SYNTACTIC SEGMENTS - linear chunks of language signs by the use of which language speakers are able to

render certain syntactic information

- SENTENCE - composed of clauses – sub-classified into single-clause and multiple-clause sentences
o /The old man had taught the boy to fish and the boy loved him./ 1 sentence
- CLAUSE
o /The old man had taught the boy to fish/ and /the boy loved him/. 2 clauses
- SEMICLAUSE
o The old man had taught the boy /to fish/ and the boy loved him. 1 semi-clause
- PHRASE
o /The old man/ had taught/ the boy/ to fish/ 3 phrases / 4 surface slots in a clause
- WORD - signalled by graphic spaces inserted between particular orthographic units
o /The/ old/ man/ had/ taught/ the/ boy/ to/ fish/. 9 words

PHRASE - operates as a member of the clause and is capable of activating grammatical and cognitive hints of
syntactic information within the clause
- Tests for delimitation of phrases:
o Transposition – the change of the position of words within a linear stretch of words
 The/ old/ man/ had/ taught/ the/ boy/ to/ fish/...
 Old* the* man /had/ taught/ the/ boy/ to/ fish/...
o Substitution – substituting words by other of the same word classes
 The old man had taught the boy to fish...
 That young fisherman had taught the boy to fish...
o Coordination – coordinating the whole stretch with an analogical stretch containing other member of
the same word classes
 The old man and that young fisherman had taught the boy to fish...
 The old man/ had taught/ the boy/ ……

Types of phrases
noun phrase (NP) the old man, the boy
verb phrase (VP) loved, had taught
adjective phrase (AdjP) the old man, a very nice girl
prepositional phrase (PrepP) on the cheek
adverb phrase (AP) very quickly, suddenly

noun phrase (NP) – consist of Head, Modifier (Premodifier, Postmodifier) + determiners (the, a/an, half, all, seven)

verb phrase (VP)

- Heads – carry the notional meaning of the whole VP
o Finite (-s form, past form, base form of 1st, 2nd person sg. and pl., 3rd person pl., modals)
o Non-finite (-ing form, -ed form, base form of infinitive)
- Auxiliaries – activate the grammatical meaning

adjective phrase (AdjP) - consist of Heads and Modifiers

prepositional phrase (PrepP)

- Prepositional Navigator (PrepNav) – rendered by prepositions as parts of speech
o Determines the valency reading of Prepositional Complement and also the whole prepositional phrase
- Prepositional Complement (PrepCompl) – may be noun phrase or gerundial semi-clause
o Onomasiologically prominent

adverb phrase (AP) - consist of Heads and Modifiers

Traditional labels indicating the function that a particular phrase plays on the level of clause are
- Subject (S)
- Verb (V)
- Object (O)
- Subject Complement (Cs)
- Object Complement (Co)
 - Adverbial Modifier (A)
o their particular surface combinations will be referred to as surface chains (e.g. SVO, SVA…)

Syntactic components of clause-rank units (and semi-clauses) are tied by:

- cognitive frames (combination of semantic or cognitive roles) – convey the syntactic meaning
- surface chains – render the grammatical characteristics of a syntactic stretch (the coding information)

Cognitive Question test

- Test to delimitate the phrases
- WHO? does WHAT? to WHOM? HOW/ WHERE/ WHEN/ WHY?

STRUCTURE – FUNCTION TERMS OF SYNTACTIC PYRAMID

Aspects of Structure terms Function terms

analysis →
Ranks in the
Syntactic
Pyramid ↓
Sentence simple sentence speech-act functions:
compound sentence statement, question, command, wish…
(copulative, grammatical types:
adversative….) declarative, interrogative, imperative, optative, exclamative
complex sentence
Clause main/matrix clause Subject
dependent clause Object
(nominal, relative, Adverbial
adverbial) Subject Complement
Object Complement
Postmodifier
Semi-clause gerund Subject
participle Object
infinitive Adverbial
Subject Complement
Object Complement
Premodifier/Postmodifier
Phrase noun phrase Verb
verb phrase Subject
adverb phrase Object
adjective phrase Subject Complement
prepositional phrase Object Complement
Adverbial
Premodifier
Postmodifier
Word parts of speech: noun, Head
verb, adjective, Modifier (Premodifier/Postmodifier)
adverb… Determiner
Auxiliary
Prepositional Navigator
Prepositional Complement
PYRAMID RANK ANALYSIS

In the departmental library the Erasmus student was reading a new textbook on the English syntax.

LEXICAL VS SYNTACTIC MEANING

Lexical - understood as a set of general (general-cognitive) and distinctive (unit-specific) semantic features/semes that
serve as a certain potential semantic range for a word-rank unit. The concrete realization of the unit´s lexical potential
depends on its particular syntagmatic environment – context.
- You don’t know the specific meaning until the sentence is finished – you have context

Syntactic - is considered to be generated by various combinations of general cognitive features (such as un/willed
action, state, perception, causativeness, qualification, circumstantiality, etc.)
- Syntactic meaning is activated by phrase

VALENCY
- the different potentials that individual verbs have for occurring in a variety of sentence structures
- The verb is the centre of gravity of the clause around which the rest of the clause elements are arranged with
various degrees of attraction
- The syntactic concept of valency was introduced into linguistics to account for the verb-dependent ability of
phrases to co-occur within a clause. It is therefore the fundamental clause-diagnostic feature that
distinguishes phrases from clauses/semi-clauses
- Valency as a capability of the verb phrase to extend its scope of influence over the other syntactic segments
on the level of clause, or semi-clause, may be analysed from two points of view:
o semasiologically, i.e. starting from the surface function segments (S, O, C, A)
 starting from cognitive valency frames
  is focused on the minimum surface chains of clause elements concerned around the verb
o onomasiologically/cognitively, i.e. starting from the cognitive roles (Doer, Performer, Goal etc.).
 deriving from surface valency chains
 concerned with the framing of general cognitive categories arranged around the Action
- valency is not a matter of the verb´s potential to influence the selection of its elaborators, but rather as an issue
of the communicator´s ability to identify recurring patterns of combinations of particular cognitive roles
projected into their surface verbalizations.

CODING VALENCY CHAINS

Coding valency chain Type of verb complementation Example

SV Intransitive proper The sun is shining.

SVCs Copular The girl is/seems nice.

SVA Copular John is at home.

SVO Monotransitive She helped John.

SVOO Ditransitive Mary gave him a book.

SVOA Complex transitive Mary put the baby in the cradle.

SVOCo Complex transitive The jury finds him guilty.

ARGUMENT VS NON ARGUMENT

- Depending on the “force” exerted by the verb phrase/Action, there may be identified:
o valency-mandatory components (also called direct elaborators or Arguments)
 built up coding valency chains on the surface level, and cognitive valency frames on the
deep level
 Valency may therefore be specifically defined as the alignment of the minimum mandatory
verb phrase elaborators/Arguments on both the grammatical/surface level as well as
cognitive/deep level (distinction between deep and surface levels based on Chomsky)
o valency-optional components (also termed indirect elaborators or Non-Arguments).

Cognitive Omissibility Test

- valency-concerned syntacticians agree that valency consists in “…the chaining of the minimum obligatory
accompaniments of verbal action (Arguments) to render a cognitively complete set“
- Determination of a particular valency arrangement rests in the identification of Arguments.
o Semasiologists identify them on the surface level, among the clause elements,
o Onomasiologists are concerned with the Action and its elaborators, and identify Arguments on the
deep level among the cognitive roles

Syntactic Paraphrase and Translation Test

- Two tests supporting the Cognitive Omissibility Test
- both may help providing independence of the two of the frames
- purpose of these tests: decipher the syntactic meaning

how to distinguish Arguments from Non-Arguments?

- the test for the cognitive completeness is “the conceptual necessity of participants to the meaning of the
verb”
Argument
 - On the surface - will be identified as coding clause elements: Subject, Object, Subject Complement, Object
Complement, Adverbial
- On the deep level, they will be treated as categories of abstract syntactic meaning, i.e. cognitive roles: Agent,
Perceiver, Patient, Localizer, Qualifier, etc.

Doer Action Theme Localizer

S V O A
1./The girl / put / the pen /into her bag/. SVOA
NP VP NP PP

Non-Argument

Doer Action Resultant Localizer

2./The girl / wrote / her homework /at school/. SVO
NP VP NP PP

CODING VERSUS COGNITIVE ARGUMENT ALIGNMENTS INTERACTIONS

- In syntax, general cognitive concepts are examined in terms of cognitive roles (semantic roles, thematic roles,
theta roles, deep level roles) and their combination – cognitive alignments
- Relationship between coding and cognitive Argument alignments include various interactions between them,
alignment polysemy and synonymy, and cross-linguistic non/correspondence of coding alignments serving to
activate the same cognitive frames
- As for the issue of various interactions between the coding and cognitive alignments, the one-to-many
relationships obtain in either direction
- cognitive roles are resistant to syntactic transformation – they remain fixed regardless of
transformations on the surface level, for example passivization or various metaphoric extensions

Alignment polysemy - is rendered when one surface string (identical in terms of its lexical units of the same lexeme,
word order and morpho-syntactic markers) conveys several cognitive frames
John dropped a pen
1)Agentive -Patient Frame Doer Willed Action Theme
2)Experiencer Patient Frame Unintentional Performer Unwilled Action Specifier

Alignment synonymy - occurs when two formally distinct surface/coding chains activate the same cognitive frame.
Ja mám rád tento obraz
Emoter (Subject) Emotion (Verb) Emotion Focus (Object)
Ja mám rád tento obraz
I.1.NOM.SG have.1.SG.PRS glad.M this picture.ACC.SG

Páči sa mi tento obraz.

Emoter (Object) Emotion (Verb) Emotion Focus (Subject)
mi páči sa tento obraz
me.I.SG.DAT like.3.SG.PRS REFL this picture.NOM.SG

COGNITIVE ROLES
- ENTITIES
o Agent – cause-active entity
 Intentional Performer/Doer
 He is digging the garden.
 External Causer
 The flood destroyed several villages.
 Permitter
 John grows his beard in winter.
 Initiator
 He jumped the horse over the fence.
 Instrumental
 The key opened the door.
o Patient – cause-inactive entity
 Unintentional performer
 John slipped on a banana peel.
 Affected participant
 John painted the wall.
 Resultant
 John painted a landscape.
 Possessor/Donee
 John owns a house.
 Focus
 John loves Jane.
 Theme
 John put the book on the table.
 Specifier
 John broke his leg.
o Experiencer – experiencing entity
 Cognizer
 John remembered his name.
 Emoter
 John loved her.
 Perceiver
 John saw a girl.
o Qualified entity – being attributed various characteristics
 John is tall.
 John resembles his father.
o Localized entity – being allocated with various circumstances
 John lives in Košice.
 The flight takes 2 hours.
 John is in the garden.
- STATE/ACTIONS – intentional/unintentional
- CIRCUMSTANCES – special/temporal/mannerial

CORE COGNITIVE VALENCY FRAMES

Cognitive valency frame Example

I Action focused frame activated as Agent + Action The sun is shining.

II Existential frame activated as Agent + Action (+ Localizer) There is a girl over there.
A big ship appeared on the horizon.
The problem still exists.
III Qualifying frame activated as Qualified Entity + Copula + Qualifier The girl is nice.

IV Patient frames– activated as Agent/Experiencer + Action +Patient (+ She helped John.

Patient) John gave Marry a bunch of
flowers.
V Circumstantial frames – attributing circumstances either to John went to school today.
Agent/Experiencer or to Patient Mary put the baby in the cradle.
VI Patient qualifying frame – activated as Agent + Action + Patient + The jury finds him guilty.
Patient Qualifier
ACTION-FOCUSED FRAMES
- Convey activities, processes and states requiring a single Argument which may be one the following: Agent,
Experiencer or Existing Entity.
- Coding markers: chain: SV
- Structural markers: structural string: NP+VP
- Cognitive markers: Argument (macro-role): AGENT/EXPERIENCER/EXISTING ENTITY

SUBFRAMES
- Cognitive sub-frames are concrete combinations of cognitive micro-roles with the respective macro-roles

1. Agent - Doer + Willed Action

- Doer is an animate intentional performer of Action, including, inanimate entities by metaphoric operations:

He is swimming. The girl weeps. The horse neighs.

2. Experiencer - Bearer + Unwilled State/Process

- Bearer includes entities involved in various kinds of spontaneous states and processes which are not will-
controlled, including inanimate entities

John is sneezing/sneezed. John is aging. The eggs hatched. The sun shines

3. Perceiver-Specifier + State/Process
- the internal analysis of the Subject slot reveals that the cognitive Argument (Experiencer/Perceiver) is
activated by a Non-Argument surface element, i.e. the Determiner of the Head of the noun phrase

My leg hurts. Perceiver: My Specifier: leg

4. Undergoer + Unwilled Action

- Undergoer (Unintentional Performer) is a cause-inactive entity involved in some kind of unwilled action
which is externally observed as some activity rather than process or state

John slipped on a banana peel. John fell down.

5. Prop it + Atmospheric Condition

- The pronoun it serves as a dummy item filling out the surface slot of Subject without activating any cognitive
role which is fully realized by the Verb.

It´s blowing/snowing. It hailed/rained.

EXISTENTIAL FRAMES
- activate an idea of existence of an entity (both concrete and abstract), or its appearance on the scene
- Coding markers: chain: SV or SVA
- Structural markers: structural string: NP+VP, NP+VP+AP/PrepP
- Cognitive markers: Argument (macro-role): EXISTING ENTITY

SUBFRAMES

1. Existential sub-frame proper

a) coding: SV
b) structural: NP+VP
c) cognitive: Existing Entity + State of Existence

The problem / still / exists. New answers / exist.

 2. Dummy there existential sub-frame
- The existential there frame activates an idea of existence; the verb to be functions as auto-semantic verb
a) coding: SthereVbe S > SV
b) structural: dummy there +VPbe + NP
c) cognitive: Dummy there + Existential Be + Existing Entity

There / is / an answer. There / came / some rain.

3. Dummy there modal-existential sub-frame

- The modal-existential there frame activates an idea of prohibiting an activity, although it may also activate
mere non-existence of an activity.
a) coding: SthereVbe no S
b) structural: dummy there +VPbe + No + Gerundial semi-clause
c) cognitive: Dummy Entity + Prohibition (be+no)+ Activity

There / is / no / smoking / in these premises.

4. Dummy there existential-locative sub-frame

- This sub-frame is activated by two Arguments, namely Existing Entity and Localizer, encoded as the post-
Verb Subject and Adverbial, respectively. The sub-frame is used to rhematize the Existential Entity.
a) coding: SthereVbe S A
b) structural: dummy there +VPbe copula + NP + PrepP
c) cognitive: Dummy Entity + Be + Existential/Localized Entity + Localizer

There / is / a book / on the table.

5. Dummy there action sub-frame

a) coding: SthereVbe Saction A
b) structural: dummy there +VPbe + NP + PrepP
c) cognitive: Dummy Entity + Copula + Action + Localizer

There / was / a wolf´s howl / in the distance.

QUALIFYING FRAMES
- activate various kinds of value judgments about features or qualities attributable to entities.
- Coding markers: chain: SVCs
- Structural markers: Cs is either NP or AP
- Cognitive markers: Qualified Entity + State/Process + Qualifier

SUBFRAMES
- distinguished by different types of Qualifiers:

1. Evaluative qualifying sub-frame

My decision is final.

2. Action qualifying sub-frame

I am a big eater. The patient is under observation.

3. Classifying qualifying sub-frame (we can’t change order)

Clay became a public defender.
 4. Identifying qualifying sub-frame (we can change order)
The tall man is the guide.
5. Possessive qualifying sub-frame
o follows the copular verb to have
o may be synonymous with the Evaluative Qualifying Frame:
She has blue eyes. (Possessive Qualifier) → Her eyes are blue. (Evaluative Qualifier)

6. Relational qualifying sub-frame

o the Verb expressing a particular relation (thus not being a true copular verb) and the Subject Complement
conveying the relational referent
o Coding marker: SVCs
o Structural marker: NP+VP+NP
o Cognitive markers: Qualified Entity + Composite Qualifier (composed of Relation + Referent);
cognitive sub-frames may include:
a) equality: Nothing can ever equal that experience. (MW)
b) similarity: Terrier dogs closely resemble each other. (MW)
c) comparison: The cost exceeded our estimate. (MW)
d) possession: The book belongs to me. (MW)

7. Perception qualifying sub-frame

o Coding marker: SVCs/SVA
o Structural marker: NP+VP+Adj/AP
o Cognitive marker: Perceiver/Qualified Entity + Perception + Perception Qualifier

He felt cold. Her hair feels nice. The soup tastes delicious. The movie was terrifying.

PATIENT FRAMES
- Patient Frames must include an Object Argument!!
- Coding markers:
o SVOd: He painted the wall.
o SVOdOi: John gave Jane the book.
o SVOdA: She put the pen into a bag.
o SVOdCo: They considered him guilty.
- Structural markers: Diagnostic structural realization of Object: NP
- Cognitive markers: Diagnostic cognitive role of Object: PATIENT

Grammaticalized word order

- in English the position of Subject and Object is activated by the position relative to the verb
- in Slovak it is distinguish by inflection

Peter loves Jane. (SVO) Peter ľúbi Janu. (SVO)

Jane loves Peter. (SVO) Janu ľúbi Peter. (OVS)

Object
- There are two types of surface Objects, namely Direct Object and Indirect Object, differing from each other by
their mutual position and distinct case form in inflectional languages (Accusative for the Direct Object, Dative for
the Indirect Object)
- If the Indirect Object is realized by a NP, it precedes the Direct Object
- if it is realized by a PrepP, it follows the Direct Object.
Peter gave Oi(Jane) Od(some flowers).
Peter gave Od(some flowers) Oi(to Jane).

- The Omission Test would show that the Donee/Indirect Object is implicitly present if omitted on the surface,
while the omission of the Theme/Direct Object would result in changing the cognitive role of the Indirect Object
into Theme.
He sold his bike. (bike – Theme; Donee is implicitly present)
 He sold me. (me – Theme) (a shift of the cognitive role occurs along with the change of Indirect
Object to Direct Object)

Passivization Test
- it is the major coding Object-diagnostic test
- Since the main purpose of passive transformations is to rhematize the Agent or the Action the Object is
thematized by being transposed to the Subject slot
John painted this picture. >>> This picture was painted by John.

SUBFRAMES

1. Agentive Patient Frame

- activated by causative verbs lexicalizing Agent of various subtypes combining it with various micro-roles of
Patient. They may be realized by SVO, SVOO and SVOA kernel chains.

SVO
Type of Agent Example Type of Patient in the Object
in the Subject slot
slot
Doer She kissed him on the mouth. Affected Entity
Doer Jane made a cake. Resultant Entity
Doer/External In 1906 the earthquake destroyed San Francisco. Affected Entity
Causer (Cambr. Dict)
Doer I don’t play poker. (G:120) Action specifier
He climbed Mt. Gerlach. Locative Specifier
Initiator He marched the company up the hill. Affective Entity/ Doer
Permitter John grows his beard in winter. Bearer
Doer He was watching a film. Focus
Experiencer
Stimulus His jokes amused me. Affected Entity/Experiencer
Instrument The key opened the door. Affected Entity

SVOO
Type of Agent in Example Type of Patient in Type of Patient in the
the Subject slot the Direct Object Indirect object slot
slot
Donor/Doer She bought Oi(him) Od(a car). Donee Theme (subject-matter of
transfer)
Donor We provided Oi(them) Od(with food Donee Theme
and shelter).
Donee The mortgagor owed Donor Theme (subject-matter of
Oi
(the mortgagee) Od(thousands transfer)
euros).
Doer/false Donor He gave Oi(the car) Od(a wash). Affected Action /Eventive
Entity/quazi Donee

2. Experiencer Patient Frame

- activated by verbs lexicalizing various physical, emotion and perception states by which Experiencers are
subclassified accordingly
- The diagnostic Patient micro-role is Focus.
- They are realized by the SVO kernel chain.

Type of Experiencer in the Example Type of Patient in the

Subject slot Direct Object slot
Cognizer I know him. He asked a question. Focus
Emoter Mary enjoyed the play. Focus
 Perceiver I can hear birds outside. Focus
Possessor/Donee John owns a house. Focus
John received a summons. Theme
Unintentional John broke his leg. Relation (Part-Whole)
Performer/Undergoer The car broke its axle. Specifier
Unintentional The company has incurred huge losses over Theme/Resultant
Performer/Undergoer the past three years
Focus It occurred to me that I forgot your birthday. Cognizer
SVO
It seems to me that she is quite crazy. SVO
(She reminds me of her mother.) SVOA

3. Circumstantial Patient Frames

- involve a combination of Agent/Experiencer and various Patient-like elaborators.

Type of Example Type of Patient Passivization Test Question Test

Agent/Experien in the Direct Nominal/Adverb
cer in the Object slot
Subject slot
Affected Centipedes grow Resultant Their legs are grown What do they grow?
Entity/Bearer their legs at by centipedes.
various stages of
their
development.
Doer They were Action Specifier A waltz was danced by What were they dancing?
dancing a waltz. them (?)
Doer They climbed a Locative Specifier A hill was climbed by What did they climb?
hill. them.
Measure Specifier 20 miles were run by How many miles die they
They ran 20 them. (?) run?
miles.
Localizer/ The broken pipe Exponent/ Water was run by the From where was water
Source was running Undergoer broken pipe. running?
water.
Doer He took a shower. Eventive A shower was taken by What did he take?
him.

Emoter He smiled his Cognate His ironic smile was How did he smile?
ironic smile smiled by him.

CIRCUMSTANTIAL FRAMES AND ADVERBIALS

- Circumstantial Frames are used to indicate various circumstantial features pertaining either to the
Agent/Experiencer or to the Patient
- Circumstantial features are diagnostically realized by adverb phrases which function as Adverbials
- They may either qualify as Arguments (in the Circumstantial Frames) or Non-Arguments, i.e. optional
modifiers of verbs or adjectives.
- Moreover, they may also be employed as sentence modifiers
- Coding marker: diagnosed by the position relative to the Verb
- Structure: Adverb phrase
- Cognitive markers: CIRCUMSTANTIAL FEATURE

ADVERBIALS
- Adjunct - Adverbials which are incorporated in the clause structure either as Arguments or Non-Arguments
which is distinguished by the Omissibility Test
- Can be elicited by the Cognitive Question Test
o Place Adjuncts
 o Time Adjuncts
o Manner Proper Adjuncts - The can opener is not working properly.
o Measure Adjuncts - I don´t really know.
o Contingency Adjuncts
o Focusing Adjuncts - include such adverbs as only, especially, as well, also, even, just, merely,
solely, alone, simply, especially, particularly, - I merely wanted to know his name.
o Subject Adjuncts - He foolishly ignored his parents´ advice.

Cognitive roles of Adjuncts

Cognitive Macro-role Question Test
PLACE Position Where? From/to where? In what direction?
Direction
Source
Distance
TIME Position
Duration
Frequency
Relation
MANNER Proper How?
Subject Adjuncts
Means/Instrument
Accompanying circumstances
Viewpoint/Respect
Result
MEASURE Measure proper To what degree/extent?
Intensifiers Amplifiers
Intensifiers Downtoners
CONTINGENCY Reason Why? If what? For what purpose? In spite of
Purpose what? By whom/by what?
Effect
Condition
Concession
Source
Agency
FOCUSING

- Sentence Adverbial - stand aside the clause structure, and are components of sentences
- are not subject to the Cognitive Question Test
- are used either to express various attitudes of the speaker to the utterance (realized by
the clause) as a whole, i.e. Disjuncts, or as cohesive devices, i.e. Conjuncts.
o Disjuncts
 Style Disjuncts - speakers comment on the style and form of what is being said, so they may
be paraphrased by such phrases as to put it frankly, frankly speaking, to be frank.
 Content Disjuncts – function as Cs, are used to express speakers´ observations or attitudes as
to the actual content of an utterance, its certainty or truth conditions
 Content Disjuncts evaluating the content of an utterance: properly, luckily, rightly,
hopefully…
 Content Disjuncts relating to the certainty of an utterance: definitely, certainly,
obviously, undoubtedly…
 Content Disjuncts relating to the factuality of an utterance: actually, maybe, perhaps,
really, indeed, actually…
Style Disjuncts versus Content Disjuncts
Tests Exemplification Paraphrase
Style Disjuncts Frankly, I think your essay needs to be frank
 comment on the style/form of more work. frankly speaking
utterance to put it frankly

Content Disjuncts Surprisingly, he agreed. It was surprising that he agreed.

comment on the content of an He agreed, which was surprising.
utterance
-
o Conjuncts
 listing (chronologically): in the first place, next, then, first, second, to start with, to
conclude, eventually, … Finally, I´d like to thank the fans for their great support. MW
 additive: above all, moreover, in addition, furthermore, similarly, besides…Swimming alone
is against the rules and, moreover, it´s dangerous. MW
 summative: altogether, all in all, overall,… Altogether, their efforts were successful.MW
 appositive: i.e., namely, e.g. It was obvious that her memory was failing. For example, she
would often forget where she put her car keys. MW
 resultive: so, therefore, as a result, hence, thereby… He signed the
contract, thereby forfeiting his right to the property. MW
 adversative: yet, still, nevertheless, however, though… Nevertheless, resistance to equal
opportunities and fair pay for female athletes remained strong. I'd like to go; however, I'd
better not. MW

Tests – Sentence Adverbials vs Adjuncts

Test Adjuncts Sentence Adverbials
Position Her hair curls naturally. Naturally, we dislike being hurt. (MW)
Naturally her hair curls. (MW) We naturally dislike being hurt.
We dislike being hurt, naturally.
Cognitive Question Test How does her hair curl? How do we dislike being hurt?
Alternative interrogation and Does her hair curl naturally or Do we dislike being hurt naturally or
negation because of a perm? unnaturally?
Focusing by Focusing Adjuncts Her hair curls just naturally. Just naturally, we dislike being hurt.
Focusing by cleft sentences and It is naturally how her hair It is naturally that we dislike being hurt.
pseudocleft sentences curls. How her hair curls is How we dislike being hurt is naturally.
naturally.

CIRCUMSTANTIAL FRAMES
- Cognitive Frames incorporating Adjuncts as Arguments
- realized either as SVA or SVOA
- In the former the Exponent is realized the Subject, in the latter as the Object.

SUBFRAMES

1. Locative Circumstantial Frames

a) Coding chain: SVA
b) Structural realization: NP + VP + AP
c) Cognitive roles distribution: Exponent + Copula/Semi-Copula + Spatial Feature / Localizer

He is away. My aunt lives in Toronto. They are staying nearby.

a. Reversed Locative Frame

 o While the Locative Frame shows the canonical arrangement of cognitive components, i.e. the
combination of Exponent Subject and Adjunct Localizer (which corresponds to the Theme-Rheme
sequence from a point of view of the Functional Sentence Perspective, in a Reversed Locative Frame
the order of Exponent and Localizer is reversed as a result of metaphoric elaboration of the core
Locative Frame:

His face /streamed / with sweat. → Sweat /streamed / down his face.
Localizer + Action + Exponent Exponent + Action + Localizer

2. Temporal frames
Exponent + Copula/Semi-Copula + Temporal Feature

The departure is at 3:15.

The flight takes/lasts two hours.
He lived in the sixteenth century.
The oldest recorded tsunami occurred in 479 BC.

3. Manner Frame
Exponent + Copula/Semi-Copula + Manner Feature

He behaved badly.
The defendant pleaded guilty.
Finally everything ended well.

4. Measure Frame
Exponent + Copula/Semi-Copula + Measure Feature
- The Adjuncts of this frame express various features that may be elicited by such questions as How much?
How far? How long?, such as weight, cost, measure, distance:

He weighs 60kg. ˃ How much does he weigh?

He is 10 years old. ˃ How old is he?

5. Capacity Sub-frame
Capacity Exponent + Capacity Feature + Capacity Degree

/This book / reads / well /.

The hotel sleeps thirty guests.
The door both locks and bolts.

6. Qualifier Respect Sub-frame

Canonical coding chain: SV/CsA/
Canonical structural realization: NP+VP+AdjP+PrepP
Canonical cognitive roles distribution: Exponent + Copula + Qualifier + Respect

S V Cs A
Jane / is / afraid of dark.
AjdP + PrepP

7. Circumstantial Patient Frames – Object Exponent

a. Patient-Locative Sub-frame
Canonical coding chain: SVOA
Canonical structural realization: NP+VP+NP+PrepP
Canonical cognitive roles distribution: Agent + Action + Patient/Theme + Direction Localizer
She / put / the basket / on the chair.
They / filed / an appeal / with a higher court.

b. Patient-Respect Sub-frame
Canonical coding chain: SVOA
Canonical structural realization: NP+VP+NP+PrepP
 Canonical cognitive roles distribution: Doer + Action + Affected Entity + Respect
They charged him with burglary.
They accused him of theft.
They accuse him of having committed theft.
They encouraged us in our work. (MW)
He diagnosed a patient with brain concussion.

c. Patient-Manner Sub-frame
Canonical coding chain: SVOA
Canonical structural realization: NP+VP+NP+AP/PrepP
Canonical cognitive roles distribution: Doer + Action + Affected Entity + Manner
Now we can think of them differently.
They treat me like a criminal.

d. Covert Initiation Sub-frame

Canonical coding chain: SVOA
Canonical structural realization: NP+VP+NP+PrepP
Canonical cognitive roles distribution: Initiator + Initiating/Initiated Action + Affected
Entity/Doer + Circumstantial (Localizer/Manner…)
He marched his company up the hill.
They sworn him to secrecy. (MW)

PATIENT/ OBJECT-ORIENTED QUALIFYING FRAME

Subject-related Qualifying Frame Object-related Qualifying Frame

1A He is safe and sound. 1B They found him sound.
2.A He came (home) safe and sound. 2B They found him safe and sound.

a) Coding chain: SVO and SVOCo

b) Structural realization: qualifiers can be NP, AdjP, PrepP
c) Subject-oriented Qualifying Sub-Frames: Qualified Entity + State/Process + Qualifier
d) Object-oriented Qualifying Sub-frames: Agent/Experiencer + Action/State/Process + Affected
Entity/Focus = Qualified Entity + Qualifier

SUBFRAMES

1. Combined with Agentive Subject

Doer + Action + Affected Entity/Qualified Entity + Resultant Qualifier

We have cried together over stories and we have laughed ourselves breathless too. SVOCo
You can hardly call him generous. SVOCo
She drives me nuts with her jealousy. SVOCo

Doer + Action + Affected Entity/Qualified Entity + Current Qualifier

They declined the job offer as unacceptable. SVO(Co)

Would you describe your music as rock or pop? SVO(Co)
The court found the Defendant guilty. SVOCo

2. Combined with Experiencer Subject

Emoter + Emotion + Focus/Qualified Entity + Current Qualifier

I like/prefer my coffee hot and strong. SVO(Co)

Cognizer + Cognition + Cognition Focus + Current Qualifier

They treat him as friend. SVOCo
We consider careful work essential. SVOCo
They presumed the Defendant innocent. SVOCo

INITIATION FRAME
- involves two actions and two agentive entities: Initiating Action and Initiated Action, and Initiator Doer and
Initiated Doer
- It may be realized in two variants, namely Overt and Covert Initiation Sub-Frames.
- The difference between them consists in that the Initiating Action and the Initiated Action are realized
separately in the Overt Initiation Sub-Frame, while these two actions are fused in the Covert Initiation Sub-
Frame.

Overt Initiation Sub-Frame realized as SVOCo

Initiator Initiating Action Affected Initiated Action
Entity+Doer
S V O Co
(They) (made) (us) (minimize costs).

Covert Initiation Sub-Frame realized as SVOA

Initiator Initiating + Initiated Affected Entity+Doer Circumstantial
Action
S V O A
(He) (marched) (his troops) (across the field).

APOSITION
- Apposition is a multi-member syntactic phenomenon that is analysed either in terms of dependence of one
element on the other (Anchor/Apposition) or equivalence of members (Anchor/Anchor).
- In the approach viewing Apposition as the relationship of dependence, Apposition is considered as a separate
clause component attached to another clause element, i.e. the Anchor
- The other approach treats Apposition as a composite syntactic unit, i.e. the relationship between at least two
components which are syntactically and onomasiologically equivalent, i.e. the Anchor+Anchor syntagma.

Single Referent Test

- Appositive syntactic units may be confused with Modifying syntagmas. The paramount criterion for
distinguishing the Appositive syntagmas from the Modifying ones is the fact that the components of
Apposition have an identical onomasiological prominence, i.e. they are capable of accomplishing the same
cognitive role in the clausal frame, and they refer to the same extralinguistic entity/referent:

1) The Klondike Highway is a highway that runs from the Alaska Panhandle through the province of British
Columbia and the territory of Yukon in Canada.
2) The Klondike River has its source in the Ogilvie Mountains and flows into the Yukon River at Dawson City.

Syntactic Identity Tests

- As the Single Referent Test reveals that members of Apposition have an equivalent onomasiological
prominence and are able to activate identical cognitive roles, on the clause surface this is projected as the
relationship obtaining between two syntactically equivalent units occupying the same syntactic slot:

3) My friend John likes Maria. (Subject slot)

4) Maria likes my friend John. (Object slot)
5) This is my friend John. (Subject Complement slot)

Structural realization of Apposition

- Structurally, the members of Apposition may, or may not, be realized by syntactic units of the same rank and
type, e.g. they need not be realized by two noun phrases, or adverb phrases, but also, for example, by a
combination of a noun phrase and a prepositional phrase. Here is an overview of various structural
combinations if appositive components, the list not being exhaustive:
NP + NP: The Klondike River has its source in the Ogilvie Mountains and flows into the Yukon River at Dawson City.

NP+and+NP: Edmund Hillary, a New Zealand mountain climber and Antarctic explorer, was the first to reach the
summit of Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world.

NP+or+NP: The Lord Chancellor, or the Keeper of the King´s Conscience, was an ecclesiastic who dealt with
petitions of litigants dissatisfied with decisions of common-law courts.

NP+personal pronoun: we girls helped John.

NP+reflexive pronoun: Jane herself signed the bill.
NP + that subordinate clause: the fact that it was lost (skutočnosť, že ….)
NP + conjunct+NP: Shakespeare´s tragedies, i.e. Othelo, Macbeth, Hamlet
NP + style disjunct+NP: The two of the words are homonyms, or more precisely homophones.
NP+focusing adjunct+NP: Cultural-historical psychology emphasizes the mediatory role of culture, particularly
language, in the development of higher psychological functions.
PrepP+NP: As a teacher, I had become used to having no obligations.
The month of August , the isle of …..
AdjP + AdjP Blueberries on the bank hung limp on their stems, fragile, but syrupy sweet after the hard frost.
AdvP + PrepP Now, in September, I was suddenly back at school, thrust into a rigid schedule, and losing an hour of
daylight a week.
PrepP+PrepP In the 1960s, at the height of the Cold War, Luria´s career expanded significantly with the publication
of several new books.

Bidirectional transforms
In the dependence approach, Apposition is treated as reduced relatives (the Klondike River – the river which is called
Klondike). In the equivalence approach, the identical onomasiological prominence ensures the possibility to generate
bidirectional transforms for members of Apposition in contrast with only unidirectional transforms in the case of
members of Modifying structures. The bidirectional transforms are generated in the form of adjective relative clauses
which test the onomasiological identity of the components:

A)Bidirectional transforms for Members of Apposition:

6) Edmund Hillary, a New Zealand mountain climber and Antarctic explorer, was the first to reach the summit
of Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world.
Edmund Hillary who is a New Zealand mountain climber
A New Zealand mountain climber that is called Edmund Hillary
2) The Klondike River has its source in the Ogilvie Mountains and flows into the Yukon River at Dawson City.
The river that is called Klondike
Klondike that is a river

B)Unidirectional transforms for Modifiers:

The Klondike Highway is a highway that runs from the Alaska Panhandle through the province of British
Columbia and the territory of Yukon in Canada.
The Highway that is called Klondike
Klondike that is a highway*

Difference between Apposition and Postmodification (of-phrase type)

NP+of-phrase Apposition: the month of August, the City of London
NP+of-phrase Postmodification: the Queen of the U.K., a book of short stories
NP+of-phrase Apposition NP+of-phrase Postmodification
Examples 1.the month of December 1.The Queen of the U.K
2.The City of London 2.a book of short stories
Determination of first component definite + definite +
indefinite - indefinite +
Modification of second component - +
the month of snowy December* a/the big book of great short stories
Single Referent Test 1.calendar unit 1.person/country
2.town 2.book/stories
 Reduceability Test The month of December got its The Queen of the U.K. is Elizabeth II.
name from the Latin word decem. → The Queen is Elizabeth II
→ The month/December got its The U.K. is Elizabeth II.*
name …
Bidirectional Paraphrase The month which called The Queen who is the representative of
December the U.K.
December which is a month The U.K. which is Queen*
Difference between Premodifying Apposition and Postmodification

Premodifying Apposition: A giant of a man was standing in the doorway.

Postmodifier: Giants of the arts is a group of artists who have been recognized as true masters.

Tests for A giant of a man Giants of the Arts

Apposition ↓
1.Coding HEAD Dependent HEAD Dependent
relationship
2.Structural NP of-PrepP NP of-PrepP
realization
3.Onomasiologica person person Person cultural category
l
category
4.Onomasiologica Specifying Prominent Prominent Specifying
l prominence (size of figure)
5.Cognitive role Bearer Bearer Qualified Entity Qualifier
(+Qualifier)
6.Referent single referent two referents
7.Reduceability A giant was standing in the Giants is a group of artists
Test doorway Arts is a group of artists*
A man was standing in the doorway
8.Bidirectional A man who is like a giant Giants who are renown in the arts
transforms A giant who is a man* Arts that are giants*

The semantic and pragmatic sides of Apposition

- The combinations of members of Appositions, according to Quirk, render three semantic subtypes, namely:
equivalence, attribution, and inclusion (exemplification and particularization).

Equivalence: (The Yukon) (River) is a major watercourse of northwestern North America.

(The novel´s hero), (Holden Caulfield), has been described as a kind of latter-day Tom Sawyer or Huckleberry Finn.
Attribution: In 1929 Hemingway published ('A Farewell to Arms'), arguably (the finest novel to emerge from
World War I).
Inclusion: (All his doctors), (including the chief surgeon, agree on the diagnosis). (Merriam Webster Learners)

SENTENCE

Types of sentences:
single-clause sentence
non-single-clause sentence
two-clause sentence
three-and-more clause sentence/multiple-clause sentence

Depending on the kind of internal relationship between the clauses within such sentences, two major types of two-
clause sentence may be identified: compound sentence and complex sentence

Compound sentence
- The compound sentence contains two main clauses which are grammatically independent from each other,
each of them being capable of making up a communicatively independent sentence.
 John was reading a book, Ann was writing a letter.

- In linguistics, this relationship of equality is also termed parataxis or coordination and the structural units
engaged in such a relationship are termed main clauses.
- main clauses in a compound sentence may be joined either asyndetically (by juxtaposition without a
coordinative item, or in form of inversion), or syndetically (by a coordinative item, usually conjunction or
conjunct)
- If clauses are introduced by coordinative conjunctions their position is fixed (the clause introduced by a
coordinative conjunction cannot be anteposed.

SUBTYPES

1. Copulative compound sentence

She likes him and he likes her.
2. Adversative compound sentence
I have worked with him for ten years but I don´t know much about him.
3. Disjunctive compound sentence
Is it a joke or are you serious?
4. Reason compound sentence
It was by no means an ease ascent, for the wall was high, and it was surmounted by broken glass.
5. Consequence compound sentence
Her health is rather delicate, she can´t therefore engage in strenuous undertakings.
6. Conditional compound sentence
Give a dog a bad name, and he´ll live up to it.

Complex sentence
- The complex sentence contains one superordinate and one subordinate clause, i.e. the subordinate clause
cannot be turned into an independent sentence, and is structurally involving a connector (conjuctions or
conjoining pronouns that, which, what…).

A Superord.|I want to find out Subord./ how it happened /|.

B Superord./I come to Denny's all the time/ Subord./because I love the chicken salad /.

- The relationship of syntactic dependence is also known as subordination or hypotaxis

- The tests by clause alignment engagement and ability of existing as an independent sentence may serve as
diagnostic tests to delineate the borderline between the superordinate and the subordinate clauses within
complex sentences.

SUBTYPES
I. NOMINAL/CONTENT dependent clauses - these clauses function syntactically as
nouns/substantatives, or, to be more precise, as noun
phrases. They can fulfil the syntactic functions of
S, O, Cs and Postmodifier.
a. Declarative nominal/content dependent clauses
 Subject realized by nominal/content dependent clause is introduced by verbs or predicative
adjective conveying mental states:
 That people don´t follow the rules disgusts me.
 Object is most frequently introduced by the Experience verbs of cognition, emotions (answer,
doubt, admit, suppose, mean, think, feel, sense), or the corresponding adjectives.
 My mom believed that I would pass my exams.
 Subject Complement content declaratives typically follow the copular verb to be:
 The most important thing is that we should have freedom of thought.
 Adjunct of Respect is used with Subject Complement realized by an adjective phrase
(SVCsA):
 I am quite sure that I loved her.
  Postmodifying declarative nominal clauses follow abstract nouns derived from verbs or
adjectives conveying mental states (belief, conviction, hope, fact, fear):
 The news that the team had won calls for a celebration.

b. Interrogative nominal/content dependent clauses

 usually introduced by verbs or predicative adjectives functioning as Cs conveying some kind
of enquiry. The list typically includes such verbs and predicative adjectives requiring Adjunct
of Respect, such as ask, wonder, know (I don´t know), doubt, I am not sure,
 He asked what the answer was.
 I don´t know who she is.
 I’m not sure what that means in this context

1. Yes/No dependent interrogative

Subject: Whether she can be pregnant or not/ is still questionable.
Object: I do not know whether the end of the world has come.
Subject Complement: My question is whether it is appropriate for the bride or groom
to tell a guest how to dress for their wedding
Postmodifier: The question emerged whether methadone has deteriorating effects on
cognitive functioning.
Adjunct of Respect with Cs: I’m not sure whether I should do it.

2. Wh-dependent interrogative clauses

Subject: How long she was gone is impossible to know.
Object: I always wondered who Josephine was.
Subject Complement: An important question is what happens next.
Postmodifier: He had no idea how they lived.
Adjunct of Respect as Prepositional Complement: Where the judge is uncertain as to
where the truth lies on any issue he must find against the party bearing the burden of
proof.

c. Imperative nominal/content dependent clauses - may either be considered as indirect orders,

suggestions or other types of mandatives.
Subjunctive mandative:
It is ordered that the Defendant do pay to the office of this court the total sum
mentioned above.
It is essential that he be told immediately.
He insisted that he meet her.

Should mandative: I suggest that we should go.

Covert mandative: It´s important that he drinks a lot.

d. Wish nominal/content dependent clauses - follow mostly asyndetically, or after the conjunction
that, the verb wish in the Object slot.
Past tense: I wish we could go back to school.
Past subjunctive: I wish I were with you now.
Past perfect: I wish I had won a million.
Conditional: I wish she would wake up.

e. Exclamative nominal/dependent clauses - Exclamative dependent clauses are introduced by the

initial exclamative phrase containing adjuncts how or what, similarly to their direct counterparts
How beautiful she is! → He could not believe how beautiful she was.
What a fool I am! → I did not know what a fool I was.

II. RELATIVE dependent clauses - add characteristics to their heads which may be either overt or
covert
a. Nominal relative clauses - “That Which.... Test“
Subject:
 What they're doing is outrageous. → /That which they are doing/ is outrageous.
What they had witnessed in the last hour required the silence of personal reflection. → That
which they had witnessed in the last hour required the silence of personal reflection.
What you should do is quit lying to yourself. → That which you should do is quit lying to
yourself.

Object:
She enjoyed what he was doing. → She enjoyed /that which he was doing/.
She had finished what she wanted to say. → She had finished /that which she wanted to say/.
What you don't measure, you can't manage. → You can´t manage /that which you don´t
measure/.

Subject Complement:
That is what I said. → That is that which I said.
That's what I miss more than anything. → That´s that which I miss more than anything.
This is what your animal testing does to innocent animals all for beauty. → This is that
which your animal testing does to innocent animals all for beauty.

Prepositional Complement as Postmodifier:

Signs of what could go wrong are already obvious. → Signs of that which could go wrong
are already obvious.
In fact, the list of what he did is really quite impressive. → The list of that which he did is
impressive.

Prepositional Complement as Adjunct: Service Provider shall not be liable for any loss or
damage resulting from errors or delays in transmitting the information, regardless of what
caused such errors or delays. (PrepP - Adjunct of Concession) → regardless of that which
caused such errors…

b. Adjectival relative clauses - functioning as Postmodifiers of explicit heads in the NP may be

subdivided further into restrictive and non-restrictive,

Restrictive Non-restrictive
pragmatically
indispensable dispensable
for identification of
referent of the head of
the NP
not separated with a comma separated with a comma

c) Sentential Relative Clause - may be treated as postmodifying the whole of the preceding clause
Some employees know how to cheat the inspections, which I could not stand for.
The next round of surgeries started almost immediately, which I found cruel.
He walks for an hour each morning, which would bore me.

III. ADVERBIAL dependent clauses - Adverbial dependent clauses can be subclassified according to
semantic classes of adjuncts they convey. Adverbial clauses may qualify as Arguments or Non-
Arguments depending on whether they complete a matrix clause or are incorporated in the main
clause:
a. As MATRIX clause fillers
Place: There was only an empty bed where Audrey laid moments ago. SVA space localizer
With an amazing slight of hand she put it where it was supposed to be, and no one was the wiser.
SVOA directional localizer
Langdon felt as if time has stopped. SVA Manner Qualifier
She looked as though she was trying to do everything she could think of to stop her pain. SVA
Manner Qualifier
The band sounded as though it were continuously shedding its own skin.
b. As MAIN clause fillers
Place: Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but blackened ruins. SVO(A
I parked my car where I usually leave it. SVO(A)
Time: Don't call us until you're ready to send the check. SVO(A)
Leave before / it gets awkward. (S)V(A)
I stopped believing in Santa Claus when I was six. SVO(A)
After the game has finished, the king and pawn go into the same box. SVA(A)
I’s easy /to find fault in what others are doing/. (S)VO(A)
Reason: I wear a necklace, because I wanna know when I'm upside down. SVO(A)
I didn’t answer because I didn’t have an answer. SV(A)
Contingency: If you attack my son again, I shall ensure that it is the last thing you ever do. SVO(A)
Purpose: The school closes earlier so that the children can get home before dark. SV(Atime)
(Apurpose)
Concession: Wherever it was, she had no doubt that by day’s end, her world would look a lot
different. SVCs(A)
Manner: She could use my body however she wanted. SVO(A)