Define signals and systems briefly explain the classification

A signal is a function that conveys information about the behavior of a physical system, varying with time,
space, or another independent variable. Signals can be classified into continuous-time signals, which are
defined at all instances of time (e.g., speech, ECG signals), and discrete-time signals, which are defined
only at specific time intervals (e.g., digital signals). A system is a process that takes an input signal,
processes it, and produces an output signal, such as amplifiers, filters, and communication systems.
Signals can also be classified based on their properties, including deterministic and random signals
(predictable vs. unpredictable), periodic and aperiodic signals (repeating vs. non-repeating), even and
odd signals (symmetrical vs. asymmetrical around the origin), and energy and power signals (finite vs.
infinite energy). Systems are classified as linear or nonlinear (following or not following the principle of
superposition), time-invariant or time-variant (output consistency over time), causal or non-causal
(dependent on past and present inputs vs. future inputs), and stable or unstable (bounded vs. unbounded
output). Understanding signals and systems is essential in fields like communication, control, and signal
processing.

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Check if a Signal is Periodic?

A signal is periodic if it repeats after a fixed time.

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1. Continuous-Time Signal \( x(t) \)

A signal \( x(t) \) is periodic if there is a time \( T \) such that:
\[
x(t + T) = x(t) \quad \text{for all } t
\]

Example of a Periodic Signal:

\( x(t) = \cos(5t) \)

- The period is found using:

\[
T = \frac{2\pi}{\omega} = \frac{2\pi}{5}
\]
- Since \( T \) is a fixed number, this signal is periodic.

Example of a Non-Periodic Signal:

\( x(t) = e^{-t} \)

- This function never repeats, so it is not periodic.

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2. Discrete-Time Signal \( x[n] \)

A discrete signal \( x[n] \) is periodic if there is a number \( N \) such that:
\[
x[n + N] = x[n] \quad \text{for all } n
\]

Example of a Periodic Signal:

\( x[n] = \sin\left(\frac{\pi}{4} n\right) \)
- To check periodicity, find \( \frac{\omega}{2\pi} \):
\[
\frac{\pi/4}{2\pi} = \frac{1}{8}
\]
- Since \( \frac{1}{8} \) is a fraction, the signal is periodic with \( N = 8 \).

Example of a Non-Periodic Signal:

\( x[n] = \sin(\sqrt{2} n) \)

- \( \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2\pi} \) is not a fraction, so the signal never repeats exactly.

- It is not periodic.

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Key Points to Remember

For continuous-time signals: Check if \( T = \frac{2\pi}{\omega} \) is a fixed value.
For discrete-time signals: Check if \( \frac{\omega}{2\pi} \) is a fraction (rational number).
If a signal never repeats, it is NOT periodic.

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module 4

The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) is used to analyze discrete-time signals in the frequency
domain. It provides insight into how different frequency components contribute to a given signal. Several
key properties of DTFT make it useful in signal processing, filtering, and system analysis. Let’s go through
each property in detail:

1. Linearity
The DTFT is a linear transformation, meaning that if we take a weighted sum of two signals in the time
domain, their DTFTs also add up with the same weights in the frequency domain.

Mathematically:
\[
a x_1[n] + b x_2[n] \xrightarrow{\text{DTFT}} aX_1(e^{j\omega}) + bX_2(e^{j\omega})
\]
where \( a \) and \( b \) are constants.

Explanation: If you combine two signals by adding or scaling them, their frequency-domain
representations also combine in the same way. This property is useful for analyzing complex signals built
from simpler ones.

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2. Time Shifting
Shifting a signal in time results in a phase shift in its DTFT.

Mathematically:
\[
x[n - n_0] \xrightarrow{\text{DTFT}} e^{-j\omega n_0} X(e^{j\omega})
\]

Explanation:
- If we shift the signal by \( n_0 \) samples, the DTFT remains the same in magnitude but gets multiplied
by a complex exponential factor \( e^{-j\omega n_0} \), which represents a phase shift.
- This property is essential in modulation and filtering, where signals are shifted in time.

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3. Frequency Shifting
Multiplying a signal by a complex exponential shifts its spectrum in the frequency domain.

Mathematically:
\[
x[n] e^{j\omega_0 n} \xrightarrow{\text{DTFT}} X(e^{j(\omega - \omega_0)})
\]

Explanation:
- When a signal is multiplied by \( e^{j\omega_0 n} \), its spectrum shifts by \( \omega_0 \).
- This is commonly used in modulation, where signals are moved to different frequency bands.

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4. Convolution Property
Convolution in the time domain corresponds to multiplication in the frequency domain.

Mathematically:
\[
x_1[n] * x_2[n] \xrightarrow{\text{DTFT}} X_1(e^{j\omega}) X_2(e^{j\omega})
\]

Explanation:
- If two signals are convolved (combined using a sliding sum operation) in time, their frequency spectra
are multiplied.
- This property is fundamental in filtering, where a signal is convolved with a filter impulse response.

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5. Multiplication Property
Multiplication in the time domain results in convolution in the frequency domain.

Mathematically:
\[
x_1[n] x_2[n] \xrightarrow{\text{DTFT}} \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^{\pi} X_1(e^{j\theta}) X_2(e^{j(\omega -
\theta)}) d\theta
\]

Explanation:
- When two signals are multiplied in time, their spectra get convolved.
- This property is useful in amplitude modulation and signal windowing.

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6. Parseval’s Theorem
This property states that the total energy of a signal remains the same in both time and frequency
domains.

Mathematically:
\[
\sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} |x[n]|^2 = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^{\pi} |X(e^{j\omega})|^2 d\omega
\]

Explanation:
- The total power of a signal, whether computed in the time domain or frequency domain, is identical.
- This helps in power analysis and signal reconstruction.

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7. Differentiation in Frequency Domain

Multiplication by \( n \) in the time domain results in differentiation in the frequency domain.

Mathematically:
\[
n x[n] \xrightarrow{\text{DTFT}} j \frac{d}{d\omega} X(e^{j\omega})
\]

Explanation:
- If you multiply a signal by \( n \), it corresponds to taking the derivative of its frequency spectrum.
- This property is useful in phase and group delay analysis.

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Summary Table of DTFT Properties

| Property | Time Domain | Frequency Domain

|--------------------|----------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------
|
| Linearity | \( ax_1[n] + bx_2[n] \) | \( aX_1(e^{j\omega}) + bX_2(e^{j\omega}) \) |
|
| Time Shifting | \( x[n - n_0] \) | \( e^{-j\omega n_0} X(e^{j\omega}) \) |
|
| Frequency Shifting | \( x[n] e^{j\omega_0 n} \) | \( X(e^{j(\omega - \omega_0)}) \) |
|
| Convolution | \( x_1[n] * x_2[n] \) | \( X_1(e^{j\omega}) X_2(e^{j\omega}) \) |
|
| Multiplication | \( x_1[n] x_2[n] \) | \( X_1(e^{j\omega}) \) convolved with \( X_2(e^{j\omega}) \) |
|
| Parseval’s Theorem | \( \sum |x[n]|^2 \) | \( \frac{1}{2\pi} \int |X(e^{j\omega})|^2 d\omega \) |
|
| Differentiation | \( n x[n] \) | \( j \frac{d}{d\omega} X(e^{j\omega}) \) |