Research Center (GEAR), Gulf University for Science and Technology, Mishref,
Kuwait.
E-mail addresses: azhermuhson@uomus.edu.iq (A.M. Abed), mahidzal@um.edu.my (M. Dahari), ibmahariq@gmail.com (I. Mahariq), sadek@kku.edu.sa
(Y. Elmasry).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.113871
Received 3 May 2024; Received in revised form 31 August 2024; Accepted 19 September 2024
Available online 28 September 2024
2352-152X/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

Nomenclature Q̇inf infiltration gain [W]

Q̇surf convective gain from surfaces [W]
Cp specific heat [J/kg.K]
ra aerodynamic resistance [s/m]
EF emission factor rs (bulk) surface or canopy resistance [s/m]
ETc daily crop evapotranspiration [mm/h]
T temperature [K]
EPBT Energy Payback Time U equivalent heat transfer coefficient [W/m2.K]
G soil heat flux [kJ/(h.m2)]
VPD vapor pressure deficit [kPa]
GWP Global Warming Potential λ latent heat of vaporization [kJ/kg]
In daily net radiation [kJ/(h.m2)] γ psychrometric constant [kPa/◦ C]
LAI leaf area index [− ] Δ the slope of the saturation vapor pressure-temperature
M mass [kg] curve [kPa/◦ C]
ṁ mass flowrate [kg/s] ρ mean air density [kg/m3]
Q̇ac internal convective gain [W]

1. Introduction The design of sustainable systems for greenhouses has attracted re-
searchers to investigate the use of different systems for the mentioned
In the wake of escalating global warming and its consequential im- application [6]. Using solar energy can provide the required energy for
pacts on climate, the necessity of environmentally sustainable solutions different applications [7]. Ghoulem et al. [8] explored combined/hybrid
for agricultural practices has never been more pressing [1]. Among these cooling systems and solar-powered options. The authors highlighted the
practices, the maintenance of optimal temperature and humidity in critical need for effective cooling technologies in greenhouses to ensure
greenhouses is critical, especially in regions characterized by extreme sustainable food production in hot regions, identifying areas for future
temperatures and high humidity. These conditions pose significant research and development. Davies and Zaragoza [9] conducted a study
challenges to traditional greenhouse cooling methods, making the to examine the theoretical potential for implementing self-cooling
exploration of eco-friendly alternatives imperative. As global tempera- greenhouses in hot climate regions. The authors' research centered on
tures continue to rise, sustainable greenhouse management becomes an the utilization of a fraction of solar energy to power a refrigeration
essential component in the broader fight against climate change, with system, thereby achieving a reduction in internal temperature below the
the potential to significantly mitigate its impact on food production surrounding ambient level. The researchers conducted an investigation
systems [56,57]. into diverse methods of solar energy collection, such as PV systems. The
A variety of methods have been explored for cooling greenhouses. researchers drew the conclusion that, in theory, the minimum propor-
Walker [2] presented a conceptual framework for utilizing power plant tion of light intercepted for the purpose of self-cooling could potentially
cooling water to provide heat for greenhouse facilities, while mini- be as low as 0. 056. The study conducted by Jain and Tiwari [10] was
mizing initial financial investment and without contributing to elevated centered on the development of a mathematical model for the purpose of
humidity levels. Sethi and Sharma [3] conducted a thorough examina- assessing the thermal dynamics within a greenhouse employing evapo-
tion of diverse cooling technologies employed in agricultural green- rative cooling techniques. The research consisted of conducting exper-
houses. The study details various methods for temperature regulation in imentation over a period of four months, from July to October 2000,
architectural environments, including natural and forced ventilation, within a 24 m2 greenhouse with uniform dimensions and a brick wall
shading and reflection techniques, and different forms of evaporative situated to the north. The authors employed a MATLAB-based program
cooling, such as fan-pad systems, mist/fog systems, and roof evaporative to forecast temperature profiles and optimize cooling parameters. The
cooling. The authors provided a comprehensive analysis of the utiliza- research findings indicated that within the greenhouse environment,
tions, attributes, and efficacy of these technologies, emphasizing their temperature gradients were observed along its longitudinal axis as a
advantages and disadvantages. The study concluded by deriving key result of solar radiation exposure. Additionally, optimal parameters for
insights regarding the efficacy and appropriateness of each technology, the cooling system were identified. Davies [11] conducted an investi-
taking into account various climatic conditions and greenhouse re- gation into the application of a liquid desiccation with a solar regener-
quirements. Kumar et al. [4] presented an extensive examination of ation system for the purpose of decreasing temperatures in
greenhouse structures and cooling mechanisms appropriate for tropical evaporatively-cooled greenhouses. The adoption of this method was
and subtropical regions. The authors have underscored the difficulties prompted by the challenges of growing crops in extremely warm cli-
arising from elevated temperatures and humidity in these geographical mates and the resulting reliance on imported food sources. The study
areas for the cultivation of crops in greenhouses. Additionally, they have carried out by Beveren et al. [12] aimed to devise an energy-efficient
pinpointed a range of design considerations, including orientation, climate control strategy for a contemporary rose greenhouse. The in-
shape, height, covering materials, and ventilation area, which have a vestigators employed dynamic modeling and optimal control theory to
substantial influence on the microclimate within greenhouses. The reduce the external energy input to the greenhouse, while concurrently
paper underscored the lack of satisfactory existing cooling techniques, ensuring that air temperature and humidity remained within boundaries
particularly in tropical climates, and the necessity for in-depth in- defined by the grower. The validated model incorporates real data ob-
vestigations into greenhouse design and functional characteristics to tained from a commercial rose greenhouse and integrates a dynamic
develop suitable natural cooling methods. Li and Wang [5] emphasized equilibrium between greenhouse temperature and humidity. The re-
the effectiveness of various systems based on local climate, agronomic searchers showcased the potential for significant energy conservation by
conditions, and greenhouse design, highlighting the necessity of adjusting constraints on temperature and humidity, reducing the use of
combining these methods to optimize greenhouse temperature control. natural ventilation during colder periods, and increasing the use of
The authors concluded that while each method had its advantages and natural ventilation while reducing heating during warmer periods.
disadvantages, their selection and application needed to be tailored to Chou et al. [13] provided an in-depth examination of the utilization
specific environmental and operational conditions to ensure successful of a heat pump system within a greenhouse environment for the effec-
crop production in greenhouses, particularly during high summer tive regulation of heating, cooling, and dehumidification processes. The
temperatures. research was conducted using an analytical model that emphasized

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C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

fundamental heat transfer mechanisms occurring within a greenhouse, are effective for greenhouse cooling, offering a sustainable alternative to
while also examining the efficacy of heat pumps under different envi- traditional methods and reducing dependence on water and fossil fuels.
ronmental circumstances. The experimental greenhouse facility estab- Grisey et al. [25] endeavored to investigate the application of solar
lished in Bangkok sought to establish and maintain diurnal temperature energy in conjunction with an absorption chiller within greenhouse
variations of 27 ◦ C during the day and 18 ◦ C at night, along with a settings. The primary objective of this research conducted in France was
relative humidity level of 40 %. Max et al. [14] examined the impact of to examine the obstacles associated with lowering the reliance on fossil
different greenhouse cooling methods on tomato cultivation in Central fuels for heating and mitigating temperature escalations in high-tech
Thailand. The study compared two types of greenhouses: one with greenhouses resulting from climate change. Our study revealed a sig-
natural and mechanical ventilation (NET) and the other using an nificant discovery that a solar collector field, encompassing 30 % of the
evaporative cooling system (EVAP). The researchers observed that the greenhouse surface area, could potentially offer a financially feasible
EVAP greenhouse maintained lower temperatures and higher relative energy solution, especially in areas necessitating continuous heating
humidity than the NET greenhouse. Fuchs et al. [15] developed a pro- throughout the year. The research conducted an assessment of the sys-
cedure using external climatic factors, greenhouse construction char- tem's performance across varying. Blanco et al. [26] conducted a study
acteristics, plant foliage properties, and ventilation rates to evaluate at the University of Bari, Italy, exploring the potential of thermal solar
heat transport. The use of an evaporative wet pad at the air inlet further collectors coupled with an absorption chiller for controlling the micro-
lowered the vapor pressure deficit in the greenhouse, although this led climate of a greenhouse.
to a decrease in transpiration rate. The paper concluded that the com- Heat recovery stands as a key strategy for enhancing energy effi-
bined operation of an evaporative pad with crop transpiration accu- ciency within sustainable systems [27]. Among the available technolo-
rately predicted transpiration rates and internal temperature and gies, desiccant wheels emerge as a prime candidate for harnessing waste
humidity in the greenhouse, demonstrating the significant cooling effect heat to achieve efficient dehumidification. Their inherent characteristics
of these methods in controlled greenhouse environments. enable them to be seamlessly integrated with other cooling systems,
Belkadi et al. [16] introduced a novel methodology for enhancing thereby offering applicability in a wide range of applications [28]. In the
energy efficiency in greenhouse operations. The authors introduced an context of greenhouses, the use of a desiccant wheel in a greenhouse can
enhanced intermediate modeling approach aimed at achieving a more significantly improve cooling and dehumidification processes, leading
accurate representation of the energy balance within greenhouse envi- to energy savings and environmental benefits [29]. Amani et al. [30]
ronments. The study conducted a comprehensive investigation into the conducted a thorough review of various dehumidification strategies
different geometric shapes of greenhouses and their respective covering used in agricultural greenhouses. Hygroscopic materials like desiccants
materials, with a particular focus on their impact on the energy dy- for adsorption were explored for their direct conversion of latent heat to
namics of the greenhouse structure. Valiño et al. [17] used computer sensible heat, benefiting space heating in greenhouses. Kamrani et al.
modeling to simulate the performance of four greenhouse cooling examined the efficiency of two different cooling systems within enclosed
techniques across five European locations under four climate scenarios greenhouse environments: a direct evaporation (DE) system and a
projected for the 2080s. The findings indicated that, with rising tem- combined direct evaporative-desiccant wheel (DE-DW) system. The
peratures, southern European locations would require more intensive research evaluated the performance of these systems across five distinct
cooling strategies, potentially involving combinations of ventilation, climates in Iran, analyzing their ability to meet cooling demands, energy
fogging, and shading. In contrast, northern locations might still find usage, and associated operational expenses. The findings of the study
natural ventilation adequate, though shading or fogging could become indicate that the direct evaporative (DE) system by itself was inefficient
necessary in some scenarios. Sonneveld et al. [18] aimed to tackle the in adequately cooling enclosed greenhouses in Tehran and comparable
issue of overheating in greenhouses during summer by reflecting Near regions. However, the combined DE-DW system proved more effective,
Infrared Radiation (NIR) using specially designed films, thus reducing successfully reducing greenhouse temperatures. This combination also
the heat load. The NIR, which constitutes a significant portion of solar resulted in an 8 % reduction in operational expenses, making it a more
energy, was then concentrated and converted into high-grade electric efficient option for climate control in greenhouses located in high-
energy using PV cells. The research concluded that using silicon PV cells humidity and temperature regions. Rjibi et al. [31] examined the
is more economically feasible for NIR conversion compared to thermal impact of regeneration temperature on the efficacy of desiccant cooling
conversion systems. The proposed design, which was in the prototype systems within greenhouse environments. This research addresses the
phase at the time of the study, showed potential for both reducing the application of solar energy for cooling purposes in Mediterranean re-
greenhouse's internal heat load and generating electricity. gions, with a specific emphasis on the utilization of a desiccant evapo-
The absorption chiller is one of the main alternatives for conven- rative cooling system driven by air solar collectors. The study revealed
tional cooling systems of greenhouses as its energy consumption is that the peak performance of the system, characterized by a COP of 0. 94
lower. The use of absorption chillers in greenhouses has been explored and an electrical COP of 14, was attained when the regeneration tem-
in several studies [19]. Campiotti et al. [20] showcased the viability of perature reached 60 ◦ C.
utilizing a solar cooling plant equipped with an absorption chiller to El-Soaly et al. [32] focused on using solar energy for cooling
effectively decrease energy consumption and optimize the utilization of greenhouses. The experiment used two greenhouses: one with natural
solar energy. Kini et al. [21] provide additional support for the scal- ventilation as a control (G1) and the other cooled using solar energy
ability of microchannel heat exchanger technology within the context of (G2). In G2, a desiccant wheel for dehumidification and two different
a residential absorption chiller, thereby demonstrating potential rele- pad materials, cellulose and palm fiber, were employed. The study found
vance for smaller-scale greenhouse applications. Güido et al. [22] and that the average temperature in the solar energy-cooled greenhouse
Garimella et al. [23] both highlighted the flexibility and efficiency of (G2) was significantly lower than the control (G1). The highest cooling
absorption chillers in various operational conditions, including the use efficiency, 79.5 %, was achieved using cellulose pads with a water flow
of waste heat and severe ambient temperatures. These findings collec- rate of 20 L/min and an air velocity of 2 m/s. Ashraf et al. [33] inves-
tively suggest that absorption chillers, particularly those driven by tigated the practicality and efficacy of integrating a Maisotsenko cycle
renewable energy sources, could be a viable and sustainable option for evaporative cooling system with a desiccant dehumidification system for
greenhouse cooling. Vox et al. [24] presented research on a solar ab- the purpose of air conditioning greenhouses in the arid climate of
sorption cooling system for greenhouses, focusing on its application in Multan. The research sought to determine the ideal levels of vapor
Mediterranean areas. The study evaluated the system's energy absorp- pressure deficit to maximize greenhouse crop productivity. The study
tion efficiency in a 300 m2 greenhouse. The study concluded that solar revealed that the independent desiccant air-conditioning system resul-
absorption systems, combined with passive energy-saving techniques, ted in a notable temperature disparity, however, it also led to

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C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

unsatisfactory thermal and humidity conditions within the greenhouse. innovation extends to the system's energy sourcing and the regeneration
Banik and Ganguly [34] aimed to enhance cooling performance in high energy for both the desiccant wheel and the absorption chiller is sup-
humidity conditions, a challenge in traditional evaporative cooling plied by an evacuated tube solar collector and a biomass boiler. This
systems. The proposed system utilized solar energy to regenerate the dual-source energy approach enhances the system's sustainability and
desiccant material, improving the efficiency of the cooling pads. Amani efficiency. Additionally, this study incorporates a PCM storage tank,
and Bahrami [35] investigated the potential use of a desiccant-coated strategically employed to store excess solar energy during daytime. This
heat exchanger (DC-HX) for the purpose of dehumidifying green- stored energy is then utilized to provide thermal energy during night-
houses. This technology shows significant promise in effectively man- time. Different climatic conditions, specifically in Riyadh, Abu Dhabi,
aging both latent and sensible loads concurrently while being able to be and Doha, are analyzed using TRNSYS software. Furthermore, An
powered by low-grade heat, such as renewable energy sources. The extensive Life Cycle Assessment has been executed to evaluate the
study examined the impact of different operational factors, such as proposed system's sustainability and environmental impact. This
greenhouse airflow rate, temperature, relative humidity, and regenera- assessment quantifies the ecological footprint of the system, providing
tion and cooling heat transfer fluid temperatures, on the average mois- vital insights into its long-term viability and environmental
ture removal capacity and COP of the DC-HX. Mandal and Ganguly [36] implications.
presented a comprehensive analysis of a two-stage desiccant dehumid-
ifying system integrated with a greenhouse. This system, designed for 2. Methodology
Orchid cultivation in tropical and subtropical regions, aimed to maintain
ideal environmental conditions within the greenhouse. The performance The principal aim of the research is to develop and assess a green-
analysis showed that the proposed system could effectively regulate air house cooling mechanism that makes use of sustainable resources, such
temperature within the greenhouse, with a COP ranging from 0.54 to as renewable energy sources, particularly biomass and solar energy, in
1.02. order to control indoor environmental parameters. This system is
Hosseini et al. [37] presented a strategy for optimizing greenhouse particularly relevant for areas distinguished by hot climates, including
energy use in Iran by focusing on renewable energy sources. The study Doha, Riyadh, and Abu Dhabi. The identified sites often encounter dif-
integrated thermal modeling to calculate the required heating and ficulties in preserving ideal thermal conditions within greenhouses amid
cooling loads, which were supplied using renewable energy compo- the sweltering summer season. The cities of Abu Dhabi, Doha, and
nents. The findings revealed that Yazd, with its hot and dry climate, was Riyadh were selected for this study due to their common climatic
the most energy-efficient location, consuming 190.9 MWh of electricity characteristic of hot conditions, especially prevalent during the summer
and 18.32 tons of fuel. Thus, the study concluded that renewable- months. This similarity in climate makes them ideal candidates for
energy-driven greenhouses are most suitable for cities with hot and evaluating the effectiveness of the proposed cooling system. The high
dry weather conditions. Djibrilla et al. [38] focused on improving the ambient temperatures and different humidity levels in these cities pre-
sustainability and effectiveness of photovoltaic evaporative cooling sent a considerable challenge for greenhouse operations, necessitating
greenhouses in the Sahel region. It examined the thermal behavior of robust cooling solutions. By focusing on these locations, the study aims
these greenhouses, comparing the performance of eco-friendly Hyphaene to demonstrate the system's capability to maintain optimal indoor en-
thebaica fiber pads (HF-pad) with conventional Celdek pads (C-pad). vironments under extreme weather conditions, thereby validating its
Experimental and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis showed applicability to other regions with similar climates. The proposed system
that the HF-pad maintained cooler temperatures and higher humidity encompasses four primary components, including a desiccant wheel, a
levels, with a cooling COP of 9 compared to 6 for C-pad. Abedrabboh biomass boiler, a solar collector, a PCM storage tank, and an absorption
et al. [39] conducted a comparative thermos-economic assessment of chiller. The desiccant wheel functions as a key component in regulating
various renewable-driven hybrid-cooled sustainable greenhouses for moisture levels, facilitating the maintenance of the greenhouse's relative
subtropical regions. It explored four configurations—closed, shaded, humidity within the specified range of 50 % to 70 %. The biomass boiler,
buried, and buried and shaded greenhouses—each using different solar operating in tandem with the desiccant wheel, supplies the required heat
power generation technologies, cooling cycles, and desalination sys- for the regeneration of desiccant material. The objective of the system is
tems. The study found that passive cooling techniques significantly to regulate the indoor temperature of the greenhouse within a pre-
reduced cooling loads by 34.2–58.1 %, evapotranspiration by 17.4–34.1 scribed range, specifically between 21 ◦ C and 27 ◦ C during daylight
%, solar panel area by 8.5–32.1 %, and lifecycle costs by 5.6–28.6 %. hours and 15 ◦ C and 20 ◦ C at night [37]. This regulation aims to provide
Given the substantial progress in biomass technology such as surface an optimal environment for the growth of various plant species. In order
coating [40], incorporating a biomass boiler into the energy system to replicate and evaluate the efficacy of the suggested system, the
presents a promising avenue for improving overall system performance, investigation utilizes the TRNSYS 18 software for simulation and
especially within the controlled environment of greenhouses [41]. analysis.
Current greenhouse cooling solutions, such as those employing heat
pumps and evaporative coolers, often fall short of maintaining optimal 2.1. Proposed system explanation
indoor conditions due to high energy consumption and insufficient hu-
midity control. Desiccant wheels, commonly used in conjunction with The proposed system, as depicted in Fig. 1, represents the integration
heat pumps, offer an alternative by effectively managing humidity of renewable energy sources for optimizing the thermal environment
levels. However, their integration with other cooling technologies has within greenhouses situated in hot and humid locations. The evacuated
been limited. Absorption chillers, known for their ability to utilize low- tube solar collector harnesses solar energy, which is then stored in the
grade heat sources such as solar and biomass energy, present a prom- PCM tank with 1 m3 capacity. This tank utilizes RT42, a PCM with a
ising solution for sustainable cooling. Despite their potential, the inte- melting point of 42 ◦ C and a storage capacity of 165 kJ/kg [42]. The use
gration of desiccant wheels with absorption chillers in greenhouse of PCM facilitates a balanced operation by absorbing surplus solar en-
applications has not been extensively explored. ergy during peak sunlight hours and releasing it during the night, thus
This research introduces a pioneering approach to greenhouse providing a consistent energy supply to the system. This stored energy is
cooling by integrating a desiccant wheel with an absorption chiller, a then utilized by the absorption chiller to maintain the cooling process.
notable departure from conventional systems where desiccant wheels The 42 ◦ C melting temperature ensures that the PCM stores energy at a
are typically coupled with heat pumps and evaporative coolers. This sufficiently high temperature to be effective, while also acting as a
novel integration serves as the cornerstone of the study, which has not minimum threshold to maximize solar energy utilization. Any additional
been explored before in greenhouse ventilation system design. The energy required beyond this threshold is supplied by the biomass boiler,

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C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

Fig. 1. The layout of the introduced system.

ensuring consistent system performance. Additionally, a biomass boiler

is incorporated as a supplementary energy source to support the system
when solar energy is insufficient. The biomass boiler's heating capacity
is essential for operating both the absorption chiller and the desiccant
wheel. The desiccant wheel plays a vital role in humidity control,
especially crucial in the high-humidity target locations. It reduces the
moisture content of the air entering the greenhouse, thereby improving
indoor air quality and plant growth conditions. Simultaneously, the
absorption chiller utilizes the thermal energy from the biomass boiler
and solar collector to cool the processed air. This process ensures that
the air supplied to the greenhouse is not only dry but also at a suitable
temperature to maintain optimal conditions for plant growth. The
integration of these components ensures a continuous supply of fresh,
dry, and cool air in the greenhouse, enhancing overall climate control. Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the commercially-scaled greenhouse
The design and performance of this innovative system are assessed designed using SketchUp for TRNSYS simulation.
through a simulation with TRNSYS 18 software, offering a detailed
understanding of its functionality in challenging climatic conditions. in the TRNBuild design based on specific schedules for day and night.
The TRNBuild model uses these setpoints to control the heating and
cooling systems dynamically, ensuring that the greenhouse environment
2.2. Simulation in TRNSYS stays within the desired temperature range throughout the 24-hour
cycle.
In assessing the efficacy of the proposed cooling system, a compre- The sizing of the components within the proposed cooling system
hensive simulation was performed using TRNSYS software, focusing on was derived from TRNSYS simulations, which were specifically config-
the peak summer months of June, July, and August in Doha, Abu Dhabi, ured based on the prevailing weather conditions of each target city.
and Riyadh. The pivotal component in this simulation is the greenhouse, These simulations were instrumental in determining the precise cooling
which requires precise modeling to accurately gauge the system's per- load required by the greenhouse under typical summer conditions. For
formance. Given that TRNSYS lacks a dedicated greenhouse component the absorption chiller, the sizing was directly based on the cooling load
and that greenhouses have different thermal characteristics compared to outcomes from these simulations, ensuring the chiller's capacity aligns
residential buildings, tailored adjustments were necessary for the with the greenhouse's cooling requirements. In the case of the desiccant
simulation. To effectively simulate the greenhouse environment, Type wheel, the sizing was influenced by both the target indoor humidity
56, a building energy modeling tool within TRNSYS, was employed. The levels and the external ambient humidity prevalent in each city. This
initial step involved creating a layout of the greenhouse using SketchUp dual consideration allowed for a calculation of the desiccant material
software, with the resulting geometry presented in Fig. 2. The green- required, which is crucial for effective humidity control within the
house modeled for this study is designed to reflect a commercial and greenhouse environment.
medium-scale operation, covering an area of 300 m2. The dimensions of The complexities of greenhouse loads, differing from residential
the greenhouse are 30 × 10 × 4.8 m (illustrated in Fig. 2), dimensions structures, necessitate these modifications. For the greenhouse struc-
commonly found in commercial greenhouse setups. To manage the ture, twin-wall polycarbonate material is chosen, characterized by a U-
temperature within the greenhouse, setpoint temperatures are defined

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C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

value of 2.6 W/m2K and a g-value of 65 % [43]. These material prop- for moisture gains from infiltration, ventilation, and internal sources like
erties, alongside the internal load configurations, are intricately plant transpiration. This is crucial for maintaining the humidity levels
modeled in TRNBuild. Within this framework, the various thermal loads within the greenhouse, which directly affects plant health and cooling
inside the greenhouse are calculated using a series of equations. The efficiency. The infiltration equation adjusts for wind speed, reflecting
total sensible heating loads inside the greenhouse can be determined by the dynamic nature of air exchange between the greenhouse and the
using Eq. (1) [44]. external environment. ET, as described by Eq. (4), is a key factor in
greenhouse climate control. It quantifies water loss due to evaporation
Q̇sens,total = Q̇surf + Q̇inf + Q̇ven + Q̇ac + Q̇pl,g + Q̇solar + Q̇isHCC (1) and plant transpiration, which significantly influences both temperature
In Eq. (1), Q̇surf is the convective gain from surfaces, Q̇inf is the and humidity within the greenhouse. By integrating the Stanghellini
model, which considers environmental and plant-specific factors, the
infiltration gains, Q̇ven is the ventilation gains, Q̇ac is the internal
model accurately represents the ET process, ensuring the cooling system
convective gains, Q̇pl,g is interconnected air node gains, Q̇solar is the solar is designed to manage these critical loads effectively.
radiation, and Q̇isHCC the heat absorbed by internal shading devices [44]. The TRNSYS simulation meticulously considers the generated heat
Also, The total latent heating loads inside the greenhouse can be by plants and ET, updating these values with each iteration based on
determined by using Eq. (2) [44].v prevailing weather conditions. Fig. 3 illustrates the simulated system

[ ( )]
( ) (wi − ΔT)
Q̇lat = hv ṁinf (wa − wi ) + ṁvent (wvent − wi ) + Wg + ṁig wj − wi − Meff (2)
ΔT

setup within TRNSYS.

A Type 1334 thermal storage tank, as illustrated in Fig. 3, was
The variables Eq. (2) include hv , representing the heat of vapor- employed to model PCM storage. The tank undergoes phase trans-
ization, ṁinf , denoting the mass flow rate of infiltration air, wa , signi- formations between liquid and solid states. Energy transfer mechanisms
fying the ambient humidity ratio, wi , showing the humidity ratio of the include direct fluid flow, mass addition/removal, and heat exchange via
air node, ṁvent , denoting the mass flow rate of ventilation air, wvent , the tank's boundaries and internal heat exchangers.
implying the humidity ratio of the ventilation air, Wg , denoting the in- The system uses a Type 71 evacuated tube solar collector with a
ternal humidity gain, ṁig , signifying the mass flow rate due to couplings surface area of 12 m2 to simulate its performance. Eqs. (5) and (6) define
of two zones, wj , representing the adjacent air node humidity ratio, Meff , the collector's efficiency and useful heat gain, respectively [47]. The
denoting the effective moisture capacitance, and ΔT, meaning the thermal performance of Type 71 solar collectors is calculated using a
change in time step [44]. The TRNSYS software considers all terms generalized efficiency equation characterized by three coefficients: a0 ,
mentioned in Eqs. (1) and (2), taking into account the applied settings. a1 , and a2 . These coefficients are obtained from ASHRAE-compliant
The TRNBuild system incorporates occupancy and equipment as internal testing. Type 71 accommodates multiple temperature difference for-
heat gains in accordance with ASHRAE standards to ensure realistic mulations and permits user-defined a0 , a1 , and a2 coefficients. The
simulation. The selection of a standard 130 W gain type for occupancy TRNSYS computes the efficiency, incorporating series collector config-
and the utilization of 0. 5 kJ/h for equipment gain was documented in uration, temperature reference point, and fluid property deviations from
the referenced study [44]. Infiltration through wall leakage, a significant rated conditions. The parameters a0 , a1 , and a2 correspond to the
factor in greenhouse climate control, is calculated as a function of wind maximum efficiency, the rate of efficiency decrease with temperature
speed, adopting the leakage coefficient (Cl) from existing literature. Eq. difference, and the curvature of the efficiency curve, respectively, in the
(3) uses, being the leakage coefficient depending on the construction collector efficiency equation.
and the age of the envelope. In the current study, Cl = 10− 4, which is the ( ) ( 2)
ΔT ΔT
same as Vanthoor et al. [45] chose four different climates [45]. ηcollector = a0 − a1 − a2 (5)
IT IT
{
0.25⋅Cl ; if Vz < 0.25m/s
f= (3) ( )
Cl⋅Vz; if Vz > 0.25m/s ṁCp Tfluid,out − Tfluid,in
Qu = (6)
(L Ntubes )
A paramount feature in simulating the greenhouse environment is
the incorporation of plant evaporation and heat generation. This study TRNSYS doesn't include a specific component for biomass boilers, so
employs the Evapotranspiration (ET) model, specifically the Stan- the model uses a modified version of the general boiler component (Type
ghellini model based on the Penman-Monteith equation. This model 700) [48]. This approach relies on the method presented by Zhu et al.
comprehensively considers environmental factors and vegetation char- [48]. Eq. (7) calculates the fluid's temperature after leaving the boiler.
acteristics to estimate water losses due to evaporation and transpiration Since biomass boilers have different fuel consumption patterns
[46]. The model equation is given by Eq. (4): compared to natural gas boilers, Eq. (8) determines the amount of fuel
2(LAI)ρCp (VPD)
used. The model assumes a boiler efficiency of 94 %. Type700 uses a
1
Δ
(In − G) + simple efficiency equation to predict the energy requirement of heating
ET = (4)
γ γra
λ 1+ Δ
γ
+ rras a liquid to its set point temperature. This simplicity allows this
component to be used as the biomass boiler as it was used before in the
Eqs. (1) to (4) collectively address the critical aspects of thermal and literature.
moisture dynamics within the greenhouse, which are essential for
designing an effective cooling system. The sensible heating loads, rep- Q̇boiler
Tout = Tin + ( ) (7)
resented by Eq. (1), capture the various sources of heat gain, including
ṁfluid Cp,fluid
convective, infiltrative, and solar radiation contributions. Eqs. (2) and
(3) focus on the latent heating loads and infiltration through wall
leakage, respectively. The latent heating load equation includes terms

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C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

Fig. 3. The system simulation in TRNSYS.

Q̇boiler
Q̇fuel = = (calorific value)fuel ṁfuel (8) Q̇cooling
ηboiler COP = (11)
Q̇aux + Q̇HW
The system's solar fraction (Eq. (9)), a crucial indicator of the energy
To simulate the desiccant wheel, type 716 is used. TRNSYS simulates
contribution from the solar collector, is calculated to evaluate the sys-
the performance of desiccant wheels containing silica gel using Jurinak's
tem's reliance on renewable energy.
equations for F1-F2 potentials [49]. These equations are shown in Eqs.
Qbiomass boiler (12) and (13). The variables T and ω represent the temperatures of the
SF(%) = 1 − (9)
Qtotal streams in Kelvin (K) and the humidity ratio in kilograms of water per
The absorption chiller utilized in this investigation is a double-effect kilogram of dry air (kgH2O/kgAir), respectively [29].
absorption chiller that receives its energy input from hot water. Type − 2865
677, a catalog-based type, is utilized within the TRNSYS simulation F1 = + 4.344 ω0.8624 (12)
T 1.49
software to model the performance of the system. The performance of
the chiller, specifically its COP, is assessed by taking into consideration T 1.49
F1 = − 1.127 ω0.07969 (13)
the auxiliary heat needed as well as the heat provided by both the 6360
biomass boiler and solar collector. The determination of the total energy To comprehensively evaluate the system's performance, the COP of
that must be extracted from the chilled water stream by the absorption the entire system is calculated (Eq. (14)), providing a key metric to
chiller is achieved through the use of Eq. (10). Desorption heat for the assess the efficiency and effectiveness of the proposed cooling solution
refrigerant is supplied by a hot water stream in this design, with ab- under different conditions.
sorption heat rejected to a cooling water stream. The chiller cools a third
fluid to a user-specified set point. Due to its catalog data-driven Cooling Capacity
COP = (14)
approach, Type 677's applicability is constrained and performance Q̇aux − Q̇solar − Q̇biomass
interpolation within data bounds is feasible. A notable feature is the
Q̇solar is the output power that is provided by the evacuated tube solar
normalized data, facilitating model adaptability to different absorption
chiller sizes [55]. collector and Q̇biomass is the output power of the biomass boiler. The
( ) cooling capacity can be determined by Eq. (15).
Q̇cooling = ṁch,w Cp Tch,w,out − Tch,w,in (10)
cooling capacity = ṁprocess,air (hambient − hconditioned ) (15)
Also, the COP of the absorption chiller is determined by Eq. (11).
Fig. 4 provides a comprehensive overview of the system's compo-
Where Q̇aux and Q̇HW are the auixiliary required heat and supplied heat nents and their interactions within the TRNSYS simulation environment.
for hot water which comes from biomass boiler and solar collector, It illustrates how greenhouse parameters and weather data are input into
respectively. TRNSYS to simulate the performance of the proposed cooling system.

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C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

Fig. 4. Flowchart of the Proposed Greenhouse Cooling System Simulated in TRNSYS.

The flowchart shows the flow of energy starting from the solar collector specifications from Sarmouk's research, including details like di-
(Type 71), which provides hot water to both the PCM storage tank (Type mensions, materials, and operating conditions. Fig. 5a and b presents the
1334) and the absorption chiller (Type 677). The PCM storage tank results of this validation, focusing on two critical parameters: indoor
stores thermal energy for nighttime use, while the absorption chiller temperature and humidity. Fig. 5 illustrates the overall validation re-
uses hot water to provide chilled water for cooling and regenerates the sults, juxtaposing the simulation outcomes against the benchmarks set
desiccant material with waste heat. Additionally, the biomass boiler by the reference study. Specifically, Fig. 5a exhibits a comparative graph
(Type 700) supplies supplementary hot water during periods of low of the indoor temperature within the system, mapped across a time
solar irradiance, ensuring continuous operation of the absorption frame from January 1 to January 15. Similarly, Fig. 5b showcases the
chiller. The desiccant cooling system manages humidity and tempera- corresponding indoor relative humidity levels over the same period. The
ture control, maintaining optimal greenhouse conditions. simulation results closely matched the reference study for both param-
eters, with a difference of <5 % observed. This minimal variance not
2.3. Validation of simulation only attests to the precision of the simulation but also reinforces its
reliability. Moreover, it's important to highlight that the validation
To validate the TRNSYS simulation, the researchers compared its process is an examination of the simulation's capability to accurately
results with a published study by Sarmouk et al. [46]. This comparison reflect the dynamic and complex interactions within the greenhouse
serves as the primary benchmark for the model's accuracy. To ensure a environment under various conditions which ensures that the simula-
realistic comparison, the simulation adopted the same component tion can be a reliable tool for predicting greenhouse environmental

Fig. 5. Validation results of the TRNSYS simulation comparative graph from January 1 to January 15(a) indoor temperature; (b) indoor relative humidity.

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C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

Fig. 9. Indoor and ambient temperature fluctuations in Doha during summer.

Fig. 6. Comparison of Experimental Data from Adesanya et al. [44] with

TRNSYS Simulation Results.

Fig. 10. Indoor and ambient humidity ratio fluctuations in Doha dur-
ing summer.

Fig. 7. Indoor and ambient temperature fluctuations in Abu Dhabi dur-

ing summer.

Fig. 11. Indoor and ambient temperature fluctuations in Riyadh dur-

ing summer.

Fig. 8. Indoor and ambient humidity ratio fluctuations in Abu Dhabi dur- world conditions.
ing summer.
3. Results and discussion
conditions, thereby aiding in the design and optimization of greenhouse
cooling systems based on renewable energy sources. The following section presents an analysis of the performance of the
To further validate the presented simulation in TRNSYS, the project proposed cooling system in greenhouses located in hot and humid cli-
by Adesanya et al. [44], which includes experimental measurements, mates. The present study undertakes an analysis of the simulation's
was selected for additional validation. Adesanya et al. [44] designed a findings, with a particular emphasis on the fluctuations in temperature
system for a greenhouse located at Purme Social Farm in Ohak-dong, and humidity levels within the greenhouse environment. The analysis
Yeoju-si, South Korea. The farm covers a gross area of 4374 m2 and is additionally quantifies and contrasts the COP and SF of the system
divided into three parts: Farm A (2160 m2), Farm B (1782 m2), and a across different metropolitan areas in the summer season. Significantly,
packaging room (432 m2). The net conditioned area of the greenhouse is the study evaluates the environmental implications of the system, spe-
3942 m2, with a total net conditioned volume of 22,942.4 m3. Fig. 6 cifically its capacity to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and support
presents the comparison results between the experimental data from sustainable agricultural methods. It is crucial to comprehend these
Adesanya et al. and the TRNSYS simulation developed based on the broader implications in order to assess the real-world advantages of the
characteristics of that research. It is worth noting that only a specific system.
part of the experiments conducted by Adesanya et al. was used for this
validation. According to the results shown in Fig. 6, the TRNSYS simu- 3.1. Temperature and humidity ratio
lation exhibits an acceptable range of error when compared to the
experimental measurements. This additional validation confirms the The main goal of the proposed cooling system is to create an ideal
accuracy and reliability of the simulation model in representing real- environment for plants by controlling temperature and humidity inside

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C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

it is demonstrated that the proposed system can maintain the optimal

humidity levels required for plant health and growth. Fig. 13 illustrates
how the relative humidity inside the greenhouse varies during summer
across different cities. As presented the system keeps humidity within a
desirable range (50–70 %) for many plants. This range is maintained
even in cities with differing climates. The higher relative humidity in
Abu Dhabi compared to Doha and Riyadh is related to the higher range
of humidity and moisture in Abi Dhabi's weather conditions. Also,
Riyadh has the lowest value because the weather in this city is drier
compared to the two other cities.

3.3. Solar fraction

Fig. 12. Indoor and ambient humidity ratio fluctuations in Riyadh dur-
ing summer.
This analysis examines how much of the cooling system's energy
needs are met by solar power in Riyadh, Doha, and Abu Dhabi during
the greenhouse. These factors are crucial for optimal plant growth and
summer. This percentage, called the solar fraction, is a key measure of
health. Given that these parameters are influenced by ambient condi-
the system's sustainability. The data comes from TRNSYS simulations
tions, the system's performance in varying climatic scenarios is critical.
that consider the specific climate conditions of each city. Table 1 pre-
The ambient air, typically used to supply the required ventilation flow
sents the simulation results, offering a view of the solar fraction in the
rate in greenhouses, directly impacts the indoor climate. Figs. 7 to 12
three cities. From the results, it is observed that Riyadh boasts the
depict the fluctuations of both ambient and indoor temperature and
highest solar fraction, at 41.92 %. This significant figure suggests that a
humidity ratios in the greenhouses located in Abu Dhabi, Doha, and
considerable portion of Riyadh's energy needs for the greenhouse can be
Riyadh during summer. Specifically, Figs. 7 and 8 detail these variations
met by harnessing solar energy. In comparison, Doha and Abu Dhabi
in Abu Dhabi, Figs. 9 and 10 in Doha, and Figs. 11 and 12 in Riyadh. The
exhibit slightly lower solar fractions, recorded at 39.49 % and 40.04 %,
data from these figures reveal that, under corresponding ambient con-
respectively. These variations in solar fraction across the three cities
ditions, the proposed system maintains the indoor temperature and
reflect the impact of their differing climatic conditions on the system's
humidity within an acceptable range. In Abu Dhabi, as evidenced by
ability to capture and utilize solar energy efficiently.
Figs. 7 and 8 the average ambient temperature and humidity ratio,
standing at 33.2 ◦ C and 0.01633 kgH2O/kg_air, are reduced by the
3.4. Useful energy gain
system to 18.7 ◦ C and 0.009647 kgH2O/kg_air indoors. A noticeable
feature of the capability of the system is its ability to control temperature
The useful energy gain is a factor in assessing the efficiency of the
fluctuations between day and night. During the day, indoor tempera-
proposed greenhouse cooling system, especially when considered
tures are consistently maintained between 20 ◦ C and 25 ◦ C, while
alongside the SF. This measure provides insights into the availability and
nighttime temperatures are kept between 15 ◦ C and 20 ◦ C. This pattern
utilization of solar radiation in the targeted locations. Fig. 14 offers a
of temperature control is also replicated in the greenhouses located in
representation of the useful energy gain achieved by the system during
Doha and Riyadh. For Doha, the average values of temperature and
summertime in the cities of Riyadh, Abu Dhabi, and Doha. As illustrated
humidity ratio of ambient air during the summer are 34.18 ◦ C and
in Fig. 14, Riyadh records the highest useful energy gain, indicative of its
0.01499 kgH2O/kg_air, respectively. In Riyadh, these values are
optimal solar radiation capture and utilization. Following Riyadh, Abu
34.62 ◦ C and 0.006186 kgH2O/kg_air. The ability of the system to sus-
Dhabi and Doha also demonstrate significant energy gains, though to a
tain such consistent indoor conditions in different cities underscores its
lesser extent. The average values of useful energy gain for June, July,
capability and adaptability to various climatic challenges. The capa-
and August are as follows: Riyadh leads with 4515.84, followed by Abu
bility to regulate temperature and humidity effectively is essential for
Dhabi with 3406.44, and Doha with 2848.76. These figures align well
ensuring a conducive growing environment.
with the data presented in the Solar Fraction section. The variation in
useful energy gain is related to different climatic and environmental
situations of cities, which directly influence the efficiency of solar en-
3.2. Relative humidity
ergy capture.
The inclusion of relative humidity data in this section serves a
3.5. The system's Coefficient of Performance (COP)
distinct yet complementary purpose. The control ranges for humidity in
greenhouse environments, as supported by the literature, are generally
The COP of the proposed cooling system is a metric for evaluating its
expressed in terms of relative humidity. By presenting relative humidity,
efficiency and performance. In this section, the COP values obtained
from the system installed in Abu Dhabi, Doha, and Riyadh are analyzed
and presented in Table 2. The results indicate that the system in Abu
Dhabi achieved the highest COP, at 1.108. This is followed by the sys-
tems in Doha and Riyadh, with COP values of 1.014 and 0.827,
respectively. While these COP ranges may not appear exceptionally high
at first glance, it is important to contextualize them within the frame-
work of the system's design, particularly the use of an absorption chiller.
Given the operational characteristics of absorption chillers, these COP
values fall within an acceptable range and signify a reasonable

Table 1
Solar fraction of the system in different cities.
Parameter Riyadh Doha Abu Dhabi
Fig. 13. Indoor and ambient humidity ratio fluctuations in Riyadh dur-
Solar fraction (%) 41.92 39.49 40.04
ing summer.

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Fig. 14. Comparison of useful energy gain in Riyadh, Abu Dhabi, and Doha during summer months.

3.6. Environmental impacts

Table 2
COP of the system in different cities.
To assess the environmental impact of the proposed system, the
Parameter Riyadh Doha Abu Dhabi authors conducted a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) following ISO 14040
COP 0.827 1.014 1.108 standards. This approach considers all stages of the system's life, from
component manufacturing to operation. The LCA focuses on quantifying
and comparing the system's CO2 emissions throughout its lifetime. Ul-
performance level. The factor influencing the variation in COP across
timately, the goal is to understand the system's Global Warming Po-
different cities is the ambient conditions. Since the proposed system
tential (GWP), a measure of global warming effect based on IPCC 2013
relies on ambient air to supply the processed air for cooling, variations in
guidelines. [50]. The assessment defines the Functional Unit (FU) as the
ambient temperature and humidity can significantly impact the system's
provision of 1 kW cooling capacity by the system to maintain optimal
performance. Moreover, the amount of solar energy factor is another
conditions within the greenhouse. The impact assessment metric was
crucial parameter. While Riyadh demonstrates the highest solar fraction,
selected as the IPCC 2013 GWP over a 100-year timescale, with results
implying lower energy input requirements compared to Doha and Abu
expressed in kilograms of CO2 (kg CO2eq). The proposed system's life-
Dhabi, the cooling capacity provided in Riyadh is comparatively lower.
span was considered to be 25 years.
Riyadh's higher summer temperatures make cooling less efficient, which
is reflected in the COP analysis across the three cities. This analysis helps
3.6.1. LCA methodology
to understand how the system performs under different climates, with
The LCA model includes several key stages. First, the manufacturing
Riyadh's hotter environment impacting its COP. Understanding these
impacts of the biomass boiler, absorption chiller, storage tank, pump,
dynamics is essential for optimizing the system's design and operation in
fan, auxiliary heater, and evacuated tube solar collector were modeled
different geographical locations.
based on data from existing literature. Specifically, data for the biomass
Another advantage of the system is using PCM energy storage that
boiler were sourced from Zhu et al. [48], while data for other compo-
enhances the performance of the proposed greenhouse cooling system.
nents were derived from Beccali et al. [51]. The desiccant wheel and
The PCM storage tank absorbs excess thermal energy during periods of
PCM storage tank data were obtained from Bozorgi et al. [28]. This stage
high solar irradiance and releases this stored energy during nighttime or
involved collecting detailed inventory data on raw material extraction,
low solar availability, ensuring a continuous and stable supply of ther-
and manufacturing processes. It is worth noting that transportation was
mal energy. This capability reduces reliance on auxiliary energy sources
not included in the inventory analysis primarily due to the complexities
such as the biomass boiler, thereby maintaining optimal indoor condi-
and variability associated with logistical considerations in different
tions for the greenhouse. By storing solar energy as latent heat, the
cities. However, it is acknowledged that transportation can significantly
system can minimize temperature and humidity fluctuations, which are
impact the overall environmental footprint of the system, particularly in
crucial for plant health. The use of PCM energy storage also lowers the
terms of additional CO2 emissions.
operational load on the biomass boiler, resulting in reduced biomass fuel
During the operational phase, the energy consumption and associ-
consumption and CO2 emissions. This integration not only enhances
ated emissions were modeled using data generated from TRNSYS sim-
environmental sustainability but also contributes to increased system
ulations. This phase includes the energy required for cooling, heating,
resilience, ensuring continuous operation during variable weather
and regeneration processes within the system. The operational data
conditions.
were categorized into direct energy inputs, such as electricity and
biomass fuel consumption. Emissions from these activities were

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C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

calculated based on standard emission factors. The disposal and poten-

tial recycling impacts of the system components were considered,
although specific end-of-life data were limited and estimated based on
typical industry practices. This included evaluating the environmental
impacts associated with the decommissioning of the system, and pro-
cessing of recyclable materials. Assumptions were made regarding the
proportion of materials that could be recycled versus those that would
end up in landfills. The SimaPro software was utilized to conduct the
inventory analysis and impact assessment. The software's databases and
modeling capabilities allow for a detailed assessment of the environ-
mental impacts associated with each stage of the system's life cycle.
Within SimaPro, inventory data for raw materials, manufacturing pro-
cesses, and energy use were collected from the literature and integrated
into the model.
The CO2 calculation in the LCA was conducted using the IPCC 2013
method, which is commonly used for assessing the environmental im-
pacts of various systems over their life cycles. The specific formula or Fig. 15. GWP of the introduced system in Riyadh, Doha, and Abu Dhabi.
expression used for calculating the GWP is based on the cumulative
emissions of different greenhouse gases, each converted to a CO2
equivalent using their respective GWP factors as defined by the IPCC.
The GWP is calculated for each stage of the life cycle, including
manufacturing, operation, and end-of-life of the SHC system. During the
manufacturing stage, emissions are calculated based on the production
of materials. In the operational stage, emissions from energy consump-
tion, including electricity and biomass fuel, are considered. Finally, the
end-of-life stage accounts for emissions related to disposal and recycling
processes. By summing the GWPs for all life cycle stages, the total GWP
for the system is obtained, expressed in kilograms of CO2 equivalent (kg
CO2eq).

3.6.2. LCA model equations

In the LCA conducted for the proposed solar cooling system, several
key equations were utilized to quantify the environmental impact of the
system across its entire lifecycle. These equations focus on the calcula-
tion of GWP and the associated CO2 emissions for each stage of the
system's life as discussed above, including manufacturing, operation,
and end-of-life phases [52]. The GWP for each greenhouse gas (GHG)
emitted during the lifecycle of the system was calculated using Eq. (16) Fig. 16. Distribution of CO2 released by component in the introduced system
[53]. Where Ei represents the emissions of each specific greenhouse gas i across Riyadh, Doha, and Abu Dhabi.
(CO2) measured in kilograms and GWPi is the Global Warming Potential
factor for gas i (CO2), as defined by the IPCC 2013 guidelines, expressed required information for this section is derived from the TRNSYS
in CO2 equivalents (kg CO2eq) [54]. simulation.
∑ ∑
GWP = (Ei × GWPi ) (16) GWPManufacturing = (Ek × EFk ) (18)
i i

This equation was applied to each stage of the lifecycle,

manufacturing, operation, and end-of-life, to determine the total GWP 3.6.3. LCA results
for the system. The GWP for the manufacturing phase was calculated by The LCA outcomes for the introduced cooling system in Riyadh,
summing the emissions associated with the production of raw materials, Doha, and Abu Dhabi are presented in Figs. 15 and 16. Fig. 15 illustrates
and the energy consumed during manufacturing (Eq. (17)). In Eq. (17), the GWP for each city. It reveals that Riyadh has the highest CO2
Mj represents the mass of each material used in the system, and EFj is the emissions associated with the system, followed closely by Doha. These
discrepancies could be due to varying solar irradiance levels, ambient
emission factor associated with the production and processing of that
temperatures, or humidity conditions, which in turn influence the sys-
material [54]. The necessary data for this section was gathered from
tem's efficiency and consequent emission levels. Fig. 16 presents the
existing published research on each component. As previously noted,
contributions of individual components to the total CO2 emissions
biomass boiler information was sourced from Zhu et al. [48], while data
within each city. A striking observation from this figure is the dominant
for other components was obtained from Beccali et al. [51]. The desic-
role of the biomass boiler, which is responsible for over 56 % of the total
cant wheel and PCM storage tank data were derived from Bozorgi et al.
CO2 emissions in all three cities. This significant proportion highlights
[28].
∑( the biomass boiler's operational characteristics as a critical factor in the
)
GWPManufacturing = Mj × EFj (17) system's overall environmental impact. Moreover, Abu Dhabi shows a
i lower GWP compared to Riyadh and Doha, despite having similar con-
During the operational phase, emissions were calculated based on tributions from individual components. This can be attributed to the
the energy consumed for cooling, heating, and regeneration processes. system's overall higher efficiency in Abu Dhabi, influenced by more
The GWP for this phase was calculated using Eq. (18). Where Ek is the favorable climatic conditions and better system integration and opti-
energy consumption of process k such as electricity and biomass fuel. mization in this location. In each scenario, an increase in biomass fuel
EFk is the corresponding emission factor for the energy source [54]. The consumption affects the system's energy efficiency and elevates the

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C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

- The research demonstrated the capability of the proposed cooling

system to control the indoor climate of greenhouses, in challenging
environments like Abu Dhabi, Doha, and Riyadh. The system main-
tained indoor temperatures within 21 ◦ C to 27 ◦ C during the daytime
and 15 ◦ C to 20 ◦ C at night, while keeping the relative humidity
between 50 % and 70 %.
- The solar fraction is an important parameter, with Riyadh achieving
the highest at 41.92 %, followed by Abu Dhabi at 40.04 % and Doha
at 39.49 %. These figures underscore the significant contribution of
solar energy to the system's operation, emphasizing its sustainability.
- The COP results further validated the system's efficiency. Abu Dhabi
reported the highest COP at 1.108, with Doha and Riyadh following
at 1.014 and 0.827, respectively.
- The biomass boiler emerged as a predominant source of CO2 emis-
Fig. 17. EPBT comparison of the solar cooling system in Abu Dhabi, Doha, sions, accounting for over 56 % of emissions in all cities.
and Riyadh. - EPBT was another key metric, with the system in Abu Dhabi
achieving an EPBT of 3.96 years, the shortest among the cities. In
GWP, as the biomass boiler constitutes the major source of CO2 emis- contrast, Doha and Riyadh had longer EPBTs of 4.48 and 5.83 years,
sions within the system. This relationship is critical for understanding respectively, suggesting areas for potential improvement in system
the trade-offs between renewable energy utilization and the reliance on efficiency.
biomass as a supplementary energy source.
The proposed solar cooling system's sustainability and environ- Thus the environmental assessment indicates that the proposed
mental impact were comprehensively assessed, including an evaluation system offers substantial benefits for sustainable greenhouse manage-
of its Energy Payback Time (EPBT). EPBT is a metric used to determine ment, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Future research should
the time required for the system to generate an amount of energy focus on enhancing biomass boiler efficiency, optimizing the system for
equivalent to the total energy consumed throughout its entire lifecycle. various climates, and reducing EPBT. This study contributes valuable
This includes the embodied energy of the system. This measure is insights towards the development of renewable energy-based cooling
essential for understanding the sustainability and long-term environ- systems in agriculture, aligning with global sustainable agricultural
mental viability of the system. Fig. 17 illustrates the EPBT for the solar practices.
cooling system configurations in the distinct environments of Abu
Dhabi, Doha, and Riyadh. The depicted results show significant varia- 5. Future work
tions in EPBT across these cities. Notably, the system in Abu Dhabi
demonstrates the shortest EPBT of 3.96 years, implying a more efficient - Incorporate Transportation Impacts: Conduct a sensitivity analysis to
energy recovery and a quicker offset of its initial energy investment. In include transportation-related emissions in the LCA to better un-
comparison, the systems in Doha and Riyadh exhibit longer EPBTs, with derstand the overall environmental impact of the system across
4.48 years and 5.83 years respectively. These differences in EPBT can be different logistical scenarios.
attributed to several factors, including the efficiency of the solar col- - Evaluate Long-Term Economic Feasibility: Perform a comprehensive
lectors, the intensity and duration of solar irradiance in each location, cost-benefit analysis over the system's lifetime, including initial in-
and the overall system performance, which includes factors like opera- vestment, maintenance, and operational costs, to determine the long-
tional efficiency. The shorter EPBT in Abu Dhabi suggests that the sys- term economic feasibility of the proposed system.
tem there is more effective in terms of energy generation versus - Develop Advanced Control Systems: Research and develop advanced
consumption, making it a more sustainable option in the long run. control systems that utilize real-time data and machine learning al-
gorithms to optimize the performance of the cooling system based on
4. Conclusion dynamic environmental conditions.
- Assess Impact on Plant Growth and Yield: Conduct experimental
This research introduces a novel sustainable cooling system, har- studies to assess the direct impact of the proposed cooling system on
nessing renewable energy sources which are solar energy and biomass, plant growth, health, and yield within the greenhouse environment.
to maintain an optimal indoor environment for greenhouses located in
hot climates. The novelty of this research lies in the innovative combi- CRediT authorship contribution statement
nation of renewable energy sources with advanced cooling technologies,
leveraging waste heat for desiccant regeneration, and optimizing energy Caozheng Yan: Supervision, Conceptualization. Azher M. Abed:
use through integrated system design. The primary components of this Validation, Data curation. Rishabh Chaturvedi: Methodology, Formal
innovative system include a desiccant wheel, an absorption chiller, a analysis. Mahidzal Dahari: Formal analysis, Data curation. Sherzod
PCM storage tank, and a biomass boiler. These elements work in concert Abdullaev: Writing – original draft, Investigation. Xiao Zhou: Writing –
to deliver processed air within an acceptable temperature and humidity review & editing, Writing – original draft. Ibrahim Mahariq: Writing –
range, crucial for efficient greenhouse ventilation. To evaluate the sys- review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation. Yasser
tem's performance, the simulation is conducted using TRNSYS software, Elmasry: Resources, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
focusing on its operation during the summer months in Doha, Abu
Dhabi, and Riyadh. These locations were selected for their challenging Declaration of competing interest
climatic conditions, representative of environments where greenhouse
cooling is essential. Additionally, a comprehensive LCA was performed The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
to assess the environmental impacts of the system across its lifecycle. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
This LCA adheres to established standards and methodologies, providing the work reported in this paper.
a rigorous analysis of the system's sustainability and its ecological
footprint. Here are the key results of this research:

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C. Yan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 101 (2024) 113871

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