1

MAHARSHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY

Notes in Easy Language

CREATED BY: ROHIT RATHOUR

CONTACT NO-7827646303
 2

MDU BCA-3rd SEMESTER

COMMUNICATION SKILLS(ENGLISH)
INDEX
SECTION-I
Introduction to Basics of Communication:
 Communication And Its Various Definition
 Features/Characteristics Of The
Communication
 Process Of Communication,
Communication Model And Theories
 Barrier To Effective Communication
SECTION-II
Improving LSRW:
 Introduction
 Verbal And Nonverbal Communication
 Listening Process
 Group Discussion
 Forms Of Oral Presentation
 Self-Presentation
 Dyadic Communication
 5c’s Of Communication
 Developing Dialogues
 Soft Skill
SECTION-III
Basic vocabulary:
 how to improve vocabulary
 prefix/suffix
 3

 synonyms/antonyms
 one word substitution
 spellings
Developing fluency:
 Grammar (Conjunction, Auxiliaries,
Prepositions, Articles, Tenses……)
 Language Games

SECTION-IV
Proper use of Language:
 The Communication Skills
 The effective Speech

Effective self-presentation & facing

interview:
 The interview process & preparing for it
 The presentation skills
 4

SECTION-I
Introduction To Basics Of Communication

Communication and its various definition:

Communication is as old as human civilization. Man used to
communicate with his fellow beings by means of sounds,
signals, gestures when there was no language developed. Minus
communication, human society could not have been as it is
today. It is communication which has transformed mankind
into the most developed rational and prosperous group on the
earth.
What is Communication?
Communication is the activity of conveying information. The
word communication has been derived from the Latin word
‘communis’, meaning to share. It basically involves a sender, a
message and a receiver.
 5

Communication is giving, receiving or exchanging ideas, data,

information, signals or messages through appropriate media,
enabling individuals or groups to persuade, to seek information,
to give information or to express emotions.
Communication is usually a two-way process. It is not just
giving information or signaling someone; it also involves the
comprehension of the information or the signal by the receiver.
When the act of giving information or sending message reaches
the recipient and gets comprehended by him/her and the
receiver sends feedback as desired by the sender, the process of
communication is said to be complete. Communication,
therefore, involves more than one person.
Communication is a continuous and dynamic process involving
more than one person. It is a cyclic process denoting continuous
flow of information. It essentially involves sender, message and
recipient. The sender conceives ideas and encodes them into
suitable medium (facts, figures, pictures), sends them through
appropriate channel (email, phone, speech) to the recipient. The
recipient decodes the message, understands it and encodes
feedback and sends it to the sender. The process continues.
Definitions of Communication
Communication is defined by different authors as follows.
Ordway Tead
“Communication is a composite of (a) information given and
received, (b) of a learning experience in which certain attitudes,
knowledge and skills change, carrying with them alternations
of behaviour, (c) of a listening effort by all involved, (d) of a
sympathetic fresh examination of issues by communicator
himself, (e) of a sensitive interaction of points of view leading
 6

to a higher level of shared understanding and common

intention.”
G.G. Brown.
“Communication is transfer of information from one person to
another, whether or not it elicits confidence. But the
information transferred must be understandable to the
receiver.”
Louis A. Allen
“Communication is the sum of all the things one person does
when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another.
It is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and
continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.”
Fred G. Meyer
“Communication is the intercourse by words, letters or
messages”.
Keith Davis
“Communication is the process of passing information and
understanding from one person to another.”
Importance of Communication in Society
It is communication that binds people and society together. It
is considered as a natural process.
Society moves on human interactions and exchange of ideas,
thoughts, and feelings. Relationship builds up through
communication.
Lack of communication among the people in society will
severely affect social cohesion and cohabitation. Progress and
prosperity will come to a standstill if there is no effective
communication. Communication is a factor of building and
 7

maintaining good relations. It enables people to understand

each other.
Communication is as important and meaningful in individual
life as in the society. Individuals make friends, builds up
relationship and lead a true social life through communicating
effectively with the fellow beings.
Importance of Communication in Business
Communication is the lifeline of a business organization. It is
essential for realizing the objectives of an organization.
According to Millet, “Communication is blood stream of an
organization”.
Chester I. Barnard viewed communication as the means by
which people are linked together in an organization to achieve
a common purpose.
The importance of communication can be assessed as follows
−
 Communication is needed to establish and disseminate the
goals of a business organization.
 The smooth and unperturbed functioning of an enterprise.
 Communication helps the organization in arriving at vital
decisions.
 It also helps a lot in planning and coordination.
 It is a basic tool for motivation and an increase in the
morale of the employees largely depend upon the
effectiveness of communication.
 It helps a business as means of bringing about maximum
production at the lowest level by maintaining good human
relationship in the organization.
 It works as an effective link between branches of the
organization situated at great distances.
 8

 It helps in publicizing goods and services.

 It reduces rumors and ensures smooth running of the
organization as a whole.

Features/Characteristics Of The Communication:

Characteristics of communications are given below:

(1) Two or More Persons:

The first important characteristic of communication is that
there must be a minimum number of two persons because no
single individual can have an exchange of ideas with himself.
A listener is necessary to receive one’s ideas. Therefore, there
must be at least two persons-the sender of information and the
receiver.
 9

(2) Exchange of Ideas:

Communication cannot be thought of in the absence of
exchange of ideas. In order to complete the process of
communication there must be an exchange of ideas, orders,
feelings, etc., among two or more than two persons.

(3) Mutual Understanding:

Mutual understanding means that the receiver should receive
the information in the same spirit with which it is being given.
In the process of communication, it is more important to
understand the information rather than carry it out.

(4) Direct and Indirect Communication:

It is not necessary in communication that the receiver and giver
of information should be face-to-face with each other.
Communication can be both direct and indirect. Direct
communication means face-to-face conversation, while
indirect communication is through other means.

(5) Continuous Process:

Communication is an endless process, as is the case with
business where the manager continuously assigns work to his
subordinates, tries to know the progress of the work and gives
directions.

(6) Use of Words as well as Symbols:

There can be many means of communication, like the written,
the oral and symbolic. The examples of symbolic
communication are the ringing of bell for closing a school or a
college, saying something by the movement of the neck,
 10

showing anger or disapproval through eyes, giving some

decision by the raising of a finger in cricket, etc.
Elements of Communication:
The basic elements of communication are:
1. Communicator:
The sender, speaker, issuer or writer-who intends to convey or
transmit a message.
2. Communicate:
The receiver for whom the communication is meant. He
receives the information, order or message.
3. Message:
The subject matter of communication i.e., the content of the
letter, speech, order, information, idea or suggestion.
4. Communication Channel:
The media by which the information and understanding are
passed from the sender to the receiver. It serves as link between
the communicator and the communicate i.e., the levels of
organisation or relationships that exist between different
individuals or departments of an organisation.
5. Response or Feedback:
The effect, reply or reaction, of the information transmitted, on
the communicate i.e., successful, no communication or
miscommunication.
 11

Process Of Communication:
The Process of Communication:
1. The communicator first of all, formulates a clear idea about
facts, opinions or information he wants to convey.

2. The idea is then translated by him into words (spoken or

written), symbols or some other form of message which he
expects the receiver to understand. This process is known as
encoding of the message.

3. The communicator selects a suitable media for the

transmission of the message, e.g., telephone, telegraph or
television. The message is conveyed with the help of the media
selected.
 12

4. The message is then received by the communicate. He tries

to understand it by decoding the message.

5. The communicate acts upon the message as he has

understood it.

6. Finally, the effectiveness of communication is measured

through feedback. If the communication brings in the desired
changes in the actions or behaviour of the receiver, it is said to
be successful communication. In case, there is no change in the
actions or behaviour, there is no communication, and if it leads
to undesirable changes it is a case of miscommunication.
 13

Communication Model:
Models of Communication Process:
Three models have been given by different authors to explain
the process of communication.

These models are explained as follows:

(i) Shannon-Weaver Model

(ii) Berlo Model

(iii) Transactional Process Model.

(i) Shannon-Weaver Model:
Cloude E. Shannon and Wanen Weaver have based their model
of communication process on the information theory. They
have given a mechanical approach to the theory of
communication. This model basically aims at ensuring that the
information which is communicated is both accurate and
correct.

The information theory involves the following steps:

 14

This model does not include any feedback, since the same
process will follow for feedback also where the receiver will
become the sender.

According to this model the communication problems can

arise at any of the following three levels:
(i) Technical level:
How effectively the communication can be transmitted?

(ii) Semantic level:

How precisely do the transmitted communications convey the
desired message?

(iii) Effectiveness level:

How effectively does the received meaning affect the
conduction in the desired way.

(ii) Berlo Model:

 15

Dank K. Berlo has given the first widely accepted model of

communication process which presents communication as a
dynamic interactive process. His model is popularly known as
the Dynamic Process Model.

This steps and parties involved in this model are:

Berlo Model of Communication Process:

According to Berlo, thus, communication is an ongoing and
continuous process whereby feedback is also an important part.

(iii) Transactional Process Model:

Communication theorists view communication as a transaction
process. Theorists like Wenburg and Wilmont state that “all
persons are engaged in sending (encoding) and receiving
(decoding) messages simultaneously. Each person is constantly
sharing the encoding and decoding process and each person is
affecting the other”.
 16

This model believes that there is a continuous process of

feedback in the communication process as shown in the
following figure:

From organisational point of view transactional approach is

much more accurate and useful way of viewing communication
than the other methods.

Communication Theories:
What is Communication Theory?
Every living organism communicates to another living
organism of his kind through a unique communication method.
For example, animals communicate with each other but use
different sounds; humans interact with each other with the help
of different words, letters, symbols, pictures, or gestures.

The need for communication is present in every living being,

and without communication, we would be like bricks lying
around – without movement and life.

The framework of communication theory

 17

The following are a few of the points of the communication

theory framework.

1. Mechanical

This point says that communication is a mechanical process

that passes from one location to the other. It is a well-
established fact that the one end is the sender from which the
communication originates, and the receiver is where the
communication terminates.

2. Psychological

According to this view, communication is considered a flow of

feelings, thoughts, and information from the sender to the
receiver. However, a psychological viewpoint also believes
that communication flows from one point to the other that is
from the sender to the receiver.

This viewpoint also takes into consideration the reactions of the

receiver after the communication is received and understood.

3. Social

Communication is a social process since it involves more than

one person trying to communicate with another person. The
social point of view says that communication is dependent on
the content or message. Not only “what” but also “how” a
message is communicated essential.

4. Systemic

This viewpoint says that communication is unique and

dependent on the interpretation of the individual. The receiver
 18

is responsible for deriving his conclusion irrespective of the

meaning with which the sender has sent.

5. Critical

This point of view says that communication is a medium in

which a person can express himself or exert authority in a group
of people.

Theories of Communication

1. Classical Theories
Authoritarian theory

This theory originated from Plato’s authoritarian philosophy,

and it stated that only a few men should be allowed to manage
 19

the state. It also says that mass media is expected to follow the
directives of the country even though the state does not control
the mass media directly.

The thought of freedom was restricted by a few people from the

ruling class or upper class in western Europe under the same
Authoritarian approach. Their primary concern was the
emerging middle class, which necessitated them to take steps
to control speech freedom.

The term authoritarian itself explains the inclusion of authority

in communication, which was regulated and suppressed.
Ultimately and to no one’s surprise, this resulted in the
emergence of dictatorship.

The fact that a nation is more important than everything else

was used to establish supremacy over the press.

Free Press theory

This theory is also termed Libertarianism, and it is based on a

simple principle that justifies its name, which is the absence of
restraint. The free press originated in the 17th century when the
printing press was discovered newly, and printing was
relatively inexpensive.

Government taxes were not welcomed by libertarian, and

people’s opinion was prioritized over government decisions.

Social responsibility theory

Since many people criticized the free press theory, the social
responsibility theory was born. They found that free press
 20

theory was outdated and should be re-invented. The social

responsibility theory was initiated in America in 1949.

The approach is based mainly on the media since people found

out that only a few people were benefited because of
libertarianism theory, while most of them were not. There were
many means by which accountability was held like radio,
television, etc.

This theory emphasizes the responsibility of the media towards

society.

2. Communist theory
The basis of this theory was the ideologies of Karl Marx. This
theory said that the doctrines of the aristocratic class or the
ruling class are the ruling ideas. It was Lenin who first thought
of communist theory since he believed that the freedom of the
press should be controlled.

Education was considered to be the primary and the only

purpose of Mass media. It was thought that the media should
educate the people rather than trying to give out information.
Media was seen as a means of knowledge promotion.

3. Development communication theory

The primary ideology which initiated the rise of this theory
stated that communication is the only source of development,
and without communication, there would be no development
whatsoever.

Capitalism was legalized under the four classic series. But in

the case of development communication theory, the media is
 21

supposed to undertake the role of developmental programs for

society.

Apart from society’s development, there can be no other

significant role for the media, which was emphasized by this
theory. However, UNESCO did not support this theory since
development is often equated to government propaganda,
according to this theory.

4. Hypodermic needle or magic bullet or stimulus-response

theory
This theory came into existence during the first world war. The
real power of media was described by this theory, which said
that mass media has enormous control and influence over the
mass audience.

This theory also supported the fact that mass media can alter
the thoughts and behaviors of the people. Selective exposure
and selective perception the two main reasons responsible for
the effects of mass communication.

The tendency of people that what is the percentage by which

people expose themselves to mass media is called selective
exposure. And the inclination of people to assign a meaning to
mass communication according to their pre-notions is called
selective perception and retention.

5. Standpoint theory
Every person belongs to a different social category. The
standpoint theory, supporting this, states that every person has
a different rank in the social group. This results in every person
having different views resulting from a different experience.
 22

This individual’s perspective provides only a very close look at

the social structure. People in the lower category of social
hierarchy tend to have a better view and a better understanding
of the social system than people who are up in the hierarchy.

6. Actor-network theory
This theory is commonly abbreviated as ANT. This theory
suggests that both the actor and the network are responsible for
success. According to this theory, both human and nonhuman
factors are equally accountable for technological innovation
and the knowledge creation process.

The actor-network theory primarily focuses on the forming of

the network. Once these networks are formed, the Actor-
network theory focuses on how they can contribute to success.

7. Adaptive structuration theory

This theory is entirely based on the structures formed because
of the rules and regulations of groups and organizations. Once
the structures are built, they become sound social systems that
have a life of their own.

These structures are directly affected by the decision making

process.

8. Cognitive dissonance theory

The psychological conflict, which is the result of contradictory
thoughts, is called cognitive dissonance. For example, a person
likes a phone but does not support the price of the product.
 23

The theory states that every person will look for balanced
beliefs. This is why to avoid cognitive dissonance; a person will
refrain from hearing any contrasting views to his views.

9. Constructivism
Cognitively sophisticated people will be successful
communicators since they can create advanced messages for
other people. They also can target and perceive more than one
communication goal successfully.

10. Confirmation bias

Every person understands and interprets the world differently.
This theory explains the reason why people see the world
differently. The thoughts or information which reinforces the
beliefs of the people are accepted, and the others are rejected.

11. Cultivation theory

This theory believes that most of us believe today that media
influences a person’s sense of reality. Most of the people are
unable to acquire experience by the direct medium. For
example, you cannot be present at every news that is happening
around the world.

Therefore this theory suggests that the viewpoint that you have
developed is from mediated sources and not by direct
experience. Thus your thoughts are influenced.

12. Face negotiation Theory

The differences in conflicts between individualistic and
collectivist cultures are highlighted in the face negotiation
theory.
 24

As the name suggests, the individualistic approach tries to

protect the self and adopt dominating styles of conflict. Still,
collectivist culture values the group and fosters the conflict
style, which integrates or avoids to give others a mutual face.

13. Spiral of Silence theory

This theory suggests that the media publish opinions, and
people modify or adjust their views to avoid being isolated.
People who think that their opinions will get accepted will
voice their opinions freely, and people who do not express their
opinions suppress them. These people, with a suppressed point
of view, are called minorities.

14. Diffusion of innovation theory

Neil Gross and Bryce Ryan developed this theory in the year
1943. This theory stresses the process by which different
channels communicate new ideas to different people. This
model also describes various factors that influence people’s
thoughts and actions about the original design or technology.

15. Theory of planned behavior

This theory states that personal judgments and social
considerations influence a person’s intentions to execute a
particular action or behavior. The Third element, which affects
a person’s intention, is perceived control. This judgment states
that how people perceive a particular behavior is easy or
difficult to perform.

16. Agenda-setting theory

As the name suggests, the agenda is decided and then set. This
theory believes that it is the responsibility of Mass media to
 25

determine what should be considered as worthy of news and

what should not be for the general population.

This theory also goes on to state how much attention a

particular news story should receive. The term salience transfer
is used to determine the agenda transferring ability of the
media.

17. Theory of reasoned action

This theory considers the fact that a person’s intentions can
influence his behaviors. There are two reasons for this which
tell a person if he should perform particular behavior or not:
personal judgments and social considerations. Both of these
elements are also repeated in the theory of planned behavior.

Personal judgment is how a particular person perceives the

action, and social concerns state what someone believes that
others should do.

18. Media dependency theory

This theory states that people are entirely dependent on the
media to reach their goals and meet their needs. They believe
that the media interacts with people to create interests, needs,
and motives.

The amount of dependency which is influenced depends on the

number and centrality of the information.

19. Communication Accommodation Theory

Often it is seen that people change their communication or
adjust their style of communication with other people.
Communication accumulation theory believes the same. The
 26

changes in communication may be in verbal or non-verbal

forms.

This is done by convergence and divergence. Some individuals

make use of convergence to seek social approval and also focus
on matching their communication style to that of the person
with whom they are speaking.

On the other hand, divergence is primarily used to highlight the

differences in the group. Often, a deviation is used by
influential ethnic people or groups of racial pride.

Barrier To Effective Communication:

Communication needs to be free-flowing. This is all the more
significant in the case of business communication. But there are
multiple barriers that come across the process of
communication. There are several distortions and disturbance
that leads to misunderstanding as well as the failure of business
communication. There are different types of barriers to
business communication, for instance, emotional,
psychological, physical, cultural, etc.
Types of Business Communication Barriers:
1. Linguistic barriers: This is one of the most significant
barriers to effective business communication. One can consider
as a significant tool of communication. But the varying dialects
and languages of different regions can lead to ineffective
communication. The dialects of every two regions keep
changing with every few kilometers. Also, in the workplace,
different employees will have different linguistic skills. This
affects the operations of the organization.
 27

2. Emotional barriers: A person with strong emotions will be

able to communicate effectively as compared to the person who
is not mature emotionally. There should be a perfect blend of
emotions to facilitate efficient business communication.
Emotions like anger, frustration, jealousy can limit the
decision-making capacity of a person.
3. Psychological barriers: Psychological and mental issues
are also barriers to efficient communication. Speech disorders,
stage fears, depression, phobia, etc. everything can degrade the
quality of business communication.
4. Cultural barriers: Because of globalization, it is now
normal to have employees from different parts of the world
working in the same office. They will differ from each other in
terms of dressing, food, religion, and so on. Thus, it is essential
to take into consideration these cultural factors to facilitate
effective communication. In several MNCs, at the orientation
phases, they offer special cultural courses so that people can gel
up well with one another and understand each other’s cultural
preferences.
5. Physical barriers: Such barriers include closed doors,
faulty equipment, noise, closed cabins, and so on. Such
physical barriers can ruin business communication.
6. Organizational barriers: Because of multiple
organizational structures in an enterprise, organizational
structure barriers Different structures and setups give rise to
misinformation, miscommunication, or lack of transparency.
7. Attitude barriers: Different people carry different attitudes.
Some are extroverts, while others are introverts. Even
ambiverts are there. In the same organization, these three
different natured employees give rise to the issue of attitude
 28

barriers. Ego, pride, inconsiderate behaviors also affect the

flow of communication.
8. Physiological barriers: Diseases or disorders can also have
an impact on efficient business communication. Issues like
dyslexia, the shrillness of voice, etc. are some common
examples of physiological barriers. It is possible to remove
these barriers with proper treatment and practice.
9. Perception barriers: People tend to perceive things
differently. Therefore, it is essential that you take into
consideration the perception of the audience. While
communicating, always think from the perspective of the
audience.
10. Technological barriers and socio-religious
barriers: Technology is evolving every day and it is necessary
to keep up with the dynamic technology. But not every
employee is tech-savvy. Also, technological advancement
often increases the cost of business operation. All these lead to
technological barriers in business communication. Socio
religious barriers like partialities to transgender communities,
women, lower caste people are also there.
 29

SECTION-II
Improving LSRW
Introduction to LSRW:
What is LSRW?
L-S-R-W is the four skills of language learning, a set of four
capabilities that allow an individual to comprehend and
produce spoken language for proper and effective interpersonal
communication. These skills are Listening, Speaking,
Reading, and Writing. In the context of first-language
acquisition, the four skills are most often acquired in the order
of listening first, then speaking, then possibly reading and
writing.

English is the dominant business language and it has become

almost a necessity for people to speak English if they are to
enter a global workforce or Higher education.

Mainly, in present market placement patterns are changed

with the latest trends by including writing assessments like
Image skill and Email writing. To crack the latest placement
students must be perfect in reading and writing assessments.
Currently, Students who are very good in technical are lagging
in communication. As communication plays very important
role in workforce and higher education, students must be
perfect in communication.

This LSRW skills platform provides a complete assistance for

the students to get perfect in four skills of Language learning.
 30

Of course, all the fours skills of English Language are very

important, but we are going to focus a bit more on speaking
initially, and gradually we will step onto others.
Communication is the backbone of our society. It allows us to
form connections, influence decisions, and motivate change.
Without communication skills, the ability to progress in the
working world and in life, itself, would be nearly impossible.
Public speaking is one of the most important and most dreaded
forms of communication. Glossophobia or speech anxiety, is
the most common fear people have across the globe.

Throughout primary school, it is easy to be the student who sits

in the back of the classroom and avoids raising his or her hand
to dodge such situations. But in the working world, public
speaking is a vital skill to have and to hone. It effects simple,
everyday interactions between coworkers, bosses and
employees, marketing professionals and clients, etc., and it can
have an enormous impact on your career path and your level of
success in your industry.

Benefits of these activities:

Developing communication skills can help many aspects of
your life, from your professional career, to social gatherings, to
your family life.

In today’s hectic world, we rely heavily on sharing information,

resulting in greater emphasis being placed on having good
communication skills.
Good verbal and written communication skills are essential in
order to deliver and understand information quickly and
accurately. Being able to communicate effectively is a vital life
skill and should not be overlooked.
 31

In contrast, poor communication skills can have a negative

impact – a poorly delivered message may result in
misunderstanding, frustration and in some cases disaster.

Communication can be defined as the process of understanding

and sharing meaning. To communicate well is to understand,
and be understood.

LSRW way of Learning abilities are Listening, Speaking,

Reading, and Writing. With regards to acquiring the
Learning abilities, LSRW way of Learning skills are
regularly gained by listening first followed by speaking,
reading and writing. Hence, these abilities are frequently
called LSRW way of Learning.

Teaching in this manner, will guarantee focus around all

these four abilities and provides a stage to the students to
sharpen their capability to Learn more effectively.

A perfect curriculum for learning would include content

for all the previously mentioned four abilities. However,
it is seen that most of the times the reading and writing
skills are given more significance over the previous two
abilities.

In reality, in the process of learning, listening and

speaking should take precedence over reading and
writing. The advantages of normally learning any subject
/ topic can be upgraded incredibly when the LSRW
method is practiced in the same sequence as listed.
 32

Listening
Listening is the primary learning skill. It is what is known
as a responsive ability, or a latent skill, as it expects us to
utilize our ears and our minds to understand; as it is being
told or addressed to us. It is the first of two normal
learning skills.

Listening is the capacity to precisely acquire and translate

the significance in the communication process.

Listening is critical to very essential and the most useful

and powerful skill needed for effectively understanding
and correlating the essentials and fundamentals. Without
the ability to listen adequately, the understanding is
essentially mistaken. Subsequently, correlation separates
out and the understanding wades out without much of a
stretch and the learner gets baffled.
Speaking
Speaking is the communication medium of learning
orally. To talk, we make sounds utilizing numerous pieces
of our body, including the lungs, vocal tract, vocal lines,
tongue, teeth and lips.

Speaking is the second of the four learning skills.

Speaking is normally the second expertise that we learn.
Speaking or talking means to communicate, or expressing
one’s thoughts and feelings in a spoken language.

In primary schools elocution and recitation are main

sources to master the phonetics, the sounds, the rhythm,
and to an extent the intonation, modulation and variation
 33

in the way to be effective in conveying ideas and

information.
Reading
One of the primary things you find out about reading is
that there are diverse reading strategies and the students
ought to know about which procedure is most fit, as
required for the reading effort required by the content or
by their educator / teacher.

Preparing the students to know their reading methods and

derive when best to apply them is in reality significant,
particularly under test conditions when opportunity
limitations become possibly the most important factor and
choices should be made relying upon time accessibility
and the significance of the outcome that needs to be
achieved.

The four fundamental kinds of reading practices are the

as under:

 Skimming
 Scanning
 Intensive
 Extensive
 34

Verbal And Nonverbal Communication:

Verbal Communication:
Verbal communication is interpersonal communication that
includes oral communication, written communication, and
sign language. Verbal communication relies on words to
convey meaning between two or more people.

Non Verbal Communication:

Nonverbal communication encompasses a whole host of
physicalized nonverbal cues that convey emotional states and
complement verbal messages. Nonverbal human
communication involves many different parts of the body and
can be either conscious or subconscious on the part of the
communicator.
There are many different types of nonverbal communication,
including kinesics (body movement), proxemics (closeness
and personal space), body posture, haptics (touch), and
paralanguage, which includes facial expression, speaking
volume, and tone of voice. These nonverbal cues all contribute
to how verbal communication is understood, either clarifying
a message or leading to misinterpretation.
Verbal vs. Nonverbal Communication: What’s the
Difference?
While nonverbal communication involves body language,
verbal communication relies on words. There’s more to it than
that, however. Proper communication often requires a mix of
verbal and nonverbal signals to convey meaning. Consider the
differences between these forms of communication and how
to use them:
 35

1. Delivery: Verbal communication can transpire over the

phone, through email, written letters, or a face-to-face
conversation. Most nonverbal communication happens
only when the two or more parties can see each other.
2. Intentionality: A difference between the two types of
communication, verbal and nonverbal, is that the words a
person chooses—verbal—tend to be intentional, whereas
many elements of nonverbal communication can be
unintentional or out of a person’s control and impact
reception. Nonverbal communication can be
unconscious; for example, a person who sweats while
talking may convey nervousness..
3. Grammar: Verbal speech has patterns and grammar
rules to adhere to, whereas nonverbal communication is
more fluid.
4. Authenticity: Nonverbal behavior like body movements,
mannerisms, or physiological responses (blinking or
fidgeting) can influence communication, altering the
authenticity of your spoken words or causing them to take
on a different meaning. Nonverbal messages can be more
powerful than verbal communication, as human bodies
can subconsciously deliver messages that they are
verbally not conveying—“actions speak louder than
words.”
5. Emotions: Nonverbal cues are especially powerful when
communicating with children. A parent’s facial
expressions and tone will often express feelings more
clearly than using words kids may be too young to
understand fully. Nonverbal communication is also
beneficial when communicating emotions between a
language barrier.
6. Engagement: Nonverbal signals are a great way to
communicate attentiveness and engagement to those
 36

around you. It’s not enough to verbally tell someone you

are interested in what they’re saying, controlling your
posture and eye contact will demonstrate to others that
you are interested, whereas looking around or at your
phone can express disinterest, even if that’s not
technically the case.

4 Types of communication
While it is easy to think of communication as simply the verbal
transmission of information from one person to another, it is so
much more than that.

Communication ranges from non-verbal, such as a glance and

raised eyebrows, to verbal, such as a change in pitch and tone.
Let’s take an in-depth look at all the ways that we communicate
with each other.

1. Non-verbal communication

It is interesting to note that non-verbal communication is used

both intentionally and unintentionally.

Most people do not have perfect control over their facial

expressions - we all have heard an unprofessional comment and
raised our eyebrows in response, regardless of whether or not it
was wise to do so.

By learning more about how we use non-verbal

communication, you will be better able to master yours and
ensure that you are conveying your message exactly the way
you wish to.
 37

Facial expressions
We often use facial expressions as a way to communicate that
we are listening and engaged with the person speaking.

A smile, furrowed eyebrows, or a quizzical expression all

convey information to the speaker about how you are
responding to their conversation.

They work to help grease the conversation, keeping it going

without having to interject verbally to confirm your continued
interest.

If you have ever spoken to a stone-faced person, you will know

how important facial expressions are in a conversation.

Posture
How you position yourself during a conversation is important.

If you angle yourself towards the person, with a relaxed and

open posture, you invite them to engage with you more fully.

Leaning back, crossing arms, or turning away from the speaker

conveys a very different message - and not a positive one.

Just as no one wants to have a conversation with the back of

someone’s head, talking to someone with an extremely closed
posture creates a more difficult and unpleasant conversation.

Gestures and physical touch

Depending on the person, and their country of origin, they may
use gestures and physical touch a lot, or almost never.
 38

However, there is a lot of information conveyed in these

actions.

A gentle touch on the arm can signal encouragement, while an

overly strong handshake can be an act of dominance.

Someone fidgeting with their hands while talking to you about

a problem can signal guilt or avoidance and using many grand
gestures while presenting an idea could convey excitement or
confidence.

Eye contact
We all know the importance of eye contact.

When someone is unable to maintain eye contact, we take this

to mean that they are being untruthful, shifty, or not paying
attention.

Being able to maintain eye contact while listening will ensure

that the speaker knows that you are present and engaged.

While speaking, it shows that you are connecting with the

listener, and in cases where you are delivering unpleasant news,
is doubly important.

Being able to tell someone an unpleasant message while

looking them directly in the eye shows that you respect them
and are an honest and sincere person.
 39

2. Verbal communication

When we speak, we are communicating much more than just

the content of our words.

We are also using pitch and tone, as well as the level of

formality we use to convey important subtext to the person we
are speaking with.

By carefully choosing how we use each of these aspects, we

can be sure that our message is received exactly as intended.

From greeting coworkers to leading a client pitch meeting to

present in front of the entire company, verbal communication
factors into our work lives in a massive way.

Pitch
When speaking, our emotions can often come into play.

If we are angry, upset, or frustrated, our pitch might raise,

conveying to the listener that we are experiencing a strong
emotion.

This is not necessarily a bad thing, but being able to control it

allows you to make sure that you are effectively
communicating.

Tone
We all encounter situations that are frustrating or upsetting.
 40

Allowing that to change our tone from calm and professional to

curt, short, or rude is always a mistake.

Tone conveys a lot of information to the listener about how the

speaker views them.

To build positive interpersonal relationships in an office

environment, we should all endeavour to speak in a
professional and respectful tone.

Content
Of course, content is the most important part of verbal
communication. What we say, and the words we choose to use,
are crucial.

While most office communications tend to be more formal

than, for example, meeting a friend for coffee, we should make
sure that we leave space for personal chats and relationship
building.

Think also about how technical your content is. If you are
talking with developers about specific aspects of code, you
should use different terms than when talking to the marketing
team about new developments within the app.

3. Written communication

Effective communication by writing is a massively important

skill, especially as more people are working remotely and keep
in touch throughout the workday through Skype, Slack, or other
digital mediums.
 41

From a Slack message to an email to a customer to a new

employee’s training guide, we write every day and it is crucial
that we understand how to do so effectively.

In fact, as we increasingly rely on written communication, we

are all faced with just how easy it is to create misunderstandings
when using this medium.

Unclear messages, the information gone missing, or an

incorrect understanding of tone or content are all problems that
happen with written communication every day.

Sometimes the reader will misread the tone of a message

because they are having a bad day, or just had a run-in with an
unpleasant person.

No matter what, one important skill to have when relying on

written communication is knowing when you need to stop
using it. A simple call, in almost all cases, can solve these
communication problems.

If you sense that there is a miscommunication happening, or

just starting, nip it in the bud with a quick verbal chat and you’ll
save a lot of time and frustration for all parties.

Structure
When writing, it is important to think about how you are
presenting the information. Using paragraphs and line breaks
are necessary.
 42

Creating an impenetrable wall of text will disengage the reader

- understanding and applying a proper structure will let the
reader take in the information in digestible chunks.

Present your argument or thesis, take the time to back it up with

clear proof, add in the relevant information to make sure that
the reader understands the point fully, then close with a
conclusion.

Clarity
It is a hard balance to strike between over or under explaining
concepts. If you are writing instructions for a new employee,
how detailed should you be?

Of course, this depends on the person, but over-explaining a

little bit is much better than leaving the reader clueless.

Be thoughtful about your audience, what will they know and

what do you need to explain in more detail?

Content
Written content tends to be a bit more formal than verbal.

Leave out the slang, use proper punctuation and spelling, and
remember that anything written - especially in the digital age -
will remain, even if you delete it.

Err on the side of professionalism every time you write

something. Messages on Slack, for example, do not need to be
written as formally as a cover letter, but they should be polite,
professional, and well-written.
 43

Be aware that written jokes can fall flat without the added
context of tone or facial expressions.

4. Visual communication

Visual has become the most used type of communication,

driven by social media, YouTube, and other platforms of the
digital era.

As more and more people and organisations use these channels

of communication, the more we are used to, and even
dependent upon, using visual communication to stand out in a
crowded platform.

Understanding that your visual communication must be in line

with your brand and marketing, and knowing that there must be
a developed and cohesive strategy for that, is crucial.

We rely heavily on visual communication.

There are many ways that visual communication, like charts,

photographs, sketches, video, graphs, and even emojis and
GIFs, can help improve the understanding of your message.

Think about how charts can bring data to life, making it much
easier to understand than presenting a long stream of numbers,
or how a sketch of a new UX is much more effective than a text
description.

We rely on visuals to elevate our understanding of complex

ideas.
 44

Content
While it is tempting to include visuals to add a bit of diversity
and interest, you should consider what they bring to the table.

 Are they helpful?

 Are they necessary?
 Do they add to the overall message?
Not all communications need to have visuals added, and in
some cases, they might detract from what you are trying to
communicate.

You should endeavour to make sure that you are not adding
fluff to your message, but rather strengthening your audience’s
understanding of it.

Tone
As with all communications, make sure that you are meeting
your audience where they are.

If you are presenting complex data, include the relevant

descriptions, at the right technical level, so that your audience
can follow.

Don’t use images that are graphic or could be upsetting, and

remember the same rule applies to visual communication as
does to writing: don’t create anything that you wouldn’t want
to have associated with you in the future.
 45

Listening Process:
The listening process
The listening process involves four stages: receiving,
understanding, evaluating, and responding. Basically, an
effective listener must hear and identify the speech sounds
directed toward them, understand the message of those sounds,
critically evaluate or assess that message, remember what’s
been said, and respond (either verbally or nonverbally) to
information they’ve received. Effectively engaging with all
five stages of the listening process lets us best gather the
information we need from others.

Receiving
Paired with hearing, attending is the other half of the receiving
stage in the listening process. Attending is the process of
accurately identifying and interpreting particular sounds we
hear as words. The sounds we hear have no meaning until we
give them their meaning in context. Listening is an active
process that constructs meaning from both verbal and
nonverbal messages.

Understanding
The second stage in the listening process is the understanding
stage. Understanding or comprehension is “shared meaning
between parties in a communication transaction” and
constitutes the first step in the listening process. This is the
stage during which the listener determines the context and
meanings of the words he or she hears. Determining the context
and meaning of individual words, as well as assigning meaning
in language, is essential to understanding sentences. This, in
turn, is essential to understanding a speaker’s message.
Before getting the big picture of a message, it can be difficult
to focus on what the speaker is saying. In the Writing Center,
 46

you and your writer may have trouble understanding each other
if you have different accents, if the writer is struggling with
language fluency, or if the space is very noisy.
One tactic for better understanding a speaker’s meaning is to
ask questions. Asking questions allows you as the listener to
fill in any holes you may have in the mental reconstruction of
the speaker’s message.

Evaluating
During the evaluating stage, the listener determines whether or
not the information they heard and understood from the speaker
is well constructed or disorganized, biased or unbiased, true or
false, significant or insignificant. They also ascertain how and
why the speaker has come up with and conveyed the message
that they delivered. This may involve considerations of a
speaker’s personal or professional motivations and goals. For
example, a listener may determine that a coworker’s forgetting
to clean off their table is factually correct, but may also
understand that the co-worker’s child is sick and that may be
putting them on edge. A voter who listens to and understands
the points made in a political candidate’s stump speech can
decide whether or not those points were convincing enough to
earn their vote.
The evaluating stage occurs most effectively once the listener
fully understands what the speaker is trying to say. While we
can, and sometimes do, form opinions of information and ideas
that we don’t fully understand—or even that we
misunderstand—doing so is not often ideal in the long run.
Having a clear understanding of a speaker’s message allows a
listener to evaluate that message without getting bogged down
in ambiguities or spending unnecessary time and energy
 47

addressing points that may be tangential or otherwise

nonessential.

Responding
The responding stage is the stage of the listening process in
which the listener provides verbal and/or nonverbal reactions.
A listener can respond to what they hear either verbally or non-
verbally. Nonverbal signals can include gestures such as
nodding, making eye contact, tapping a pen, fidgeting,
scratching or cocking their head, smiling, rolling their eyes,
grimacing, or any other body language. These kinds of
responses can be displayed purposefully or involuntarily.
Responding verbally might involve asking a question,
requesting additional information, redirecting or changing the
focus of a conversation, cutting off a speaker, or repeating what
a speaker has said back to her in order to verify that the received
message matches the intended message.
Nonverbal responses like nodding or eye contact allow the
listener to communicate their level of interest without
interrupting the speaker, thereby preserving the
speaker/listener roles. When a listener responds verbally to
what they hear and remember—for example, with a question or
a comment—the speaker/listener roles are reversed, at least
momentarily.
Responding adds action to the listening process. Oftentimes,
the speaker looks for verbal and nonverbal responses from the
listener to determine if and how their message is being
understood and/or considered. Based on the listener’s
responses, the speaker can choose to either adjust or continue
with the delivery of her message. For example, if a listener’s
brow is furrowed and their arms are crossed, the speaker may
determine that she needs to lighten their tone to better
 48

communicate their point. If a listener is smiling and nodding or

asking questions, the speaker may feel that the listener is
engaged and her message is being communicated effectively.
Barriers to effective listening
Low Concentration
Low concentration, or not paying close attention to speakers, is
detrimental to effective listening. It can result from various
psychological or physical situations such as visual or auditory
distractions, physical discomfort, inadequate volume, lack of
interest in the subject material, stress, or personal bias.
Regardless of the cause, when a listener is not paying attention
to a speaker’s dialogue, effective communication is
significantly diminished.

Lack of Prioritization
Just as lack of attention to detail in a conversation can lead to
ineffective listening, so can focusing too much attention on the
least important information. Listeners need to be able to pick
up on social cues and prioritize the information they hear to
identify the most important points within the context of the
conversation.
Often, the information the audience needs to know is delivered
along with less pertinent or irrelevant information. When
listeners give equal weight to everything they hear, it makes it
difficult to organize and retain the information they need. For
instance, students who take notes in class must know which
information is worth writing down within the context of an
entire lecture. Writing down the lecture word for word is
impossible as well as inefficient.
 49

Poor Judgment
When listening to a speaker’s message, it is common to
sometimes overlook aspects of the conversation or make
judgments before all of the information is presented. Listeners
often engage in confirmation bias, which is the tendency to
isolate aspects of a conversation to support one’s own
preexisting beliefs and values. This psychological process has
a detrimental effect on listening for several reasons.
First, confirmation bias tends to cause listeners to enter the
conversation before the speaker finishes her message and, thus,
form opinions without first obtaining all pertinent information.
Second, confirmation bias detracts from a listener’s ability to
make accurate critical assessments. For example, a listener may
hear something at the beginning of a speech that arouses a
specific emotion. Whether anger, frustration, or anything else,
this emotion could have a profound impact on the listener’s
perception of the rest of the conversation.

Focusing on Style, Not Substance

In the case of listening, distracting or larger-than-life elements
in a speech or presentation can deflect attention away from the
most important information in the conversation or presentation.
These distractions can also influence the listener’s opinion. For
example, if a message is delivered in a way you perceive as
abrupt or rude, you’re much less likely to understand (or want
to understand) the message.
Cultural differences (including speakers’ accents, vocabulary,
and misunderstandings due to cultural assumptions) can also
obstruct the listening process. The same biases apply to the
speaker’s physical appearance. To avoid this obstruction,
listeners should be aware of these biases and focus on the
 50

substance, rather than the style of delivery, or the speaker’s

voice and appearance.
The solution: active listening
Active listening is a particular communication technique that
requires the listener to provide feedback on what he or she hears
to the speaker, by way of restating or paraphrasing what they
have heard in their own words. The goal of this repetition is to
confirm what the listener has heard and to confirm the
understanding of both parties. The ability to actively listen
demonstrates sincerity, and that nothing is being assumed or
taken for granted. Active listening is most often used to
improve personal relationships, reduce misunderstanding and
conflicts, strengthen cooperation, and foster understanding.
When engaging with a particular speaker, a listener can use
several degrees of active listening, each resulting in a different
quality of communication with the speaker. It’s important to
keep in mind that these listening skills are based in the
American style of communicating. If your consultee seems
uncomfortable or confused, try something else.
he three the main techniques for active listening are
paraphrasing, clarifying and summarizing.
 Paraphrasing is restating the speaker’s thought, in your
own words. For instance, “I think you’re saying that…” or
“It sounds like you’re saying …”. This is so they know
you understand, or don’t understand, in which case they
can clarify for you.
 Clarifying involves asking questions to make sure that
you understand. For example, “Can you give me an
example of that?” or “You just said that such and such is
important, can you help me understand what that means to
you?”
 51

 Summarizing is accurately and briefly summarizing the

intent of their message. For instance, “I think the main
ideas here are …”
Group Discussion:
Group Discussion or GD is a type of discussion that involves
people sharing ideas or activities. People in the group
discussion are connected with one basic idea. Based on that
idea, everyone in the group represents his/her perspective.

GD is a discussion that tests the candidate's skills, such

as leadership skills, communication skills, social skills and
behavior, politeness, teamwork, listening ability, General
awareness, confidence, problem-solving skills, etc.
The Group Discussion is generally the next level after the
entrance exam to pursue a professional degree. In the case of
recruitments, Group Discussion can be the starting or at the
end, depending on different companies or organizations.
It is not fixed that the group discussion is always performed
around the table. People can sit in any arrangement, but
 52

everyone should be able to see every face. It is not only the

usual discussion, but it is also a discussion with knowledge
and facts.
What is Group Discussion?
Group Discussion is a combination of two words 'Group' and
'Discussion.' Let's discuss it in detail.
Group
A group means many people are working together to achieve
some targets. The performance of a group depends on the
collaborative work of the individuals. The team of three or
more than three people is considered as a group.
Discussion
Discussion means exchanging ideas between two or more than
two people, which is generally a face-to-face interaction. It is
a process of talking between people to reach a specific
decision. It is also defined as a conversation about a specific
topic.
The result or end product of group discussion can be a
particular decision, enhanced knowledge, actions, an
argument, doubt-clearing, disagreement, etc.

Why GD?
Over the last years, GD is used to test the soft skills of the
candidates. It is used as a quick method to shortlist a few
candidates from the massive strength. The written exam tests
the knowledge and aptitude. Organizations check the social
 53

skills, technical, and communication skills so that a candidate

can work effectively without any obstacle in between his/her
skills.
The GD or Group Discussion is used as an exam for many
organizations and schools. It tests the personality skills,
communication skills, teamwork, confidence, problem-
solving skills, social skills, behavior, and leadership abilities
of a candidate. It is also an essential part of short-listing
candidates for a job or admission to a university.
An intelligent candidate with good knowledge and skills
sometimes lacks communication skills, which can be a lack of
confidence, hesitation in speaking, unable to explain his/her
point of view, etc. Due to this, Group Discussion nowadays
has become an essential part of most of the organization and
institutes.
Knowledge and technical skills are essential things for a
candidate, but in an organization, he/she might have to face
the meetings, discussing technical issues, handling new
employees, etc. Here, a lack of communication skills becomes
the disadvantage of that candidate. Hence, organizations and
institutes ensure that the candidate must possess all the
qualities before joining.
Who are Panelists?
Panelists are the people who judge the Group Discussion.
Evaluation parameters are different for every company, but
the general procedure remains the same.
 54

GD Process
Let's discuss how GD or Group discussion is conducted.
Participants
The participants can range from 7 to 12 in a group. The
number of candidates in a Group Discussion depends on the
available strength. If the strength is low, the number of
participants can range from 5 to 7.
Duration of a GD
The average duration of a Group Discussion is 15 minutes.
But, it may vary depending on the number of candidates in a
group. Sometimes, the panelist or judges can extend the
discussion for more than 15 minutes. They can also end the
discussion in between. The participants should not consider
any assumption that the GD will be conducted only for 15
minutes.
In some cases (IIFT), the duration of a Group Discussion can
extend upto 45 minutes.
 55

Process

1. The process of a Group Discussion starts with

the announcement of the topic. The given topic could
be technical, factual, or case study.
2. Before beginning with the discussion, the preparation
time of 3 minutes is given. The time can also extend in
case of a long case statement.
3. Any participant in the group can initiate the discussion.
After the lead participant, anyone in the group can
continue the discussion. Similarly, everyone gets the
 56

chance to speak. One after another, participants in the

group expresses their views on the given topic.
4. It ends when the panelist stops the discussion or may ask
one or more than one participant to summarize the GD.
Whenever you are asked for the summary, remember to
cover the discussed points. The summary cannot include
the words that were not part of the discussion. The
participants that were quite among the discussion are
generally asked to summarize it, which is a good
opportunity to present their views. But, it does not mean
that everyone should be quite. The summary should
include the essential discussed points and the conclusion
of the discussion.
5. The final scores are calculated. Based on the
performance of each participant, the panelist gives the
scores. The panelists are usually four to five to judge the
performance of candidates in the Group Discussion.

Importance of Group Discussion

Group Discussions are an essential part of testing candidates
in the organizations, recruitment process, etc. It also plays an
important role in improving the skills of a candidate.
 57

So, let's discuss the importance of Group Discussion.

o Increases confidence
The GD allows the participants to speak in public, which
increases their confidence to speak without any
hesitation.
o Focuses on Deep thinking
It tests the knowledge of a candidate. The participants get
only a few minutes (3 to 5) for the preparation. In such a
small duration, they have to make a list of points to
speak. The participants in a group listen and understand
other participants points of view, making them think
deeply about the topic.
o Improves Communication Skills
GD helps the students to represent their views and ask
the questions. It not only increases the confidence of a
candidate but also enhances their communication skills.
o Removes hesitation of speaking
Some candidates usually have hesitation in speaking in
public. At starting, such candidates might face difficulty
 58

while speaking. But, after two or three Group

Discussion, it improves. Group Discussion helps such
candidates to speak loudly and express their views on the
topic. It further removes their hesitation in speaking.
o Team Work
Group Discussion is also based on teamwork. In a
company, it is very important to work as a team for the
assigned project. Due to this, the quality of working
together with team members is checked in the Group
Discussion. The panelist also judges the cooperation of
participants in the group. It allows participants to share
their views with other participants in the group.
o Behavior
It helps to understand the attitude and behavior of the
candidates towards other participants in a group.
o Listening Skills
GD improves the listening skills of the candidates. For
example, the panelist may ask any candidate in a group
to summarize the discussion. A candidate can only
summarize if he/she has good listening skills. Due to
this, every candidate presents in the discussion listens
carefully. It further improves the listening skills of the
candidates.
o Diversity in the Ideas
The Group Discussion involves sharing ideas with other
participants in the group. Every participant shares his/her
thoughts in the group, which makes the diversities in the
ideas.
o Recruitments
Group Discussion is widely used for the recruitment
process. It helps panelist to select a few candidates from
 59

the group. It also helps them to judge that the candidate

is suitable for the organization or not.

Types of Group Discussion

There are two types of Group Discussion, which are listed
below:
o Topic-Based Group Discussion
o Case Study Based Group Discussion
Topic-Based Group Discussion
There are few candidates in a group, where each group is
given any topic. The group members discuss the topic, which
is called a Group Discussion.
The topic-based Group Discussion can be further classified as:
1. Controversial Topics
2. Knowledge-Based topics
3. Abstract Topics
4. Conceptual topics
Let's discuss the above topics in detail.
Controversial Topics
The discussion on controversial topics becomes a debate.
Such topics are given to judge the participants' temper and
how they can handle the discussion without losing their calm.
It shows that how a candidate can represent his/her views
without arguing with other participants.
 60

The example of the controversial topics can be Reservation

System, Religion equality, etc.
Knowledge-Based topics
The participants should have a proper understanding of the
topic before proceeding for a discussion. The information
should be enough to convince the panelists. The essential
thing is to be confident. Do not initiate the discussion if you
are not aware of the topic.
The examples of Knowledge-Based topics can be 'CAT vs.
GATE' and 'Government jobs vs. Private jobs'.
Abstract Topics
The abstract topics test the creativity and thinking of a
candidate. It also tests the communication skills.
The example of Abstracts topics can be 'A walk to remember'.
Conceptual topics
The conceptual topics are widely used today by companies. It
tests the knowledge, logical, and aptitude skills of a candidate.
The topic for the discussion is randomly selected, giving
panelists a space to judge the participants' creative thinking
and ability to handle the situation.
The example of Conceptual topics can be 'Life is a Puzzle.'
Case Study Based Group Discussion
The Case study based Group Discussion is generally followed
by the MBA Institutes, such as IIM, etc. In such a discussion,
a problem is given, and the participants are asked to resolve
them. The preparation time is also higher as compared to
 61

other discussions. The panelists test the teamwork and

decision-making skills of the participants.
The participants need to active and updated with the things
around them. It also tests the observation capability of the
participants.
The example of Case study based topics can be 'Discussion
between boss and manager'.

Rules of Group Discussion

There are some rules of a Group Discussion. The rules of
Group Discussion are listed below:
o Prepare well for the topic.
The quick trick is to note all the important points during
the preparation time. Do not write brief paragraphs. Try
to write short points and explain them briefly in the
discussion.
o Be confident about your content
It would help if you always were confident about your
content. If you are not confident, you may hesitate while
speaking, which will create a negative impression.
o Participants Introduction
Most participants only focus on their content. You
should be aware during the introduction of all the
participants in your group. To get attention, you can call
out the person's name when the discussion gets diverted.
o Body Language
Always take care of your body language. Do not focus
only on the content.
 62

o Leadership
Try to take the lead in the group if you are confident
about the topic and the knowledge.
o Avoid false starts or commitments
Do not initiate the discussion if you are not sure about
your content. Do not present any wrong information.
o Follow your Domain
Every company has its own culture. Prepare your content
according to the company requirements. For example,
industrial companies will focus more on technical talks,
while marketing companies seek the combination of
creative and oriented content.
o Do not fight
In the Group Discussion, some candidates often get
aggressive. Do not fight during the discussion. Most of
the companies require sensitive and polite candidates
rather than aggressive ones.

Estimated criteria for a Group Discussion

The performance of an effective Group discussion depends
on individual skills and group coordination.
Let's discuss it in detail.
 63

Individual Skills

The individual skills are listed below:

o Communication Skills
All the participants in the Group Discussion present their
views on the given topic. The language used should be
simple so that everyone present in the discussion can
easily understand.
o Content
The content is an essential part of the discussion. The
content is the words spoken by every candidate. The
content should not be copied, repetitive, and wrong. It
creates a negative impression. The candidate should not
get diverted from the topic. If the content is correct and
relevant to the topic, the panelists examine the content
and give scores based on your content. They also check
that the content is in-depth or superficial.
o Analytical Skills
The analytical skills include the exploration of the asked
question. Such skills are more focused on a case study
 64

Group Discussion. It primarily includes exploring 'how'

and 'why' of the subject content.
o Creativity
It includes how you can think differently from other
participants or present your views in different ways. You
can also abstract the topic differently. All these points
will make you unique.
It will also gain more focus from the panelists on you.
o Decision Making
GD helps in evaluation of the topic and reaching towards
the specific decision. It is based on the suggestions given
by the members of the group. The task of selecting
suitable candidates from the group also becomes easy for
the panelist or boss.
o Covering Mistakes
The panelists give the topic at the time of the Group
Discussion. You usually get a few minutes to prepare.
Sometimes while speaking, mistakes often happen. But,
it does not mean that we should stop the discussion in
between and get nervous. In such cases, never lose
confidence. Always correct the mistakes and come back
with confidence.
o Reasoning Skills
The panelist checks how much a participant is right in
his/her logical skills. They also check how good you are
in supporting standpoints, how you respond to the other
participants, and weaken or strengthen other arguments
in the discussion.
o Voice
Voice can range from high-pitch to low-pitch. A high-
pitch sometimes seems irritating, while low-pitch may
not be understood by everyone present in the discussion.
 65

So, voice plays a very important role.

High-pitch is useful when the Group discussion becomes
a market where everyone is speaking, and no one is
audible. At that time, your high-pitch can calm the
participants. So, you should adjust your voice and pitch
as per the circumstances.
o Fluency
A participant of a Group Discussion should have fluency
in his/her spoken English. Everyone in the discussion
listens to you carefully. Improper fluency will distract
the listeners. So, it is essential to be fluent while
speaking.
o Enthusiasm
Group Discussions are generally unpredictable. Various
candidates are keen to share their views with others. The
more enjoyment you feel while sharing views, the better
will be your performance in the discussion. If you are not
interested in the Group Discussion, you may not be able
to express your views clearly.
o Initiative
Initiative means to take the lead in the discussion. If you
are confident and have good knowledge about the topic,
take action. Do not hesitate and be the first one to start
the discussion. It will get you the bonus points.
You can also take the initiative between when the
discussion is diverted or going out of the topic.
 66

Group Coordination

The group coordination includes the qualities that are

evaluated based on group situations, which are listed below:
o Body Language
The panelists mainly focus on eye contact and hand
movements. Your way of sitting is also essential. Hand
movements are the sign of your keen interest in the
discussion. You cannot sit randomly as you are in your
home. You have to be very careful about the ways you
sit, speak, etc. The speaker should maintain eye contact
with every participant in the discussion. But, it does not
mean that you should not maintain eye contact when you
are not speaking. You are required to be aware of the
whole discussion period.
The improper body language is considered as a lack of
interest or a lack of confidence. It will also distract the
attention of panelists from your words. Do not participate
 67

in the unusual activities, such as playing with pens and

hairs, tapping on the desks, and laughing. You should
grab your focus only on the topic.
o Behavior
The behavior of the candidate in the Group Discussion
should not be aggressive. It should be polite. Remember
that the B-schools or organizations are looking for
sensitive and polite candidates, not violent bouncers.
o Listening Skills
The panelist observes that every candidate is listening to
the discussion or not. They can also ask any candidate to
summarize the discussion at the end. The panelist may
infer the poor listener in many ways, such as lack of
confidence, poor eye contact, or poor summary at the
end. Hence, it is a rarest and essential skill to be a good
participant in a Group Discussion.
o Leadership Quality
In a group, one or two participants play the role of a lead.
They define the essential points of a topic and try to hold
the grip of the group to achieve a common goal. Such
candidates often score bonus points. But it does not mean
that the candidate who spokes first will get bonus points
while others not. It mainly depends on the content. If the
first person's content is not impressive compared to the
other candidates, he/she will get fewer scores.
o Team Work
In any company, we need to work as a team for the
projects. Due to this reason, penalists also check the
coordination of the participants in a team. You should
not infer any participant while speaking. Do not try to
prove that other participants are not speaking correctly.
 68

Seven Mistakes to avoid in a Group Discussion

Most of the candidates in a Group Discussion are not aware of
some mistakes. Little mistakes can have an adverse impact on
our impression towards the judges, which are listed below:
o Stop taking leads if you do not know much
We should not take the lead in a Group Discussion if we
are not much aware of the topic. If we are confident and
have much knowledge about the topic, we can initiate the
discussion of that group. Otherwise, wait for others to
start.
Being second, third, or fourth in the group helps you
better understand the topic by listening to other
candidates.
o Do not hesitate to initiate the discussion
If you have much knowledge and are confident about the
topic, try to take the lead.
o Do not copy anyone else ideas or comments
You should not copy the ideas and comments of other
participants in the group. It creates a negative
impression. In case you do not have any idea about the
topic, it's better to act smart. Analyze and listen to other
participants, add some points, and convert it in your own
words.
o Do not avoid eye contact with other participants while
speaking
When you start a discussion, you should not forget that it
is a discussion with multiple candidates. It means that
you are not only speaking but having conversations or
debates with them. Avoiding eye contact is considered a
sign of disrespect and a lack of confidence.
 69

o Do not lose confidence in the whole discussion

The group discussion is not carried for a long duration. It
is just for a short span of time. Try always being
confident. Do not get nervous if some point goes wrong.
Mistakes often happen, but how to recover is more
important. Take a challenge to correct your mistakes and
come back again with confidence.
o Do not speak slowly
You should always speak loudly in a Group discussion
so that everyone can hear and understand your words.
Sometimes, the scene of a GD becomes like a market
where everyone speaks, but no one is clearly audible. If
you have a low voice, there is no chance for you to stand.
You can increase your volume and try to settle down the
commotion. It will also leave a good impression.
o Try to contribute in a discussion rather than just
speaking
Some candidates often speak continuously in a single go.
The reason may be the fear of not getting another chance.
You should try to cover one keyword at a time by
breaking the points into two or three different parts. The
words we speak should be valuable without any
repetition.

Simple hacks to crack a group discussion for beginners

 70

It might be complicated for a beginner to crack a Group

Discussion. Let's discuss some simple hacks to crack a Group
Discussion for beginners, which are listed below:
o Create a structure before beginning
During the preparation time, prepare a structure of your
discussion. As soon as your discussion starts, look at
your structure, and start speaking serially. You can also
discuss the agenda with your group and work together on
it. It gives a logical flow to your discussion. In this way,
you and your group mates can together plan the
discussion. To avoid the off-track discussion, keep
summarizing in between so that everyone remains on
track.
The structure can be in the form of:
o A flowchart

o A block diagram

o Simple steps

o Notes

o Speak point to point

The organizations are interested in hiring candidates who
speak point to point and have effective communication.
 71

They do not want to hire those who just beat the rush
only to leave a good impression. You should be
confident about your words, prepare the discussion
according to the topic, and do not hesitate.
Your points should be clear and precise. Do not include
large paragraphs in your discussion.
o Be yourself
Do not compare yourself with others. When you apply
for an organization or a company, you know that the
work culture will fit your needs. Do not speak to create
an impression. Speak that you feel correct.
o Attitude
During the discussion, if you found any incorrect
statements, inequality to someone, disrespects,
comments, ethnicity, etc. that you are not satisfied with,
start and present your views. Do not focus on what others
will think or say. Raise your voice and hold the chance to
speak. But be polite while objecting to someone's point
of view. Always be friendly and kind to your group
mates.
o Clarity
You should be clear with your words. Your voice should
be audible to everyone present in the discussion. Do not
speak fast to cover all the points. You should always be
confident even if you make mistakes.
o Maintain eye contact
A beginner often feels nervous in a Group Discussion,
due to which he/she is unable to keep eye contact with
other group members. It makes a negative impression
that the candidate is not confident.
So, always maintain eye contact with other group
members in the whole discussion.
 72

o Be formal
You may be confident while speaking in a Group
Discussion. But, always take care of your body language,
dressing style, and gestures. Remember, it is a formal
discussion, not a casual discussion.
o Be careful
Sometimes, candidates only focus on their speech and
matter. Do not concentrate only on yourself. You should
always be careful in a Group Discussion. Listen to other
participants as well. The panelists at the end can ask
anyone to summarize the discussion. The summarization
includes all the essential points discussed by everyone in
the discussion. If you are unable to summarize, it will
create a negative impression.
o Include examples
You should always try to include examples in the Group
discussion. Such candidates are awarded bonus points.

Group Discussion for Competitive exams

 73

Group Discussion has become an important part of various

competitive exams, such as CAT, Bank, PO, SSC, Railways,
etc. Let's discuss some of the exams with the tips.

CAT
CAT stands for Common Admission Test. It is the test
conducted for the admissions in business programs (MBA and
PGDM). The shortlisted candidates are eligible for admission
in the IIMs.
Let's discuss Group Discussion for CAT exams.
The GD in CATs has become an integral part of admissions to
IIM and other MBA institutes. It is the best way to study the
attitude and behavior of the participants. Most times, you may
found a Group Discussion like a market, but it is a systematic
discussion. The types, rules, hacks, processes, tips, etc. are
similar to other Group Discussions. For any clarity, you can
consider the entire topic discussed here.
 74

CA
The CA (Character Accountant) is the accounting
specification for various Accountant professionals all over the
world.
The Group Discussion for CA is classified as a topic-based
group discussion or case-study based Group Discussion. The
candidates hired for high-paying jobs are generally given case
study Group Discussion. The preparation time is also long for
case study Group Discussion.
Other Competitive exams
Let's discuss Group Discussion for other competitive exams,
such as Bank, PO, SSC, Railways, etc.
The Group Discussion for Banks is carried to judge the
kindness and politeness towards customers. It also tests your
patience, pressure that you can handle, and the listening skills.
The topics for GD might be based on current affairs or events.
The examples of Group Discussion for Railways can be 'Do
Countries Really need a Bullet Train.'
Similarly, Group Discussions are carried for the other
competitive exams as well.

Rejection in Group Discussion

Most of the people are confused about their rejection in the
Group Discussion. Let's understand that rejection does not
mean that you are not capable of doing anything. Every
successful person begins his/her journey with rejections. You
 75

should always consider rejection a lesson to start with more

confidence and learning.
Rejection means that you have got an opportunity to improve
your personality. Prepare the Group Discussion according to
all the steps discussed in this topic. You can also score
yourself and prepare again and again till you scores yourself
best. The more confident you feel about your preparations, the
better will be your performance in the discussion.

Let's discuss some ten questions. Assess honestly based on the

given questions. At last, calculate your total score. You will
automatically find your mistakes. Work on them, and you will
surely crack the Group Discussion next time.
So, let's start.
o Did you represent the information correctly as per
the given topic?
You should have proper knowledge of the topic given in
the discussion. Incorrect and repetitive information about
the topic creates a negative impression. If you do not
know much about the topic, do not initiate the
discussion, listen to others carefully, add your points,
convert it into your words, and represent the information
confidently.
 76

o Were you polite with your group mates?

Teamwork is the skill judged in most of the Group
Discussions. If you were not polite with your group
mates, it seems that you cannot work together with your
colleagues in the company.
o Be positive
Try to always be positive during the discussion. Let's
understand by an example, women empowerment. It
would help if you were not negative that why there are
separate facilities for women.
You should think positively that due to current
differences between men and women, it is a better
option. It will allow more women to continue their
studies, pursuing different career options, etc.
o Were you confident during the whole discussion?
If your heartbeat suddenly increased during the
discussion, your hands and feet were shivering, it means
that you were not confident. Always think that it is your
own place and speak with confidence. No one will scold
and laugh at you.
If you know much about the topic, do not wait for others
to start. Be confident and start your discussion.
Do not take any pressure. Be calm and participate in the
group discussion without any hesitation.
o Have you included examples in your discussion?
Examples are the best way to make your discussion
impressive. It also hides your little mistakes. You can
also use some famous quotes and statistical data.
o Have you focused on your voice and fluency?
Your voice should reach every comer of the room. It
should not be very loud but at a medium pitch. If your
voice is not audible to everyone, you may lose some
 77

points. You should always focus on your fluency. Do not

take many breaks between your discussions.
o Behavior issues
Do not suffer from arguing, attitude, and arrogant
problems. It always creates a negative impression.
Always remember that companies are hiring for the
candidates who can handle every situation without
misbehaving. Some candidates also argue on an
inevitable fact, due to overconfidence that they will be
highlighted, which is not true.
o Research
Some candidates do not know about the company,
organization, or institute. Whenever you go for any
selection round, always go for research about the
company, organization, or institute.
o Focus on your body gestures
Do not sit randomly in a Group Discussion. The panelists
always focus on how you sit and how you react to
different situations during the discussion. In a Group
Discussion, sit straight, do not lean back on the chair,
and don't play with your pens. Don't get easily distracted
when someone opens the door or comes to discuss
anything with the panelists. Do not look back, see here
and there to see who is coming in the room or not.
You should avoid other gestures like shaking or swinging
legs, yawning, etc. Always dress-up properly for a Group
Discussion.
o Were you active during the discussion?
You should always be attentive during the discussion.
Focus on your listening skills. Sometimes, candidates are
not aware about the GD's topic, because they were not
active when the topic was given.
 78

Forms Of Oral Presentation:

Oral communication is the process of verbally transmitting
information and ideas from one individual or group to another.
Learn more about the definition and types of oral
communication, advantages and disadvantages of each type,
and tips for developing oral communication skills.

Definition and Types

Great communication skills are your ticket to success in the
academic and business world. But have you ever been
overcome by fear or anxiety prior to going on a job interview
or speaking in front of an audience? Knowing when to choose
oral communication and polishing your speaking skills can help
you at every stage of your career.
Oral communication is the process of verbally transmitting
information and ideas from one individual or group to another.
Oral communication can be either formal or informal.
Examples of informal oral communication include:
 Face-to-face conversations
 Telephone conversations
 Discussions that take place at business meetings
More formal types of oral communication include:
 Presentations at business meetings
 Classroom lectures
 Commencement speeches given at a graduation ceremony
With advances in technology, new forms of oral
communication continue to develop. Video phones and video
conferences combine audio and video so that workers in distant
locations can both see and speak with each other. Other modern
 79

forms of oral communication include podcasts (audio clips that

you can access on the Internet) and Voiceover Internet Protocol
(VoIP), which allows callers to communicate over the Internet
and avoid telephone charges. Skype is an example of VoIP.
ORAL PRESENTATIONS
The public presentation is generally recognized as the most
important of the various genres of oral business
communication. As is true of all kinds of communication, the
first step in preparing a public speech or remarks is to determine
the essential purpose/goal of the communication. As
Hildebrandt and Murphy note, business presentations tend to
have one of three general purposes: to persuade, to inform or
instruct, or to entertain. Out of the purpose will come the main
ideas to be included in the presentation. These ideas should be
researched thoroughly and adapted to the needs of the audience.
The ideas should then be organized to include an introduction,
a main body or text, and a summary or conclusion. Or, as the
old adage about giving speeches goes, "Tell them what you're
going to tell them, tell them, and tell them what you told them."
The introduction should grab the listener's interest and establish
the theme of the remainder of the presentation. The main body
should concentrate on points of emphasis. The conclusion
should restate the key points and summarize the overarching
message that is being conveyed.
Visual aids are an important component of many oral
presentations. Whether they are displayed on chalkboards, dry-
erase boards, flip charts, or presented using a slide projector,
overhead projector, or computer program, visual aids should be
meaningful, creative, and interesting in order to help the
speaker get a message across. Visual aids should also be
adapted to the size of the audience.
 80

Once the presentation has been organized and the visual aids
have been selected, the speaker should rehearse out loud and
revise as needed to fit time constraints, cover points of
emphasis, etc. It may help to practice in front of a mirror or in
front of a friend in order to gain confidence. A good oral
presentation will include transitional phrases to help listeners
move through the material, and will not be overly long or
technical. It is also important for the speaker to anticipate
questions the audience might have and either include that
information in the presentation or be prepared to answer
afterward. Professional and gracious presentation is another
key to effective communication, whether the setting is a
conference, a banquet, a holiday luncheon, or a management
retreat. "Recognize that when you speak at a business event,
you represent your company and your office in that company,
" stated Steve Kaye in IIE Solutions. "Use the event as an
opportunity to promote good will. Avoid complaints, criticism,
or controversy. These will alienate the audience and destroy
your credibility quickly. Instead, talk about what the audience
wants to hear. Praise your host, honor the occasion, and
compliment the attendees. Radiate success and optimism."
Oral presentations can be delivered extemporaneously (from an
outline or notes); by reading from a manuscript; or from
memory. The extemporaneous approach is often touted as a
method that allows the speaker to make eye contact and
develop a rapport with the audience while simultaneously
conveying pertinent information. Reading from a manuscript is
more often utilized for longer and/or detailed communications
that cover a lot of ground. Memorization, meanwhile, is usually
only used for short and/or informal discussions.
The delivery of effective oral presentations requires a speaker
to consider his or her vocal pitch, rate, and volume. It is
 81

important to incorporate changes in vocal pitch to add emphasis

and avoid monotony. It is also helpful to vary the rate of
speaking and incorporate pauses to allow the listener to reflect
upon specific elements of the overall message. Finding the
appropriate volume is crucial to the success of a presentation as
well. Finally, speakers should be careful not to add extraneous
words or sounds—such as "um, " "you know, " or "okay"—
between words or sentences in a presentation.
Nonverbal elements such as posture, gestures, and facial
expression are also important factors in developing good oral
communication skills. "Your outward appearance mirrors your
inner mood, " Murphy and Hildebrandt confirmed. "Thus good
posture suggests poise and confidence; stand neither at rigid
attention nor with sloppy casualness draped over the podium,
but erect with your weight about equally distributed on each
foot." Some movement may be helpful to hold listeners'
attention or to increase emphasis, but constant shifting or
pacing should be avoided. Likewise, hand and arm gestures can
be used to point, describe, or emphasize, but they should be
varied, carefully timed, and adapted to the audience. Finally,
good speakers should make frequent eye contact with the
audience, let their facial expression show their interest in the
ideas they are presenting, and dress in a way that is appropriate
for the occasion.
Small business owners reflect the general population in that
their enthusiasm for public speaking varies considerably for
individual to individual. Some entrepreneurs enjoy the
limelight and thrive in settings that call for public presentations
(formal or informal). Others are less adept at public speaking
and avoid being placed in such situations. But business
consultants urge entrepreneurs to treat public presentations and
oral communication skills as a potentially invaluable tool in
 82

business growth. "You may consider hiring a presentation

coach or attending a workshop on business presentations, "
counseled Kaye. "These services can show you how to
maximize your impact while speaking. In fact, learning such
skills serves as a long-term investment in your future as an
effective leader."
Advantages of Oral Communication
 There is high level of understanding and transparency in
oral communication as it is interpersonal.
 There is no element of rigidity in oral communication.
There is flexibility for allowing changes in the decisions
previously taken.
 The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral
communication. Thus, decisions can be made quickly
without any delay.
 Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also
saves upon money and efforts.
 Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution.
The conflicts, disputes and many issues/differences can be
put to an end by talking them over.
 Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and
group energy.
 Oral communication promotes a receptive and
encouraging morale among organizational employees.
 Oral communication can be best used to transfer private
and confidential information/matter.
Disadvantages/Limitations of Oral Communication

 Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient

as business communication is formal and very organized.
 83

 Oral communication is less authentic than written

communication as they are informal and not as organized
as written communication.
 Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily
interactions are concerned, but in case of meetings, long
speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at
times.
 Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus
they are unsteady.
 There may be misunderstandings as the information is not
complete and may lack essentials.
 It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the
receivers/audience.
 Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently
used as legal records except in investigation work.

Self-Presentation:
Self-presentation is the manner in which we present ourselves
in front of others. It includes our dressing style, our body
language, our way of talking etc. One should know how to
present themselves, as a professional or as a sophisticated
person. Our success depends on how we impress others
through our body language.
The Self-presentation is a package which includes self-
confidence, self-awareness, accepting ourselves, trusting
ourselves etc. Building every aspect of the package is
essential to become a good self-presenter.

Aspects of Personal Presentation

Your personal presentation includes:
 84

 Clothes;
 Accessories, which in this context means anything that you’re
carrying or wearing, including your notes, although it also
includes luggage, bags, phones, jewellery, watches, and
scarves;
 Body language; and
 Voice.
Your clothes are probably the most obvious aspect of personal
presentation.
In deciding what to wear, there are several things to consider:
What does the audience expect?
It’s not actually as simple as ‘wear a business suit’, because
this may not always be appropriate.
It does depend what your audience is expecting. On some
occasions, or in some industries, smart casual may be much
more appropriate. If you’re not sure, ask the organisers about
the dress code. You can also ask someone who has been to the
event before, or have a look online.
If it’s a regular event, there will almost certainly be
photographs of previous occasions and you can see what other
people have worn.
Within the audience’s expectations, what will make you feel
comfortable?
You will present best if you are fairly relaxed, so you need
to find a balance between the audience’s expectations, and
feeling comfortable.
For example, you may have a particular suit that you think
makes you look good. For women, it’s also worth thinking
 85

about shoes: you’re going to have to stand for the duration of

the session, so make sure that you can do that.
If you’re not used to heels, don’t wear them.
Your accessories should be consistent with your clothes.
That doesn’t mean that your bag needs to be the same colour as
your jacket. However, if you’re wearing a suit, your notes
should be in a briefcase or smart bag, and you’re not carrying a
backpack or plastic carrier bag. Again, it’s about not distracting
your audience from your message.
Likewise, your notes should be part of your thinking.
Producing a dog-eared sheaf of paper is not going to help you
project a good image. Papers tend to flap about, whereas cue
cards can be held on your hand, which is why it is worth
considering using cue cards, or even memorising most of what
you’re going to say and using your visual aids as cues.
There are two main types of self-presentation:
Prosocial Self-Presentation
Self-Serving Self-Presentation
6Prosocial self-presentation entails behaviors that present a
person as a role model and make a person more likable and
attractive. For example, a supervisor may call on her employees
to uphold high standards for business ethics, model that
behavior in her own actions, and compliment others when they
exemplify those standards.
Self-serving self-presentation entails behaviors that present a
person as highly skilled, willing to challenge others, and
someone not to be messed with. For example, a supervisor may
publicly take credit for the accomplishments of others or
 86

publicly critique an employee who failed to meet a particular

standard. In summary, prosocial strategies are aimed at
benefiting others, while self-serving strategies benefit the self
at the expense of others.
Dyadic Communication:
The conversation is the main sort of so called dyadic
communication. The other participants take turns acting as
speakers and listeners. Informal dyad includes talking to
relatives or friends. The form may also be expressed through
gestures, facial expressions, and body language in this
communication. The interactions between a pair of individuals
occurring over a telephone conversation are another form of
dyadic communication. Career interviewing, counseling,
confessions are some examples of formal and dyadic
communication techniques. They generally happen when the
two participants are not in an equal position. The informal
conversation also includes speaking to friends or family.
Diffrence Between Dyadic Communication and Group
Communication:
There is an essential difference between dyadic communication
and group communication. In dyadic communication, each
dyad member is the only person who can directly communicate
with another dyad member. In contrast, in group
communication, any of the members can address a whole group
directly or indirectly. For communication, individuals resolve
their problems and communicate with each other face to face.
In contrast, in group communication, they bring up issues that
need to be determined by the entire group as a whole.
 87

types of dyadic communication?

The term “dyadic communication” refers to face-to-face verbal
interaction. This is the conversation between two individuals
concerned with their shared ideas, actions, thoughts,
perceptions, likes, dislikes, and so on. This communication is
regarded as the simplest form of verbal exchange. The various
forms of communication are as follows
 Phone conversations
 Interviews on any kind
 Face-to-Face Conversation
 Dialogue

Three Stages of Dyadic Communication

Dyadic communication can be divided into three stages. These
are as follows.
 88

Stage – I: Expressive Transmission is the process of sending

information through voice, gestures, and facial expressions to
another person. It may also include reading emotion on
someone’s face or understanding their tone of speech without
hearing what they say.
Stage – II: Receptive Transmission is the process of receiving
information verbally, nonverbally, and through gestures from
another person. It may also include understanding a tone of
speech or reading emotion on someone’s face without hearing
what they say.
Stage – III: Interpersonal Processes are those processes that
occur between dyad members after their two-person
communication is completed. This dyadic response may be
verbal or nonverbal. For example, dyad members may discuss
the ideas presented in interpersonal communication to make
sense of them and understand what they mean for their
relationship with each other.

How Do Dyads Communicate?

Dyads are groups that consist of two people who interact with
each other face-to-face. In dyadic communication, each person
can either take the role of speaker or listener at different times
to facilitate a conversation between just two people. Dyad
members may be strangers who have met for the first time or
close people and family members with whom one is familiar.
How dyads communicate: The dyad’s communication is
affected by the dyad members’ relationship to each other and
their personalities and communication skills. For example,
dyad members who have known one another for a long time
may communicate in a more relaxed way than dyads whose
members are just getting to know each other.
 89

What Are Typical Dyads That Use Dyadic

Communications?
Dyads may be used for interpersonal exchanges that have some
special significance to dyad members. For example, dyads may
be used to express love and affection, exchange information
about daily activities or feelings, discuss problems in dyadic
relationships such as those that occur between close friends.
Other dyads ready affect dyad members’ social interactions
with other people by reinforcing their dyadic relationship, such
as when a husband and wife see another married dyad such as
a mother and daughter out shopping.

How Dyadic Communication Works

The dyadic approach to communication involves two people
who are communicating with each other face-to-face. They
may be strangers or close friends, but the dyad is made up of
only two individuals. In dyad, both members must be actively
engaged in the communication process.
In dyadic communication, dyad members take turns as speakers
and listeners, or both dyad members may share those roles
equally. The goal of communication is to form a connection
between dyad members to understand one another’s ideas,
feelings, and emotions.

What Are Some Positive & Negative Aspects About Dyads?

 90

Positive aspects can be characterized by an equal distribution

of power and respect between dyad members, allowing dyads
to develop a deeper understanding of one another. Dyads may
also help dyad members build social skills such as taking turns
in the conversation or showing interest in what dyad partners
have to say. However, dyadic communications may be
beneficial in dyad members’ personal lives but challenging to
use for people who work together or have a professional
relationship.
Some negative aspects may be characterized by one dyad
partner being more dominant than the other. In these cases,
dyad partners may not feel equal participants in the dyads and
therefore can’t communicate with them. This type of
interpersonal communication may also be challenging to
achieve in dyads who are strangers because they don’t know
each other very well, and conversations can quickly become
 91

awkward or uncomfortable without dyad members’ knowing

what to talk about

How Can Byadic Communication Be Used?

Dyadic communication can be used in dyads working together,
whether they’re business partners or employees. This form of
dyadic communication allows individuals with different areas
of expertise to work collaboratively to solve problems and
achieve goals. Dyadic communication can also be used in
dyads who are friends or family members and want to share
feelings, thoughts, and emotions. In dyadic communication,
dyad partners can come together for face-to-face conversations
that allow them to express their ideas with one another.

What Is The Importance Of Dyadic Communication?

So called dyadic communication is essential because it
provides dyad members with a unique opportunity to connect
on an interpersonal level. This type of communication allows
dyads to share their thoughts, feelings, and emotions for dyad
partners to understand one another better. Two-way
communication can be used in all different dyads, whether they
are working together or just friends.
 92

5C’s of communication:

5 Cs of Effective Communication

By writing effectively, you can get your message across to your

readers and help reduce the effort required to read your
material. Follow these 5 Cs of communication to get the most
out of your writing and effectively share the correct message:

 clarity
 cohesiveness

 completeness

 conciseness

 concreteness

Treating these five Cs as a checklist for your writing can help

to improve communication with colleagues.

Clarity
Clarity is the first item on the list because it is the most part
important of good communication. If your thoughts are not
clear, your writing will not be clear, and your readers will not
understand your message. Your readers might give up
altogether or form an understanding that is contrary to your
objective.
 93

Keep the number of ideas in your sentences to a minimum, and

don’t add anything that obscures your message. Try to use facts
and figures in your writing to have a greater impact. Be clear
about your message and the information you wish to
communicate. Clarity will help build trust with your readers.

Cohesiveness
Help your readers understand your message by leading them
through your information so that they can see how it logically
fits together. Don’t lose your readers in a jumble of meandering
sentences or competing ideas. Keep your ideas focused on your
message.

A topic sentence is a useful way to state an idea; it acts as a

headline for what to expect in a paragraph. The topic sentence
is usually the first sentence of the paragraph. The remaining
paragraph sentences provide information that supports the topic
sentence. Here is an example of a topic sentence with a
controlling idea:

Building the pumphouse on the selected site will require

innovative construction techniques.

Completeness
When presenting an idea, include enough information to prove
your thesis (i.e., your topic sentence). Three supporting
sentences and a concluding sentence are usually sufficient to
complete the paragraph. The concluding sentence of the
paragraph should summarize your main idea by reinforcing
your topic sentence.

Depending on the use case, you might consider adding a call to

action to your text. A call to action, or C2A, lets people know
 94

what additional actions you would like them to take.

Example: See Appendix A for the full report or Email me with
your questions.

Conciseness
Make every word count. Delete redundant words and simplify
wordy expressions. Remove any filler words.

Here are some examples of redundant words:

Instead of: Use

a distance of five kilometres five kilometres

mixed together mixed
until such time as until
Here are a few examples of wordy expressions:

Instead of: Use

due to the fact that because

in close proximity to near
is equipped with has

Concreteness
Be specific in your meaning by using precise words. Avoid
terms that are vague or abstract. For example:
 95

Abstract Less Abstract Concrete

a Ford
vehicle car
Mustang
soon within the month by April 30
Use terminology consistently. If you initially refer to the
warehouse as a warehouse, don’t refer to it later as a storage
facility or logistics centre. Changing terminology only distracts
and confuses readers.

Developing Dialogues:

What is Dialogue?
Dialogue is a communication tool that allows people to
understand other viewpoints without pitting themselves against
different perspectives. In dialogue, there is no defending of
opinions, and no counterpoints. Instead, you let someone talk
and present their viewpoint. You let them finish their idea
without interrupting or asking questions. You listen to
understand, not to defend your own point of view. Your goal is
to get in their head, and understand their perspective, not to
prove they’re wrong and you’re right. When it’s your turn, you
talk and are allowed to finish your thoughts. And here’s the
key: when you give your viewpoint, you don’t give your
viewpoint relative to theirs. Dialogue is not a back and forth
discussion, not a debate or rebuttal. It’s a chance to frame a
problem collectively by both independently voicing your
perspectives on an issue.

When should dialogue be used?

 96

Dialogue should be used when, as Edward Schein points out,

two parties have framed an issue differently. When individuals
or groups have different perspectives and see issues differently,
dialogue can be employed as a effective communication tool to
help the parties understand each other’s point of view. Only
from this common understanding can change and resolution
grow.

Here are some strategies for improving the dialogue in your

own work:
1. Mimic the voices of people in your own life. Perhaps
you’ve created a physician character with the same vocal
inflections as your mother. Perhaps your hero soldier
talks just like your old volleyball coach. If you want to
ensure that your dialogue sounds the way real people
speak, there’s no better resource than the real life people
in your everyday world.

2. Mix dialogue with narration. Long runs of dialogue can

dislodge a reader from the action of a scene. As your
characters talk, interpolate some descriptions of their
physical postures or other activity taking place in the
room. This mimics the real-world experience of listening
to someone speaking while simultaneously taking in
visual and olfactory stimuli.
3. Give your main character a secret. Sometimes a line of
dialogue is most notable for what it withholds. Even if
your audience doesn’t realize it, you can build dynamic
three-dimensionality by having your character withhold a
key bit of information from their speech. For instance,
you may draft a scene in which a museum curator speaks
 97

to an artist about how she wants her work displayed—but

what the curator isn’t saying out loud is that she’s in love
with the artist. You can use that secret to embed layers of
tension into the character’s spoken phrases.

4. Use a layperson character to clarify technical

language. When you need dialogue to convey technical
information in approachable terms, split the conversation
between two people. Have one character be an expert and
one character be uninformed. The expert character can
speak at a technical level, and the uninformed one can
stop them, asking questions for clarification. Your
readers will appreciate it.

5. Use authentic shorthand. Does your character call a gun

a “piece” or a “Glock”? Whatever it is, be authentic and
consistent in how your characters speak. If they all sound
the same, your dialogue needs another pass.

6. Look to great examples of dialogue for inspiration. If

you're looking for a dialogue example in the realm of
novels or short stories, consider reading the great books
written by Mark Twain, Judy Blume, or Toni Morrison.
Within the world of screenwriting, Aaron Sorkin is
renowned for his use of dialogue.

7.Ensure that you’re punctuating your dialogue

properly. Remember that question marks and
 98

exclamation points go inside quotation marks. Enclose

dialogue in double quotation marks and use single
quotation marks when a character quotes another
character within their dialogue. Knowing how to
punctuate dialogue properly can ensure that your reader
stays immersed in the story.

8.Use dialogue tags that are evocative. Repeating the

word “said” over and over can make for dull writing and
miss out on opportunities for added
expressiveness. Consider replacing the word “said” with
a more descriptive verb.

Soft Skill:

Soft skills relate to how you work. Soft skills

include interpersonal (people) skills, communication
skills, listening skills, time management, and empathy, among
others. They are among the top skills employers seek in the
candidates they hire, because soft skills are important for just
about every job.
Hiring managers typically look for job candidates with soft
skills because they make someone more successful in the
workplace.1 Someone can be excellent with technical, job-
specific skills, but if they can't manage their time or work
within a team, they may not be successful in the workplace.
 Alternate names: Interpersonal skills, essential skills,
noncognitive skills2
 99

How Soft Skills Work

Soft skills are also important to the success of most employers.
After all, nearly every job requires employees to engage with
others in some way.
Another reason hiring managers and employers look for
applicants with soft skills is that soft skills are transferable
skills that can be used regardless of the person's job. This
makes job candidates with soft skills very adaptable and
flexible employees.
Soft skills are particularly important in customer-based jobs.
These employees are in direct contact with customers. It takes
several soft skills to be able to listen to a customer and provide
that customer with helpful and polite service.
Even if you're not in a client-facing role, you need to be able to
get along with coworkers, managers, vendors, and other people
you interact with at work.
Types of Soft Skills
Soft skills include the personal attributes, personality traits,
and communication abilities needed for success on the job. Soft
skills characterize how a person interacts in his or her
relationships with others.
Soft skills include:
 Adaptability
 Communication
 Compromise
 Creative thinking
 Dependability
 Leadership
 100

 Listening
 Work ethic
 Teamwork
 Positivity
 Time management
 Motivation
 Problem-solving
 Critical thinking
 Conflict resolution
 Negotiation
How to Get Soft Skills
Unlike hard skills that are learned, soft skills are similar to
emotions or insights that allow people to “read” others. These
are much harder to learn, at least in a traditional classroom.
They are also much harder to measure and evaluate.
That said, some job training programs do cover soft skills. They
may discuss soft skills so job seekers know what they are and
the importance of highlighting them on their resume.3 There
are also free online courses that can help you improve your soft
skills.
If you've been working for a while, chances are you've already
developed some soft skills. For example, if you've worked in
retail, you've worked in a team environment. If you've helped
unhappy customers find a resolution, you've used conflict
resolution and problem-solving skills.
If you're new to work, think of other activities you've done,
either through school or on a volunteer basis. Chances are
you've had to communicate, adapt to changes, and solve
problems.
 101

You can also reflect on soft skills you need to develop. For
example, instead of just discussing problems with your
manager, suggest solutions to those problems. If you see a
colleague struggling, offer to pitch in. If there's a process that
could improve your workplace, suggest it.
Employers typically don't directly ask if you have soft skills.
Instead, they present situations and ask what you would do to
assess whether you have soft skills.4
How to Highlight Your Soft Skills
When you're applying for a new job, highlight your soft skills
as well as your job-specific ones. First, make a list of the soft
skills you have that are relevant to the job you want. Compare
your list of soft skills with the job listing.
Include some of these soft skills in your resume. You can add
them to a skills section.
You can also mention these soft skills in your cover letter. Pick
one or two soft skills you have that appear to be the most
important for the job you’d like. In your cover letter, provide
evidence that shows you have those particular skills.
Finally, you can highlight these soft skills in your interviews.
You can demonstrate your soft skills during the interview by
being friendly and approachable. If you pay close attention
while the interviewer is talking, you will show your listening
skills.
 102

SECTION-III

Basic Vocabulary

How To Improve Vocabulary:

The English language often lacks both rhyme and reason. It’s
full of synonyms, homophones, homonyms, and other
confusing words that seem to make it especially difficult to
learn. Luckily, you can use the same five skills to improve your
English vocabulary as you did when learning your first
language: reading, listening, writing, watching, and
conversing.

Write with fluency

Be the best writer in the office.

Reading

Reading is a wonderful way to learn new words. Because

reading is a one-person activity, you can really take your time
with a new word and work out its meaning and usage.

1 Popular literature
Reading illustrated books, such as comics and children’s books,
will offer you graphical clues to help you learn new words.
Plus, if you’re reading popular books, there’s a good chance
that you can find a translation to your own language as well.
 103

2 Relevant blog posts

Reading blog posts about subjects and hobbies you enjoy in
English is a great way to familiarize yourself with new English
words and will keep your interest.

Listening

Listening is how we first learn words as a child and can

profoundly impact how we learn to pronounce and use new
words. There are lots of ways to learn by listening.

3 Music
Music is a fun way to learn new words while immersing
yourself in the popular culture of English-speaking countries.
Find music in genres you like and listen along for words you
know.

4 (Virtual) events
Attend events in English, like plays, sports matches, and
exhibitions, to listen for new words.

Writing

In the age of the internet, writing has become essential to

learning and using a new language. Because of the one-sided
 104

nature of writing, it’s helpful to have a digital writing assistant,

like Grammarly, on your side to help your words flow easily.

5 Journaling
Keep a journal of your day in English. This is an easy way to
incorporate new vocabulary into sentences and to check your
understanding of any new words.

6 Vocabulary building
Learn to look for synonyms. If you want to expand your
vocabulary, you’ll have to push yourself to use new words.
Grammarly has a feature that can help you learn new
synonyms and find just the right word to communicate
effectively.

Watching

Learn how a new word is used by watching someone use it in

context. You’ll learn about the different contexts that may
surround a new word as well as the gestures and mannerisms
that often accompany it.

7 Movies and TV
Watching movies is a casual way to learn words. Similar to
reading illustrated books, you get the perk of visual cues, while
also benefiting from hearing how the word is usually
 105

pronounced. Tip: Combine your listening and reading skills by

turning on the closed captioning in English, which can be a
helpful way to visualize the words being spoken aloud.

8 People-watching
Watch people conversing around you in the world. How are
they using their words? What can you learn about the words
they’re using by observing the relationships of the people and
their mannerisms?

Conversing

Now it’s time to take your new words for a test drive.
Conversing allows you to gain valuable input on your word
usage and pronunciation while expanding your vocabulary.

9 Fluent speakers
Host a (virtual!) game night or dinner for your fluent-English-
speaking friends and colleagues. Ask them for feedback on
your pronunciation and language use.

10 Fellow English learners

Learn from other learners. Join a study group or meet with other
local people learning English. Make a commitment to only
speak English when this group meets.
 106

Prefix/Suffix:

Prefix:

A prefix is a group of letters placed before the root of a word.

For example, the word “unhappy” consists of the prefix “un-”
[which means “not”] combined with the root (or stem) word
“happy”; the word “unhappy” means “not happy.”

A short list of prefixes:

Prefix Meaning Examples

de- from, down, away, reverse, decode, decrease

opposite

dis- not, opposite, reverse, away disagree, disappear

ex- out of, away from, lacking, exhale, explosion

former

il- not illegal, illogical

im- not, without impossible, improper

in- not, without inaction, invisible

mis- bad, wrong mislead, misplace

non- not nonfiction, nonsense

 107

Prefix Meaning Examples

pre- before prefix, prehistory

pro- for, forward, before proactive, profess,

program

re- again, back react, reappear

un- against, not, opposite undo, unequal,

unusual

a without amoral, apolitical,

atypical
ante before antecedent, antedate
anti against, anti-war, anti-bacterial
opposing
arch more, extreme arch-capitalist, arch-
rebel
auto self auto-dial, auto-rotate
bi two, twice bilingual, bisect, bi-
monthly
circum round circumnavigate,
circumvent
co with co-author, co-edit
 108

col, with collaborate, combine,

com, connect
con
contra, against, contraception,
counter opposing counterclaim, counteract
de opposite action declassify, destroy
dia across diagonal, diameter
dis not, opposite of disagree, disprove,
distrust, disbelief
dys abnormal dyslexia, dysfunctional
e electronic e-book, e-mail, e-
governance
eco related to eco-tourism, eco-
environment disaster
en(m) cause to encode, embrace
equi equal equidistant, equilateral
ex previously, ex-president, ex-student
former
extra very extra-bright, extra-
strong
extra outside extra-curricular,
extrasensory,
extraordinary
 109

fore before Forecast, forelimb,

hyper too much hyperactive,
hypersensitive
il, im, in, not, opposite of illogical, impossible,
ir indistinct, irrational
in(m) movement to, in input, inset, intake,
implant, import
inter between, interrelated, interact
connected
intra within intra-generational,
intramuscular
kilo thousand kilogram, kilometer,
kilowatt
macro large macroeconomics,
macro-scale
mal bad, badly malfunction, malpractice
micro small micro-economics,
micro-scale
mid middle midway, midsummer
mis wrongly, mistake, mistranslate,
incorrect misunderstanding
mono one mono-centric,
monoculture
 110

multi many multicultural, multi-

level
neo something old in Neoclassical,
new form
non not non-believer, non-
competitive, nonsense
out more, to a great outnumber, outlive,
extent outburst, outrage
over over, above, too overlook, overcook,
much overhead, overheat
post after post-examination, post-
modern, post-
independence
pre before pre-industrial, preview,
pre-war, pre-
independence
pro in favour of pro-feminist, pro-liberal,
proactive
pseudo false, pseudo-intellectual,
pseudo-science
quasi almost, not quite quasi-academic, quasi-
legal
re again rediscover, redefine,
rename, return,
rejuvenate
 111

retro backwards retrogressive,

retrospective
semi partly, half semicircle, semi-
organic, semi-precious,
semifinals
sub part of subway, submarine,
something, subsection
under, beneath,
super above or bigger superpower, supersonic,
superstar
trans across transcontinental,
transcribe, transport,
transit
ultra extreme ultra-sensitive,
ultrasound, ultramodern
un not unusual, uncertain,
unusual, unscrew,
unplug, unfriendly
under under, beneath, underpower,
insufficient underemployed,
undersea
well useful, well-designed, well-
successful written. well-established

Suffixes
 112

A suffix is a group of letters placed after the root of a word. For

example, the word flavorless consists of the root word “flavor”
combined with the suffix “-less” [which means “without”]; the
word “flavorless” means “having no flavor.”

A short list of suffixes:

Suffix Meaning Examples

-able able to, having the quality of comfortable,

portable

-al relating to annual comical

-er comparative bigger, stronger

-est superlative strongest, tiniest

-ful full of beautiful,

grateful

-ible forming an adjective reversible,

terrible

-ily forming an adverb eerily, happily,

lazily

-ing denoting an action, a acting, showing

material, or a gerund

-less without, not affected by friendless,

tireless
 113

Suffix Meaning Examples

-ly forming an adjective clearly, hourly

-ness denoting a state or condition kindness,

wilderness

-y full of, denoting a condition, glory, messy,

or a diminutive victory

-able, can be done doable, identifiable,

ible predictable, possible
-al, ial has property of personal, partial, legal,
-ant having an effect disinfectant, coolant,
accelerant
–based performing a computer-based, oil-based,
major part of genetic-based
–cy state or quality accuracy, literacy,
urgency,
-ed past tense of turned, ruined, cooked,
verb cleaned
–ee person affected employee, interviewee,
by something trainee, addressee
-en made of, being golden, broaden, lighten
made
 114

-er comparative higher, lighter, sooner,

later
-er one who doer, painter, singer,
perform or do performer
something
-est superlative slightest, lightest, best,
biggest
–free without hasslefree, carefree, debt-
free, pain-free
–ful full of grateful, forgetful, fearful,
careful, joyful
–hood condition, childhood, brotherhood,
period, state adulthood, motherhood
–ic having property linguistic, photographic,
of electric, democratic, heroic
–ics study of genetics, electronics,
aeronautics
–ify giving quality to defy, clarify, purify,
something solidify, classify
–ing present cooking, dancing, running
participle
–ism behaviour or liberalism, modernism,
belief heroism
 115

-ist one who follows Philanthropist, anarchist,

certain optimist, activist
behaviours or
belief
–(t)ion act or process reaction, action, projection
–(i)ty state of extremity, infinity, sanity
–(t)ive adjective active, motive, positive
–ize, -ise bring about a modernize/modernise,
condition or colonize/colonise
state
–less without fearless, careless,
meaningless
–like resemble alike, bird-like, child-like
another
–ly, -y having \quickly, quietly, wordy,
handy
–ment action, process fulfilment, enjoyment,
development
–ness state of, quality Happiness, newness,
kindness, effectiveness,
openness
–ocracy type of ruling democracy, autocracy,
body meritocracy, bureaucracy
 116

–ocrat person ruling autocrat, technocrat,

democrat
–ology, - study of archaeology, geology,
ological biology, physiological,
biological,
–ous having callous, joyous, religious
–proof safe, protected stain-proof, waterproof,
against dustproof, soundproof
–ship state or partnership,
experience of entrepreneurship,
specific position professorship, leadership

Synonyms/Antonyms:

Synonyms:

Synonyms are words that have the same, or almost the same,
meaning as another word. You can say an “easy task” or a
“simple task” because easy and simple are synonyms. You can
say Hong Kong is a “large city” or a “metropolis”
because city and metropolis are synonyms.

List of Synonyms:
 Come — advance, approach, arrive, near, reach

 Go — depart, disappear, fade, move, proceed, recede,

travel
 117

 Run — dash, escape, elope, flee, hasten, hurry, race, rush,

speed, sprint
 Hurry — rush, run, speed, race, hasten, urge, accelerate,
bustle
 Hide — conceal, cover, mask, cloak, camouflage, screen,
shroud, veil
 Move — plod, go, creep, crawl, inch, poke, drag, toddle,
shuffle, trot, dawdle, walk, traipse, mosey, jog, plug,
trudge, slump, lumber, trail, lag, run, sprint, trip, bound,
hotfoot, high-tail, streak, stride, tear, breeze, whisk, rush,
dash, dart, bolt, fling, scamper, scurry, skedaddle, scoot,
scuttle, scramble, race, chase, hasten, hurry, hump, gallop,
lope, accelerate, stir, budge, travel, wander, roam, journey,
trek, ride, spin, slip, glide, slide, slither, coast, flow, sail,
saunter, hobble, amble, stagger, paddle, slouch, prance,
straggle, meander, perambulate, waddle, wobble, pace,
swagger, promenade, lunge
 Do — execute, enact, carry out, finish, conclude, effect,
accomplish, achieve, attain
 Have — hold, possess, own, contain, acquire, gain,
maintain, believe, bear, beget, occupy, absorb, fill, enjoy
 Use — employ, utilize, exhaust, spend, expend, consume,
exercise
 Get — acquire, obtain, secure, procure, gain, fetch, find,
score, accumulate, win, earn, rep, catch, net, bag, derive,
collect, gather, glean, pick up, accept, come by, regain,
salvage
 Keep — hold, retain, withhold, preserve, maintain, sustain,
support
 118

 Put — place, set, attach, establish, assign, keep, save, set

aside, effect, achieve, do, build
 Take — hold, catch, seize, grasp, win, capture, acquire,
pick, choose, select, prefer, remove, steal, lift, rob, engage,
bewitch, purchase, buy, retract, recall, assume, occupy,
consume
 Make — create, originate, invent, beget, form, construct,
design, fabricate, manufacture, produce, build, develop, do,
effect, execute, compose, perform, accomplish, earn, gain,
obtain, acquire, get
 Break — fracture, rupture, shatter, smash, wreck, crash,
demolish, atomize
 Destroy — ruin, demolish, raze, waste, kill, slay, end,
extinguish
 Kill — slay, execute, assassinate, murder, destroy, cancel,
abolish
 Cut — gash, slash, prick, nick, sever, slice, carve, cleave,
slit, chop, crop, lop, reduce
 Fall — drop, descend, plunge, topple, tumble
 Fly — soar, hover, flit, wing, flee, waft, glide, coast, skim,
sail, cruise
 Decide — determine, settle, choose, resolve
 Help — aid, assist, support, encourage, back, wait on,
attend, serve, relieve, succor, benefit, befriend, abet
 Mark — label, tag, price, ticket, impress, effect, trace,
imprint, stamp, brand, sign, note, heed, notice, designate
 Plan — plot, scheme, design, draw, map, diagram,
procedure, arrangement, intention, device, contrivance,
method, way, blueprint
 119

 Show — display, exhibit, present, note, point to, indicate,

explain, reveal, prove, demonstrate, expose

Antonyms:

Antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning of a given

word. The study of antonyms will not only help you choose the
most appropriate word as you write; it will also sharpen your
overall sense of language. Table 4.3 "Common
Antonyms" lists common words and their antonyms.
Table 4.3 Common Antonyms

Word Antonym Word Antonym

absence presence frequent seldom

accept refuse harmful harmless

accurate inaccurate horizontal vertical

advantage disadvantage imitation genuine

ancient modern inhabited uninhabited

abundant scarce inferior superior

artificial natural intentional accidental

attractive repulsive justice injustice

borrow lend knowledge ignorance

 120

Word Antonym Word Antonym

bravery cowardice landlord tenant

create destroy, demolish likely unlikely

bold timid, meek minority majority

capable incapable miser spendthrift

combine separate obedient disobedient

conceal reveal optimist pessimist

common rare permanent temporary

decrease increase plentiful scarce

definite indefinite private public

despair hope prudent imprudent

discourage encourage qualified unqualified

employer employee satisfactory unsatisfactory

expand contract tame wild

forget remember vacant occupied

List of Antonyms (A-H)

 Above – Below
 Absent – Present
 121

 Achieve – Fail
 Add – Subtract
 Afraid – Confident
 After – Before
 Amateur – Professional
 Ancient – Modern
 Argue – Agree
 Arrive – Depart
 Arrogant – Humble
 Ascend – Descend
 Attack – Defend
 Awake – Asleep
 Bad – Good
 Beautiful – Ugly
 Before – After
 Better – Worse
 Big – Little
 Birth – Death
 Black – White
 Blunt – Sharp
 Bold – Timid
 Brave – Cowardly
 Brief – Long
 Bright – Dull
 Busy – Idle
 Buy – Sell
 Cautious – Careless
 Cheap – Expensive
 Clean – Dirty
 Close – Open
 Cold – Hot
 Complex – Simple
 Compliment – Insult
 122

 Cool – Warm
 Crazy – Sane
 Crooked – Straight
 Cruel – Kind
 Dark – Light
 Day – Night
 Deep – Shallow
 Decrease – Increase
 Demand – Supply
 Destroy – Create
 Divide – Unite
 Down – Up
 Drunk – Sober
 East – West
 Easy – Difficult
 End – Begin
 Even – Odd
 Evening – Morning
 Expand – Contract
 Fail – Pass
 False – True
 Fat – Skinny
 Fiction – Fact
 Float – Sink
 Follow – Lead
 Foolish – Wise
 Forgive – Blame
 Freeze – Boil
 Full – Empty
 Generous – Stingy
 Gentle – Rough
 Giant – Dwarf
 Give – Receive
 123

 Gloomy – Cheerful
 Grief – Joy

 Guilty – Innocent

 Happy – Sad

 Hard – Soft

 Heaven – Hell

 Heavy – Light

 High – Low

 Hire – Fire

 Huge – Tiny

 Hungry – Full

List of Antonyms (H-P)

 Idle – Active
 In – Out
 Include – Exclude
 Individual – Group
 Innocent – Guilty
 Inside – Outside
 Joy – Sadness
 Kind – Cruel
 Knowledge – Ignorance
 Last – First
 Laugh – Cry
 Less – More
 Lie – Truth
 Like – Dislike
 Likely – Unlikely
 Liquid – Solid
 Lonely – Crowded
 Long – Short
 Loose – Tight
 Lost – Found
 124

 Love – Hate
 Major – Minor
 Man – Woman
 Marvelous – Terrible
 Mature – Immature
 Maximum – Minimum
 Mix – Separate
 Moist – Dry
 More – Less
 Most – Least
 Move – Stay
 Near – Far
 Never – Always
 New – Old
 Noisy – Quiet
 None – All
 North – South
 Nothing – Something
 Now – Then
 Obvious – Hidden
 Odd – Even
 Often – Seldom
 Old – Young
 On – Off
 Optimist – Pessimist
 Ordinary – Extraordinary
 Over – Under
 Pain – Pleasure
 Panic – Calm
 Partial – Complete
 Passive – Active
 Peace – War
 Permanent – Unstable
 125

 Play – Work
 Plentiful – Sparse

 Polite – Rude

 Poor – Rich

 Positive – Negative

 Powerful – Weak

 Praise – Criticism

 Pride – Modesty

 Private – Public

 Problem – Solution

 Profit – Loss

List of Antonyms (Q-Y)

 Quality – Inferiority
 Quick – Slow
 Raise – Lower
 Random – Specific
 Rare – Common
 Raw – Cooked
 Regret – Rejoice
 Remember – Forget
 Right – Wrong
 Rigid – Flexible
 Rise – Sink
 Rough – Smooth
 Rude – Polite
 Same – Different
 Segregate – Integrate
 Seldom – Often
 Sell – Buy
 Send – Receive
 Shame – Honor
 Short – Long
 126

 Show – Hide
 Simple – Complicated
 Single – Married
 Sour – Sweet
 Spend – Earn
 Start – Stop
 Started – Finished
 Stay – Leave
 Stiff – Flexible
 Stop – Go
 Strength – Weakness
 Strong – Weak
 Student – Teacher
 Sturdy – Weak
 Sunny – Cloudy
 Superb – Inferior
 Tame – Wild
 Teach – Learn
 Temporary – Permanent
 Thin – Wide
 Tidy – Messy
 Timid – Bold
 Together – Apart
 Top – Bottom
 Toward – Away
 Tragic – Comic
 Transparent – Opaque
 Triumph – Defeat
 True – False
 Union – Separation
 Unique – Common
 Upset – Stabilize
 Urge – Deter
 127

 Vacant – Occupied
 Vague – Definite
 Vertical – Horizontal
 Victory – Defeat
 Villain – Hero
 Visible – Invisible
 Wax – Wane
 Wealth – Poverty
 Well – Sick
 Wet – Dry
 White – Black
 Wild – Tame
 Win – Lose
 With – Without
 Worthy – Worthless
 Young – Old

One Word Substitution:

One word substitution is the use of one word in place of a

wordy phrase in order to make the sentence structure clearer.
The meaning, with the replacement of the phrase remains
identical while the sentence becomes shorter.
One Word Substitution Example:
My friend drives me in a car around town. Using one-word
substitution in this sentence would give something like this –
My friend chauffeurs me around town.

A person who believes in fate Fatalist

 128

A person who is above hundred years Centenarian

A book published after the death of its

Posthumas
author

A book written by an unknown author Anonymous

A cinema show which is held in the

Matinee
afternoon

A citizen of the world Cosmopolite

A contagious disease which spreads

Epidemic
over a huge area

A drug or other substance that induces

Soporific
sleep

A flesh eating animal Carnivorous

A game in which neither party wins Draw

A game in which no one wins Draw

A game or batter in which neither

Drawn/ Tie
party wins

A Government by a king or queen Monarchy

A Government by one Autocracy

A Government by the few Oligarchy

A Government by the Nobles Aristocracy

 129

A Government by the officials Bureaucracy

A Government by the people Democracy

A Government by the rich Plutocracy

A grass eating animal Herbivorous

A great lover of books Bibliophile

A handwriting that cannot be read Illegible

A land animal that breeds in water Amphibian

A letter, poem etc. whose author is

Anonymous
unknown

A life history written by oneself Autobiography

A life history written by somebody

Biography
else

A list of books Catalogue

A list of names, books etc. Catalogue

A loss of damage that cannot be

Irreparable
compensated

A man devoid of kind feeling and

Callous
sympathy

A man who has too much enthusiasm

Fanatic
for his own religion
 130

A man who is easily irritated Irritable

A medicine that kills germs Germicide

A medicine that prevents

Antiseptic
decomposing

A medicine to counteract the effect of

Antidote
another medicine

A member of the middle class Bourgeois

A method that cannot be imitated Inimitable

A pardonable offense Venial

A person appointed by parties to settle

Arbitrator
the disputes between them

A person difficult to please Fastidious

A person liable to be called to account

Answerable
for his action

A person supported by another and

Parasite
giving him/her nothing in return

A person who always thinks of

himself; somebody who is selfish or Egotist
self-centered

A person who attacks first Aggressor

 131

A person who believes easily

Credulous
whatever he is told

A person who believes that all events

Fatalist
are pre-determined

A person who cannot read or write Illiterate

A person who does not believe in the

Misogamist
institution of marriage

A person who has power over all Omnipotent

A person who hates women Misogynist

A person who imports or exports

goods into or from a country secretly Smuggler
because they are illegal

A person who knows everything Omniscient

A person who loves every body Altruist

A person who readily believes

Credulous
whatever is told to him/her.

A person who remains unmoved and

unaffected by other people’s opinions, Impervious
suggestions

A person who rides on horse-back Equestrian

A person who speaks two languages Bilingual

 132

A person with an evil reputation Notorious

A person’s peculiar habit Idiosyncrasy

A place where orphans live Orphanage

A place where weapons and

Arsenal
ammunitions are stored

A position for which no salary is paid Honorary

A post held without receiving salary Honorary

A post which doesn Honorary

A remedy which never fails Infallible

A sentence whose meaning is unclear Ambiguous

A short message added on to the end

Postscript
of a letter after the signature

A shortened form of a word or phrase Abbreviation

A sound that cannot be heard Inaudible

A speech delivered without any

Extempore
previous preparation

A speech or a presentation made

Extempore
without previous preparation

A state of perfect balance Equilibrium

 133

A statement which cannot be

Incomprehensible
understood

A study of ancient things Archaeology

A study of animals Zoology

A study of birds Ornithology

A study of derivation of words Etymology

A study of man Anthropology

A study of races Ethnology

A study of the body Physiology

A supposed cure for all diseases or

Panacea
problems

A thing no longer in use Obsolete

A thing that cannot be seen with

Invisible
human eyes

A thing that is fit to be eaten Edible

A word opposite in meaning to

Antonym
another

Absence of government Anarchy

All-powerful; possessing complete

Omnipotent
power and authority
 134

An absolute government by one man Autocracy

An animal or a human being that eats

Omnivorous
any kind of food

An animal who preys on other

Predator
animals

An assembly of hearers at a lecture or

Audience
concert

An exact copy Facsimile

An office with high salary but no

Sinecure
work

Anything that leads to death Fatal

Assembly or parliament in which no

Hung
party has got clear majority

Sentences Start with Alphabet – B

Belonging or pertaining to an
Congenital
individual from birth

Belonging to the Middle Ages Medieval

Belonging to the same period of time Contemporary

 135

Sentences Start with Alphabet – C

Celebration of a hundredth year, once Centenary

Cut off the head Behead

Sentences Start with Alphabet – D

Destroy or get rid of something

Eradicate
completely

Do away with wholly Abolish

Sentences Start with Alphabet – F

Free somebody from blame or guilt Exonerate

Sentences Start with Alphabet – G

 136

General pardon Amnesty

General pardon for political offenders Amnesty

Government by officials Bureaucracy

Government by the nobles Aristocracy

Government by the officials Bureaucracy

Government by the people Democracy

Sentences Start with Alphabet – H

Handwritten book Manuscript

Hard but liable to be easily broken Brittle

Hater of mankind Misanthropist

Having opposing feelings Ambivalent

Sentences Start with Alphabet – I

Impossible to change Incorrigible

 137

Incapable of being dissolved in a

Insoluble
liquid

Incapable of being seized by attack Impregnable

Inscription on a tombstone Epitaph

Sentences Start with Alphabet – K

Killer of one Matricide

Sentences Start with Alphabet – L

Liable to be called to account Accountable

Life story of a man written by himself Autobiography

Life story of a man written by other Biography

Looking into one Introspection

Lover of mankind Philanthropist

Sentences Start with Alphabet – M

 138

Medical examination of a dead body Postmortem

Men living in the same age Contemporary

Misappropriation of money Embezzlement

Murder of a father Patricide

Murder of a human being Homicide

Murder of a mother Matricide

Murder of an brother Fratricide

Murder of an infant Infanticide

Murder of self Suicide

Murder of the king Regicide

Sentences Start with Alphabet – N

Not applicable Irrelevant

Sentences Start with Alphabet – O

 139

Of a man showing feminine attributes Effeminate

Of a man or animal that feeds on its

Cannibal
own species

Of a person extremely desirous of

Avaricious
money

of a person who can use both hands

Ambidextrous
equally well

Of a person who cannot be pleased

Fastidious
easily

Of a person who easily believes

Credulous
whatever is told to him

Of animals feeding on flesh Carnivorous

Of animals feeding on grass and

Herbivorous
plants

Of animals living in flocks Gregarious

Of manners more like those of a

Effeminate
woman than a man

One incapable of being tired Indefatigable

One who always thinks himself to be

Valetudinarian
ill

One who believes in fate Fatalist

 140

One who believes in God Theist

One who calculates premium Actuary

One who can do anything for money Mercenary

One who can make himself at home in

Cosmopolitan
all countries

One who can speak two languages Bilingual

One who can throw his voice Ventriloquist

One who cannot be corrected Incorrigible

One who cannot read or write Illiterate

One who changes sides Turncoat

One who copies from other writers Plagiarist

One who damages public property Vandal

One who dies without a Will Intestate

One who does not believe in the

Atheist
existence of God

One who does not care for art,

Philistine
literature etc

One who does not make mistakes Infallible

One who does something not

Amateur
professionally but for pleasure
 141

One who doesn’t know how to read

Illiterate
and write

One who doubts the existence of god Agnostic

One who eats too much Glutton

One who feels sympathetic towards

Humanitarian
human beings

One who goes on foot Pedestrian

One who has narrow and prejudiced

Bigot
religious views

One who has no money Pauper

One who has strange habits Eccentric

One who hates mankind Misanthrope

One who hates women Misogynist

One who helps others Good Samaritan

One who is a newcomer Neophyte

One who is all powerful Omnipotent

One who is difficult to please Fastidious

One who is easily deceived Gullible

One who is fond of sensuous

Epicure
pleasures
 142

One who is greedy for money Avaricious

One who is indifferent to pleasure or

Stoic
pain

One who is new to a trade or

Novice
profession

One who is not easily pleased Fastidious

One who is out to subvert a

Anarchist
government

One who is present everywhere Omnipresent

One who is qualifies for election Eligible

One who is quite like a woman Effeminate

One who is recovering from illness Convalescent

One who is unable to pay his debts Insolvent

One who is unmarried Celibate

One who knows everything Omniscient

One who knows many languages Polyglot

One who lives in a foreign country Immigrant

One who looks on the bright side of

Optimist
things
 143

One who looks on the dark side of

Pessimist
things

One who loves books Bibliophile

One who loves mankind Philanthropist

One who makes an official

Auditor
examination of accounts

One who pretends to be what he is not Hypocrite

One who pursues some art or sport as

Amateur
hobby

One who questions everything Cynic

One who speaks less Reticent

One who thinks only for oneself, a

person who is selfish, self absorbed Egoist
and self centered

One who thinks only of himself Egoist

One who thinks only of welfare of

Feminist
women

One who works for free Volunteer

Sentences Start with Alphabet – P

 144

People living at the same time Contemporaries

People of noble families or the highest

Aristocracy
social class

People who work together Colleagues

Person who rides on horse-back Equestrian

Persons living in the same age Contemporaries

Practice of having one wife or

Monogamy
husband

Practice of having several husbands Polyandry

Practice of having several wives Polygamy

Practice of having two wives or

Bigamy
husbands

Sentences Start with Alphabet – R

Recovering from illness Convalescent

Remarks which do not ally apply to

Irrelevant
the subject under discussion

Rule by the mob Mobocracy

 145

Sentences Start with Alphabet – S

Science of coins or medals Numismatics

Science of origin of universe Cosmology

Somebody or something with the

same name as somebody or something Namesake
else

Somebody who doesn Vegetarian

somebody who eats human flesh Cannibal

Somebody who is considerably

Veteran
experienced in something

Somebody who works or serves only

Mercenary
for personal profit

Something said or done without

Extempore
preparation

Something that cannot be corrected Incorrigible

Something that cannot be imitated Inimitable

Something that has been determined

Foregone
beforehand
 146

Something that is essential and cannot

Indispensable
be dispensed with

Something that is quickly and easily

Inflammable
set on fire and burned

Something that quickly catches fire Inflammable

Spoken or done without preparation Extempore

state of antagonism Hostility

Statements open to more than

Ambiguous
interpretation

Study of environment Ecology

Systematic study of election trends Psephology

Sentences Start with Alphabet – T

That can be eaten Edible

That cannot be altered or withdrawn Irrevocable

That is prohibited by law Illicit

That through which light can partly

Translucent
pass

That through which light can pass Transparent

 147

That through which light cannot pass Opaque

That which cannot be avoided Inevitable

That which cannot be believed Incredible

That which cannot be changed Irrevocable

That which cannot be conquered Invincible

That which cannot be cured Incurable

That which cannot be defended Indefensible

That which cannot be described Indescribable

That which cannot be explained Inexplicable

That which cannot be hurt Invulnerable

That which cannot be imitated Inimitable

That which cannot be noticed Imperceptible

That which cannot be practiced Impracticable

That which cannot be put into practice Impracticable

That which cannot be read Illegible

That which cannot be satisfied Insatiable

That which cannot be seen Invisible

 148

That which does not bear the name of

Anonymous
the writer

That which is against law Illegal

That which is considered wrong or

unacceptable by prevailing social Illicit
standards

That which is lawful Legal

That which is not likely to happen Improbable

That which is unlikely to happen Improbable

The act of killing an infant Infanticide

The action of looking back on past

Introspection
time

The area over which an official has

Jurisdiction
control

The branch of biology dealing with

Botany
plant life

The custom of having more than one

Polyandry
husband at a time

The custom of having more than one

Polygamy
wife at a time

The first speech made by a person Maiden

 149

The killing of an infant Infanticide

The life story of a man written by

Autobiography
himself

The murder or murderer of one Fratricide

The period between childhood and

Adolescence
adulthood

The science which treats with life Biology

To date before the true time Antedate

To explain something mysterious or

Elucidate
difficult

To free somebody from all blame Exonerate

To give one Delegate

To go down in value Depreciate

To go from bad to worse Deteriorate

To increase the gravity of an offence

Aggravate
or the intensity of a disease

To increase the speed; to hasten the

Accelerate
progress of

To lay special stress on Emphasize

To rise in value Appreciate

 150

To root out an evil, disease Eradicate

To take away some one Disenfranchisement

To take somebody away by force and

hold him or her prisoner, usually for Kidnap
ransom

To transfer one’s authority to another Delegate

To turn friends in enemies Alienate

To write under a different name Pseudonym

Sentences Start with Alphabet – V

Very negative person Pessimist

Violating the sanctity of a church Sacrilege

Sentences Start with Alphabet – W

Water fit for drinking Potable

Without life Inanimate

Without payment Gratis

 151

Words which have the same meaning Synonyms

Words written on the tomb of a person Epitaph

Work for which no salary is paid Honorary

Worship of idols Idolatry

Spellings :

Spelling may be of three main types Phonetic (representing the

actual sounds of the language by symbols), or ideographic
(showing the idea or thing, but giving no indication of
pronunciation) or it may be mixed - it may have something of
the nature of both phonetic and ideographic. A phonetic
spelling may sooner or later go out of date but ideographic
method has the advantage of being quite independent of the
fluctuations of pronunciations.
 152

Spelling tree

Pronunciation depends on speech-organs of mouth and

larynx and on psychological factors. Pronunciation can never
be stationary because it is always changing in individuals, in
groups of people and in nations. Half a century ago the word
vase was pronounced (vo:z) while in America it is sounded as
(veiz). More and more the modern English spelling tends to
become ideographic. It means that we transfer the idea
conveyed by a group of letters seen on the page direct to our
brains without the medium of sound. Many words exist only in
books and have no received pronunciation because the reader
has not heard them spoken or said them himself. Words are
symbol groups which convey an idea without the intermediary
of sound. Yet, on the other hand, letters are still associated with
sound in modern English, specially in the more familiar and
traditional words, and for this reason it may perhaps be fair to
 153

describe its spelling as mixed, partly phonetic and partly

ideographic.

Difficulties in fixing a standard pronunciation, English

spelling is fixed by the printers in the 17th century and clinched
by the rise of dictionaries in the next century. It is largely
symbolical and independent of pronunciation. People all over
the World pronounce English in different ways and some of
them are unintelligible in Britain. They can communicate
satisfactorily in written form, since the groups ot letters are the
symbols of words and not of sounds. The changing nature of
pronunciation makes the chief objection to any phonetic reform
of English spelling. Simplified spelling or 'reformed spelling' is
a far more complex and uncertain problem than those who have
not studied the language scientifically can easily realise.
Developing fluency:

Grammar (Conjunction, Auxiliaries, Prepositions, Articles,

Tenses……)

Conjunction:

What is a Conjunction?
A conjunction is used to combine two or
more objects, phrases or clauses. It can also be termed as
connectors as they are employed in sentences to make
connections. Conjunctions can be found in the latter part of a
sentence if they are used to connect clauses. If conjunctions are
used to connect objects or phrases, they can appear in the
beginning, middle or end of the sentence according to the
position of the objects or phrases.
 154

Definition of a Conjunction
A conjunction, according to the Cambridge Dictionary, is
defined as “a word such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘while’, or ‘although’
that connects words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence.” The
Merriam Webster Dictionary defines a conjunction as “an
uninflected linguistic form that joins together sentences,
clauses, phrases, or words.”
A conjunction is “word that joins words, phrases or sentences,
for example and, but or so”, according to the Oxford Learner’s
Dictionary. The Collins Dictionary gives a slightly different
definition. According to it, a conjunction is “any word or group
of words, other than a relative pronoun, that connects words,
phrases, or clauses.”

Types of Conjunctions
Conjunctions are mainly used to join actions, ideas and
thoughts. They are categorised into three main types:
 Coordinating conjunctions – used to combine two
independent clauses. Examples of coordinating
conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.
 Subordinating conjunctions – used to combine an
independent clause and a dependent clause. Examples of
subordinating conjunctions are if, although, though, after,
before, because, as if, unless, until, when, while, etc.
 Correlative conjunctions – used to combine two phrases
or parts of the sentence which have equal importance
within a sentence. Examples of correlative conjunctions
are not only..but also, either..or, neither..nor, whether..or,
rather..or, if..then, etc.
 155

Examples of Conjunctions
Have a look at the following sentences to understand how
conjunctions can be employed in sentences.
 Sruthi and I visited Gokarna last weekend.
 Do you have a rough notebook or at least a rough sheet of
paper?
 I did not go to work today because I was not keeping well.
 She did not like the food, yet she ate it.
 I will be leaving tomorrow so I am trying to finish all the
pending assignments.

List of Most Commonly Used Conjunctions in Daily

Communication
Given below is a list of most commonly used conjunctions that
you can use in your daily communication.

Examples of Conjunctions

And Or Nor

But Yet So

Because Still For

Not only..but also As When

While As soon as If

Unless In case In addition to

 156

Whereas Though Although

Until Before After

Even if Rather than So that

Either..or As if Neither..or

Both..and Whether..or Or else

Check Your Understanding of Conjunctions

Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate conjunctions in the
following sentences:
1. Deepak ________ Santhosh are best friends.
2. Make sure you work hard ______ you will not be able to
score good marks.
3. _______ Anna does not cook much, she loves baking.
4. Let me know ______ you will be able to make it to the party.
5. I have to go home now ______ I really wish I could stay for
some more time.
6. I am not well _______ I decided to take a day off from work.
7. _________ you work out regularly, you will not see any
results.
8. He had no money, _____he was prepared to help me
9. I could not find the place ___________ I lost the map.
 157

10. ________ I was walking on the street, I found a wounded

dog.
Find out if you have answered it all correctly.
1. Deepak and Santhosh are best friends.
2. Make sure you work hard or you will not be able to score
good marks.
3. Although Anna does not cook much, she loves baking.
4. Let me know if you will be able to make it to the party.
5. I have to go home now but I really wish I could stay for some
more time.
6. I am not well, so I decided to take a day off from work.
7. Unless you work out regularly, you will not see any results.
8. He had no money, yet he was prepared to help me.
9. I could not find the place since/because I lost the map.
10. While I was walking on the street, I found a wounded dog.

Auxilliaries:

What is an Auxiliary Verb?

An auxiliary verb is a verb that is used as a helping verb along
with the main verb in a sentence to make it more meaningful.
It is used to alter the tense, mood or voice of the sentence.

Definition of an Auxiliary Verb

An auxiliary verb is “a verb such as be, do, and have used with
main verbs to show tense, etc. and to form questions, and
negatives”, according to the Oxford Learners’ Dictionary.
 158

The Macmillan Dictionary defines auxiliary verbs as “the verbs

‘be’, ‘do’, and ‘have’ in English, when they are used with
another verb to form tenses, questions, question tags, and the
passive. For example, in the sentences ‘I am listening’, ‘Are
you working?’, ‘You don’t like her, do you?’ and ‘The bill has
been paid’, ‘am’, ‘are’, ‘do’, and ‘has been’ are all auxiliaries.”
According to the Cambridge Dictionary, an auxiliary verb is “a
verb that is used with another verb to form tenses, negatives,
and questions. In English, the auxiliary verbs are ‘be’, ‘have’,
and ‘do’.”

Examples of Auxiliary Verbs

Here is a list of auxiliary verbs that you can use along with the
other main verbs to perform the different functions of auxiliary.
 Am
 Is
 Are
 Was
 Were
 Have
 Has
 Had
 WIll
 Would
 May
 Might
 Can
 Could
 Shall
 159

 Should
 Must
 Ought to
 Need
 Do
 Did

How to Use Auxiliary Verbs?

Auxiliary verbs can be used to perform different functions in a
sentence or a context. Auxiliary verbs act as helping verbs to
alter the tense, voice and mood of a sentence. Let us look at
how these verbs act to fulfil each of these characteristics.

Auxiliary Verbs Used to Alter the Tense of the Sentence

There are particularly a few auxiliary verbs that can be used to
change the tense of the action being performed by the subject
(noun or pronoun) in a context. All ‘to be’ forms of verbs, all
forms of ‘have’, and forms of ‘will’ are used to denote different
tenses.

Points to Remember
 When using the forms of ‘to be’, make sure you use the
gerund (verb+ing) form of the main verb as they are used
to indicate continuous action.
 When using forms of ‘have’, see to it that you use the past
participle forms of the main verbs along with the different
forms of ‘have’. There is one other thing that you should
keep in mind. When the auxiliary verbs ‘have’ and ‘been’
are used together to represent the perfect continuous tense,
see to it that you use the gerund (verb+ing) form of the
main verb in that particular sentence.
 160

 When using the auxiliary verb ‘will’ to denote the simple

future tense, see to it that you use the root verb as such
along with ‘will’ and a gerund (verb+ing) along with ‘will
be’ to indicate the future continuous tense. Make sure you
employ the past participle form of the main verb when it
is used to indicate the future perfect tense along with the
auxiliary verbs, ‘will’ and ‘have’.
Let us look at the following examples to learn how to use them
in sentences effectively.
 161

Root Auxiliary Tense Form Examples

Verb Verb

To be Am Present I am watching the match.

Continuous
(Singular)

Is Present He is having his lunch.

Continuous
(Singular)

Are Present They are going to Dubai.

Continuous
(Plural)

Was Past Seetha was drinking water.

Continuous
(Singular)

Were Past The children were

Continuous playing pictionary.
(Plural)

Have Have Present Perfect They have come to India after five
years.

Has Present Perfect Tharun has finally found the keys

(Third person to his car.
pronoun –
‘He’, ‘She’ and
‘It’)

Had Past Perfect Neena and Vijay had

brought their pet along with them
when they came to have dinner
with us.

Have been Present Perfect I have been waiting for my

Continuous interview results since last week.

Has been Present Perfect Firoz has been working as a

Continuous doctor in Uttar Pradesh for a year
now.
(Third person
pronoun –
‘He’, ‘She’ and
‘It’)
 162

Had been Past Perfect Heera and Diana had been

Continuous waiting to visit the Museum of
Fine Arts from the day they
reached Bangalore.

Will Will Simple Future I assure you that I will finish all
my assignments by Friday.

Will be Future She will be attending the Parent-

Continuous Teacher meeting next week.

Will have Future Perfect They will have reached London

by this time tomorrow.

Auxiliary Verbs used to Alter the Voice of the Verb

All forms of ‘to be’, ‘have’ and ‘will’ can be used as auxiliary
verbs to represent the voice of the verb in a sentence. Let us
look at some examples of how these auxiliary verbs can be
used.
 163

Root Auxiliary Examples

Verb Verb

To be Is Football is played by Garry.

Are Chocolates are liked by most children.

Was Any sort of amendments to the bill was refused by

the judge.

Were The documents for the loan proposal were being

checked by the banking officials.

Have Have been All the neighbours have been invited to the birthday
party by Raam Kumar.

Has been He has been checked by the doctor.

Had been The workers had been sent to protest against low
wages by the company.

Will Will be The bus will be boarded by me at 8:30 p.m. tonight.

Will have The solution to the problem will have been

delivered by the authorities, this time tomorrow.

Auxiliary Verbs used to Express the Mood

The verb forms of the auxiliary verb ‘do’ are used to express
the mood of a sentence. It is mostly used in imperative and
interrogative sentences. Let us look at some examples.
 Do your children enjoy watching educational films?
 Did she complete the work that was assigned to her?
 Do not forget to bring the Bluetooth speaker when you
come home tonight.

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Modal auxiliary verbs can be used as helping verbs along with
other main verbs to emphasise on the possibility, ability,
necessity or probability of some action taking place. Have a
 164

look at the examples given below to have a clear idea of how it

works.

Modal Examples
Auxiliary Verb

Can Can you do it?

Could I could find some time to finish it by

tomorrow.

May She may have liked your style.

Might Suresh might be able to help you with

it.

Will Anu will solve the puzzle.

Would Would you like to have some pizza?

Should The children should keep themselves

active.

Must You must try the Dragon Chicken from

China Valley.

Ought to You ought to abide by the rules set by

the organisation you are a part of.

Shall I shall be obliged to you for all your

help.

Test Your Knowledge on Auxiliary Verbs and Their Usage

Try out the following practice exercise to find out how far you
have understood the usage of auxiliary verbs in sentences.
 165

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate auxiliary verb:

1. Leena ______ eating an apple.
2. _____ you finish the work I _____ given you yesterday?
3. _________ you please pass the logbook?
4. You _________ follow the rules.
5. Your phone ___________ damaged.
6. I am sorry, I ________ make it to your wedding.
7. Derrick __________ submitted all the documents for
verification last week.
8. The Queen’s jewellery ______ stolen from the museum.
9. Peter ______ asked to host the ceremony by his uncle.
10. Sam and Joe ______ attending the event.
Ready to find out if you got it all right? Check your answers.
1. Leena is/was eating an apple.
2. Did you finish the work I had given you yesterday?
3. Could/Can you please pass the logbook?
4. You should/ought to follow the rules.
5. Your phone should be damaged.
6. I am sorry, I cannot make it to your wedding.
7. Derrick had submitted all the documents for verification last
week.
8. The Queen’s jewellery was/had been stolen from the
museum.
9. Peter was asked to host the ceremony by his uncle.
10. Sam and Joe will be attending the event.
 166

Prepositions:

What is a Preposition?
A preposition is a short word that is employed in sentences to
show the relationship nouns, pronouns or phrases have with
other parts within the respective sentences. Prepositions are
normally found positioned in the latter part of the sentence, but
before a noun or pronoun.

Definition of a Preposition
A preposition is defined as “a word that connects a noun,
a noun phrase, or a pronoun to another word, esp. to a verb,
another noun, or an adjective”, according to the Cambridge
Dictionary. The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary says that a
preposition is “a word or group of words, such as in, from, to,
out of and on behalf of, used before a noun or pronoun to show
place, position, time or method.”
The Collins Dictionary defines a preposition as “a word such
as ‘by’, ‘for’, ‘into’, or ‘with’ which usually has a noun group
as its object.” The Merriam Webster Dictionary provides a
slightly different definition. According to it, a preposition is
defined as “a function word that typically combines with a noun
phrase to form a phrase which usually expresses a modification
or predication.”

Uses of Prepositions
Prepositions are seen to show some key characteristics and
perform some vital functions when used in sentences. Let us
look at the various uses of prepositions in English.
 They are used to show the direction of something.
 167

 They can refer to the time of something happening.

 They can be used to denote the position or location of an
object in the sentence.
 They are also used to represent spatial relationships.
 Prepositional phrases, in particular, can be used to do all
of these when used in sentences.

Types of Prepositions
Based on the different uses and functions of prepositions, they
can be divided into four main types. They are as follows:
 Prepositions of Time – used to show when something is
happening.
For example:


 We will be meeting on Friday.

 The supermarket will be closed from 9 p.m. to 9
a.m.
 Can you come after some time?
 We have been asked to work from home until the
end of May.
 The whole country was asked to stay
home during the pandemic to ensure safety and
well-being.
 Prepositions of Place – indicate the place or position of
something.
For example:


 I have kept the book I borrowed from you on the

table.
 168

 Henry hid behind the door.

 The dog jumped over the fence.

 Can you place the red roses in between the white

daisies?
 He was waiting in front of the EB office.

 Prepositions of Direction – used to denote the direction

in which something travels or moves.

For example:


 The girl ran toward her father the moment she saw
him.
 Jerry jumped into the river to help his sister.

 Veena passed the book to Priya.

 When will Salvia be returning from London?

 Neena lives across the street.

 Prepositions of Location – employed to denote the

location of a particular object.

For example:


 Kenny would be staying at his cousin’s place for the

weekend.
 Make sure you keep all the toys back in its place after

you play.
 I lay on the floor for a really long time.

 Prepositions of Spatial Relationship – used to denote an

object’s movement away from the source and towards a

source.
For example:

 169

 Navya sat leaning against the wall.

 The circus was stationed opposite the children’s

park.
 Lakshmi sat beneath the trees.

 Shankar sat beside the stairs.

 We spent the evening walking around the lake.

 Prepositional Phrase – a combination of a preposition

and a noun(the object it is affecting).

For example:


 See to it that you reach the venue on time.

 The medicines you asked for are out of stock.
 Why don’t we try taking classes outside for a
change.
 Make sure you fill in all the forms at once.
 Salmaan was able to finish it only with the help
of his friends.

Examples of Prepositions Used in Sentences

To know how exactly prepositions can be used in sentences,
check out the following sentences.
 I will be going to church in the morning.
 She placed the plates on the dining table.
 Baskar found the cat hiding under the bed.
 Will you be with Raimy or Mazeeka?
 I love sitting on the beach at night.
 Rachel met Phoebe by the lake.
 Finn stood opposite Lisa.
 The grocery store is right in front of the bus stop.
 170

 My brother climbed onto the roof.

 It feels great to sit beneath the trees and read.

List of Most Popular Prepositions for Everyday

Communication
Given below is an extensive list of prepositions that you can
make use of in your daily communication.

Examples of Prepositions

On At In Over

Around Through Opposite to In front of

Behind Beneath Beside Above

Below Under Underneath Down

Up Out With Into

Onto Across After Before

Near Among Along Between

Toward Away From To

Next to By Until About

 171

Commonly Confused Prepositions

With the huge number of prepositions in the English language,
it almost seems impossible to have no confusion at all. Here is
a list of prepositions that cause confusion among the users of
the language.
 In/On/At
These three prepositions can be used to depict both time and
position. Take a look at the table below to have a better
understanding of how it works.

Prepositions of Place

In On At

Can be used to Can be used to refer to more Can be

show general specific locations like used to
locations like streets, avenues, islands, refer to
neighbourhoods surfaces and large vehicles very
, cities, countries specific
and places with locations
a boundary

For example: I For example: Latha For

live in India. stays on the fourth floor. example:
We will be The book you are looking You can
staying in a for is on the rack. find
hotel tonight. us at the
park.
 172

She
is at home
now.

Prepositions of Time

In On At

Can be used to Can be used to refer Can be used to

depict general to dates, days of the denote very specific
timings like week, days of the time, times of the
months, years, month and holidays day and holidays
centuries and with ‘day’ (for without ‘day’ (for
parts of days example – example – Easter)
Republic day)

For example: For example: There For example: We

Dan was is a national parade decided to meet at 4
born in 2000. every p.m.
Technological year on Republic I wished my
development in day. brother at midnight
the field of All of us will be at .
science and home on Christma
medicine s day.
reached its
zenith in the
21st century.

 To/From
To and from are two other prepositions that create confusion.
 173

To From

Used to denote the end Used to denote the starting

location location

For example: We For example: Have you

went to Sri Lanka with started from Bangalore?
my family. I received a letter from my
I gave my coat to Sandra. father.

 By/With
The prepositions by and with have various meanings. They
sometimes appear to be confusing for a second language learner
of English

By With

Near or next to. In the company of

For example: Is the post For example: Glint went to
office by the bus stop? Chennai with his friends.
A given time or not later In addition to
than For example: would you like
For example: See that you to have tea with breakfast?
reach the exam
hall by 8:30 a.m.
Denotes the doer of the By means of
action mentioned in a
sentence
 174

For example: The poem For example: I cut my

was written by my brother. birthday cake with a fruit
knife.

Articles:

What is an Article?
An article is a short monosyllabic word that is used to define if
the noun is specific or not. Articles are normally used
before nouns and since they are used to speak about the noun,
they can be considered as adjectives.
Look at how various dictionaries define an article to have a
much clearer idea of what they are.
Definition of an Article
An article, according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, is
defined as “any of a small set of words or affixes (such as a, an,
and the) used with nouns to limit or give definiteness to the
application.” According to the Collins Dictionary, “an article is
a kind of determiner. In English, ‘a’ and ‘an’ are called the
indefinite article, and ‘the’ is called the definite article.” The
Macmillan Dictionary defines an article as “a type of
determiner (=word used before a noun) that shows whether you
are referring to a particular thing or to a general example of
something. The indefinite article is ‘a’ or ‘an’ and the definite
article is ‘the’.”

Types of Articles
There are three articles in English – ‘a’, ‘an’ and ‘the’. These
articles are divided into two types namely:
 175

 Definite Article
 Indefinite Article

Definite Article
Among the three articles, ‘the’ is said to be the definite article.
A definite article is used to determine something that is specific
or particular. It is also used before plural nouns and to indicate
the superlative degree of comparison. Furthermore, it can be
used before collective nouns as well.
For example:
 The Sun sets in the west.
In the above sentence, the nouns ‘Sun’ and ‘west’ are proper
nouns and are specific and so the definite article has to be used.
 The children are playing cricket.
In the above sentence, the definite article is used to determine
the plural noun, ‘children’.
 This is the world’s longest river.
In the above sentence, the definite article is used to denote the
superlative degree of comparison.
 The crowd sang along with the band.
In the above sentence, the definite article is used before the
collective nouns, ‘crowd’ and ‘band’.

Indefinite Article
The articles ‘an’ and ‘an’ are termed as indefinite articles. An
indefinite article, as the name suggests, is used to indicate
something that is not definite or specific. It can also be used
before singular nouns.
 176

Among the indefinite articles, ‘an’ is used before singular

nouns that start with vowel sounds and ‘a’ is used before
singular nouns that begin with consonant sounds.
For example:
 I had an apple for breakfast.
 Do you have an eraser?
 I saw an aeroplane.
 She has a pet dog.
 My father is a doctor.
 My brother gave me a calculator.

Usage and Exceptions – Points to be Remembered When

Using Articles
Articles are used extensively by English language users, and
for this very reason, it is important to know where and where
not to use them. In order to have a thorough knowledge of how
to use the right articles in the right places, have a look at the
following.

A or An?
The article ‘an’ is normally used before words that begin with
vowel sounds. However, this is often confused with the idea
that it can be used before words that start with a vowel. Look
at the examples given below to understand how this works.


 I have an umbrella.
 This is an orange.

 An elephant was crossing the road.

If you see here, the words ‘university’ and ‘unique’ start with a
vowel. However, it does not have a vowel sound but a
 177

consonant sound ‘yu’ in the beginning. It is because of this

reason that the indefinite article, ‘a’ is used instead of ‘an’.


 Studying in a university will give you a lot of

exposure.
 This is a unique way of communicating with birds.

In the examples given below, ‘an’ is used before ‘MBA’ and

‘hour’ though they are words starting with consonants. This is
because the word ‘MBA’ starts with ‘m’ which has a vowel
sound (em) in the beginning. Likewise, the ‘h’ in the word
‘hour’ is silent, thus having a vowel sound in the beginning.


 I have completed an MBA degree.

 It took an hour to reach the airport.

Exceptions
Words starting with a vowel, but use ‘a’ instead of ‘an’:
One
 University

 Unique

 Uniform

 Unit

 Eucalyptus

 Utensil

 Euro

 UFO

Words starting with a consonant, but use ‘an’ instead of ‘a’.

 Hour
 Honest
 178

 Hourly
 MBA

 MBBS

 MA

 MSc

 MMR

 MCom

 MLA

 NCC

 Honorary

 X-ray

 Xmas

There are also some cases in which you will have to use the
indefinite article ‘the’ before a common noun. Look at the
following set of sentences to understand how this works.
Example 1: My brother and I are going for a wedding
reception. The reception is held in an open lawn at 7 p.m.
Example 2: I saw a dog at the end of the street. The dog came
running to me.
Example 3: Tharun watched a movie yesterday. He felt
that the movie was too slow.
Examples of Articles
Let us look at a few more examples to find out how articles can
be used.
 The English teacher is absent today.
 I saw a bird sitting on the tree in front of my house.
 Not many know how to use an oven properly.
 Tom has a cat.
 179

 We are going to buy a dress for our daughter.

 Carry an umbrella. I am sure it will rain.
 Keren found a puppy on the road.
 The parents have been asked to attend a meeting
tomorrow.
 The committee has decided to bring down the fuel rates.
 Due to a hartal, the shops have been closed.

Check Your Understanding of Articles

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate articles in the following
sentences:
1. Have you watched ______ new movie?
2. I have never used ______ computer.
3. Do you know _____ multiplication tables?
4. Sandra brought ______ apple.
5. Madhu has ____ teddy bear.
6. ______ chairs are all broken.
7. The janitor asked ______ students to walk carefully as
______ floor was wet.
8. I have finished reading _____ book you lent me.
9. Hari is planning to buy ____ new car.
10. He has been waiting for ___ hour.
Check your answers.
1. Have you watched the new movie?
2. I have never used a computer.
3. Do you know the multiplication tables?
4. Sandra brought an apple.
 180

5. Madhu has a teddy bear.

6. The chairs are all broken.
7. The janitor asked the students to walk carefully as the floor
was wet.
8. I have finished reading the book you lent me.
9. Hari is planning to buy a new car.
10. He has been waiting for an hour.

Tenses:

What Does the Word ‘Tense’ Mean?

In the English language, the word ‘tense’ is used to denote a
characteristic of the verb in a sentence. The tense of a verb is
used to depict the particular time in which a specific event is
taking place.

Definition of Tense
According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, the term ‘tense’
is defined as “any of the forms of a verb that may be used to
show the time of the action or state expressed by the verb.” The
Merriam-Webster Dictionary provides a slightly different
definition. According to it, the word ‘tense’ is defined as “a
distinction of form in a verb to express distinctions of time or
duration of the action or state it denotes.”
“The tense of a verb group is its form, which usually shows
whether you are referring to past, present, or future time”,
according to the Collins Dictionary, and the Cambridge
Dictionary defines ‘tense’ as ”any of the forms of a verb which
show the time at which an action happened.”
 181

How Important Is It to Know about Tenses?

Tenses are often considered to be the backbone and the most
fundamental element of the English language. Without tense,
everything seems to be absurd. Tenses help you describe
actions that take place at different times. It helps to give clarity
to your context and the information you are trying to convey. It
also allows you to build complex sentence structures. So, if you
want to be able to convey information clearly and promptly,
you should know all the twelve tenses and how they are used.

Different Tenses in English

In English grammar, there are three main tenses and they are
each further classified into four different forms which sum up
to twelve tenses in total. The three tenses in English are:
 Present Tense
 Past Tense

 Future Tense

The four different forms are:

 Simple Tense Form
 Continuous Tense Form

 Perfect Tense Form

 Perfect Continuous Tense Form

So, the twelve tenses in English are as follows:

 Simple Present Tense
 Present Continuous Tense
 Present Perfect Tense
 Present Perfect Continuous Tense
 Simple Past Tense
 Past Continuous Tense
 182

 Past Perfect Tense

 Past Perfect Continuous Tense
 Simple Future Tense
 Future Continuous Tense
 Future Perfect Tense
 Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Tips and Techniques to Master English Tenses

To improve your knowledge and usage of tenses, there are just
a few things you have to keep in mind. Take a look at the
following points.
 Keep a clear mind. Be ready to unlearn and relearn.
 Understand what tenses are and how they are used.
 There are particular patterns in which each tense is
conjugated. The whole process would become a lot easier
if you try to identify the patterns and understand them. For
example: the continuous tense takes a helping verb and
verb in the present participle form (verb+ ing’).
 Go through as many examples as you can find. Practice as
much as you can, and you will know how exactly each
tense works out in different contexts.
 There are of course a few exceptions. You just have to go
through them keenly and apply them. It will surely take
time but you will be able to master it with your
determination and continuous effort.
 Above all, there is one thing that you should add to your
list of to-do things. Read books (anything that is
informative and interests you), watch movies, videos or
even series. Without even your knowledge, you will be
able to develop your vocabulary and learn so many
 183

different sentence structures that use the various tense

forms.

Language Games:

Importance of Language Games in Learning English

Activities and games can prove to be really useful while
learning a language even when you are learning via an online
English speaking course. The learners understand better when
they are active. If games are properly designed, they may help
in making the teaching-learning process more effective.
Games provide language practice in all the four skills,
namely, reading, speaking, listening, and writing. For use of
language, these games not only create a meaningful context
but also can be fun while learning English.
Games offer an environment where the learners can practice
using new words and are free to express themselves.
Multiple research studies show that participating in such
activities can be an efficient way to develop communication
skills, strengthen relationships and face the world with
confidence. Games are highly encouraging and increase
cooperation. Speechify, as an online English speaking course
in India, language games is one of the most important ways to
teach effectively in a language class.
Noted writer, Donn Byrne, has emphasized the importance of
language games in English. He explains that games not only
provide the much needed break in the lesson routine, but also
form an integral part of learning. Jane Ellis in her book,
“Teaching English - A Course in Classroom Language and
 184

Teaching”, states that language games provide fun and

entertainment.

Language games to make learning English fun

I’ve been an online English teacher for quite a while now. I
personally feel that activities and games in the classroom can
enhance the learning process of the student. Here are a few
language games that will integrate language learning with fun
and help build vocabulary.
1) Fun with Words- Playing with words can be really
creative and a fun way to learn English. The learner will be
learning English as they play. Pictionary helps to practice
vocabulary and it is a great way to check if your student is
remembering and using the words.
HOW TO PLAY:
 -Before the class starts, prepare a group of words.
 -Tell the student to choose a word from the bag. Alternatively,
in an online classroom, you can show a picture that represents
a certain words and students will guess the word
 -The correct answer gets a point or a reward.
 -Then, encourage the student to draw and you guess the word.
 -You can also tell the students to tell synonyms and antonyms
of the word that you’ve shown in order to enrich their
vocabulary.
 -Tell them to make sentences from the words that have been
used in the class.
2) 4 Pics 1 Word: It is an entertaining picture quiz that will
force the learners to brainstorm and find the correct answer.
HOW TO PLAY:
 185

 -Prepare a collage of four words which has something

common with each other.
 -Share the picture collage to the student in the class and ask
them to guess one word that is common in all the four
pictures.
 -You can help the learner with hints, if required.
 -Once done, move to a different picture collage and continue
till the learner learns some good new words in your class.
3) Comic Strips: Comic Strips are a great way to describe a
picture and also to guess a story out of the given images.
HOW TO PLAY:
o -Prepare a comic strip (sequence of cartoons without writing
captions).
o -Show the picture to the students and ask them to describe the
images in correct order.
o -After the students have described the images in the correct
order, half of the work is done as the student is able to make a
story out of the comic strip.
o -Help the student to understand the images and tell a whole
story in a comical way.
o -The student will thereby, make a story and help the learners
to understand a concept.
4) Impromptu Speaking: This activity will help the students
to think and respond quickly and build self-confidence.
HOW TO PLAY:
o -Prepare a list of topics that are engaging and your learners
will be aware and able to speak.
 186

o -In an online classroom, you can give one topic or tell your
student to choose one topic out of the different topics you give
them.
o -The student needs to speak for at least a minute.
o -Later, you can tell your students the grammatical mistakes
that they have made.
5) Story Telling: This will help the learners to communicate
their thoughts and feelings and also encourage active
participation.
HOW TO PLAY:
o -Prepare the starting lines of the story. For Example- Meeta
heard unusual voices in the forest while coming from work.
Then………………………
o -Tell the students to complete the story in their own words.
o -Set the duration.
o -Listen to the learners carefully and point out their
grammatical errors or usage of repeated words, if any.
6) Scattergories- A fun game that boosts your brain and
fosters creativity.
HOW TO PLAY
o -Take 5 or at least 6 categories, such as animals, foods,
countries, subjects, movies, books, colours, etc.
o -Once you have them, randomly take one letter.
o -Now, the learner needs to write a word starting with that
letter for each category.
o -Set a duration- When the time ends, the learner should stop
writing and reveal the answers.
o -The learner gains points for a word in each category.
 187

7) Memory Game- This activity can improve attention,

concentration and ability to focus. Research finds that
memory games sharpen thinking skills and lead to
improvements in memory and learning.
HOW TO PLAY
o -Keep 10-15 words ready in your bucket.
o -In the class, speak all the words that you have chosen.
o -Tell the learner to remember the words without writing them
anywhere.
o -After you’ve shot all the words to the learner, ask the learners
to recall and state the words in no specific order.
o -After the student has revealed the words, you can tell the
remaining words to him that he has forgotten.
o -Thereafter, you can discuss the meanings of the words and
tell the learner to make sentences using those words.
These games and activities for teaching English to learners
can definitely help plan effective lessons for learners of all
ages and levels and encourage them to speak. Keep using a
variety of activities and media, such as podcasts, videos,
articles, and music, to keep your classes interesting and lively.
 188

SECTION-IV

Proper use of Language:

The Communication Skills:

The ability to communicate effectively with superiors,

colleagues, and staff is essential, no matter what industry you
work in. Workers in the digital age must know how to
effectively convey and receive messages in person as well as
via phone, email, and social media.
These communication skills will help you get hired, land
promotions, and be a success throughout your career.
Top 10 Communication Skills
Want to stand out from the competition? These are some of the
top communication skills that recruiters and hiring managers
want to see in your resume and cover letter. Highlight these
skills and demonstrate them during job interviews, and you’ll
make a solid first impression. Continue to develop these skills
once you’re hired, and you’ll impress your boss, teammates,
and clients.
1. Listening
 189

Being a good listener is one of the best ways to be a good

communicator. No one likes communicating with someone
who cares only about putting in her two cents and does not take
the time to listen to the other person. If you're not a good
listener, it's going to be hard to comprehend what you're being
asked to do.
Take the time to practice active listening. Active listening
involves paying close attention to what the other person is
saying, asking clarifying questions, and rephrasing what the
person says to ensure understanding ("So, what you're saying
is…"). Through active listening, you can better understand
what the other person is trying to say, and can respond
appropriately.
2. Nonverbal Communication
Your body language, eye contact, hand gestures, and tone of
voice all color the message you are trying to convey.
A relaxed, open stance (arms open, legs relaxed), and a friendly
tone will make you appear approachable and will encourage
others to speak openly with you.
Eye contact is also important; you want to look the person in
the eye to demonstrate that you are focused on them and the
conversation. (However, be sure not to stare at the person,
which can make him or her uncomfortable.)
Also, pay attention to other people's nonverbal signals while
you are talking. Often, nonverbal cues convey how a person is
really feeling. For example, if the person is not looking you in
the eye, he or she might be uncomfortable or hiding the truth.
3. Clarity and Concision
 190

Good verbal communication means saying just enough—don’t

talk too much or too little. Try to convey your message in as
few words as possible. Say what you want clearly and directly,
whether you're speaking to someone in person, on the phone,
or via email. If you ramble on, your listener will either tune you
out or will be unsure of exactly what you want.
Think about what you want to say before you say it. This will
help you to avoid talking excessively or confusing your
audience.
4. Friendliness
Through a friendly tone, a personal question, or simply a smile,
you will encourage your co-workers to engage in open and
honest communication with you. It's important to be polite in
all your workplace communications.
This is important in both face-to-face and written
communication. When you can, personalize your emails to co-
workers and/or employees – a quick "I hope you all had a good
weekend" at the start of an email can personalize a message and
make the recipient feel more appreciated.
5. Confidence
It is important to be confident in your interactions with others.
Confidence shows your co-workers that you believe in what
you’re saying and will follow through.
Exuding confidence can be as simple as making eye contact or
using a firm but friendly tone. Avoid making statements sound
like questions. Of course, be careful not to sound arrogant or
aggressive. Be sure you are always listening to and empathizing
with the other person.
 191

6. Empathy
Using phrases as simple as "I understand where you are coming
from" demonstrate that you have been listening to the other
person and respect their opinions. Active listening can help you
tune in to what your conversational partner is thinking and
feeling, which will, in turn, make it easier to display empathy.
Even when you disagree with an employer, co-worker, or
employee, it is important for you to understand and respect their
point of view.
7. Open-Mindedness
A good communicator should enter into any conversation with
a flexible, open mind. Be open to listening to and understanding
the other person's point of view, rather than simply getting your
message across.
By being willing to enter into a dialogue, even with people with
whom you disagree, you will be able to have more honest,
productive conversations.
8. Respect
People will be more open to communicating with you if you
convey respect for them and their ideas. Simple actions like
using a person's name, making eye contact, and actively
listening when a person speaks will make the person feel
appreciated. On the phone, avoid distractions and stay focused
on the conversation.
Convey respect through email by taking the time to edit your
message. If you send a sloppily written, confusing email, the
recipient will think that you do not respect her enough to think
through your communication with her.
 192

9. Feedback
Being able to give and receive feedback appropriately is an
important communication skill. Managers and supervisors
should continuously look for ways to provide employees with
constructive feedback, be it through email, phone calls, or
weekly status updates.
Giving feedback involves giving praise as well – something as
simple as saying "good job" or "thanks for taking care of that"
to an employee can greatly increase motivation.
Similarly, you should be able to accept and even encourage
feedback from others. Listen to the feedback you are given, ask
clarifying questions if you are unsure of the issue, and make
efforts to implement the feedback.
10. Picking the Right Medium
An important communication skill is to simply know what form
of communication to use. For example, some serious
conversations (layoffs, resignation, changes in salary, etc.) are
almost always best done in person.
You should also think about the person with whom you wish to
speak. If they are a very busy person (such as your boss,
perhaps), you might want to convey your message through
email. People will appreciate your thoughtful means of
communication and will be more likely to respond positively to
you.
How to Make Your Skills Stand Out
1. Match your skills to the job. Analyze the job listing, paying
special attention to the hard and soft skills that are highlighted
 193

in the job description. Then, personalize your resume and cover

letter to match their requirements.
2. Familiarize yourself with other in-demand skills. Soft
skills like communication may not get a direct nod in a job
description, but they’re still highly desired by hiring managers.
3. Use job interviews to your advantage. Job interviews
provide an opportunity to show the hiring manager that you
have the verbal communication skills necessary to succeed in a
job, rather than just telling them that you do. Prepare for your
interview, practice beforehand, and don’t be afraid to pause
before answering their questions – or to ask for clarification if
you need it.
4. Don’t stop when you get the job. Want to make a lasting
impression on your colleagues after you’re hired? Use your
communication skills at work. Whether it's participating in a
company meeting or talking with a client, you'll have many
opportunities to show how well you communicate.

The effective Speech:

Speaking effectively is defined as speaking in such a way that

your message is clearly heard and, if possible, acted upon.
There are two main elements to speaking effectively: what you
say, and how you say it.
What you say means your choice of words. The words you
might use when chatting to a friend are likely to be quite
different from those used in a formal presentation or interview.
Similarly, the way that you speak will also vary in different
situations. However, there are also likely to be some common
 194

factors: for example, whether you naturally talk quietly or

loudly, and how you use body language.

Aspects of Effective Speaking

Effective speaking means being able to say what you want
to say in such a way that it is heard and acted upon.
Whether you are talking to a major conference about a new
scientific discovery, your children about their behaviour, or
your boss about a pay rise, you need to be able to speak
effectively. This means considering every possible tool and
aspect to ensure that nothing distracts or detracts from your
message.
Aspects of Effective Speaking

There are three main elements of effective speaking

 The words you use.
 Your voice.
 Your other non-verbal communication, particularly body
language.

Choosing Your Words

What you say—the words you choose—matters.
If in doubt about your meaning, your audience will come back
to the words that you used and double-check what you might
have meant. It is therefore important to choose carefully,
especially when you are saying something important. Things to
consider include:
 195

 Your audience. The words you choose will be different if

you are talking to 200 people at a conference, a trusted
colleague, your boss, or your children. You need to think
about your audience’s overall level of understanding of
the subject, and also the type of language that you use.
 Shorter sentences are easier to process and
understand. Using shorter sentences also creates
urgency.
 Simpler words are also easier to understand. If you
cannot explain something in simple terms, you have
probably not understood it yourself. This is particularly
important if your audience are not all native speakers of
the language.
Guidelines for Effective Speech
 Using Simple and Suitable Words: Words convey
different meanings to different people in different
situations. Speech communication is basically a word-
based communication. The speaker should be careful in
selecting words. Simple, common and familiar words
should be used in speech. Words that bear different
meanings should be avoided as much as possible.
 Control of Emotion: The speaker must control has
emotion to make oral communication effective. Over
emotion of the speaker may mislead or irritate the listeners
and misguide the speaker.
 Drafting the Speech: Before delivering the speech, the
speaker should make a draft of the speech. It will help him
to better organize his speech, to allocate time on different
issues and to rectify the message if any error is there.
 Brevity: The speech should be brief and concise to make
it effective. If there speaker takes long time for delivering
 196

his message, the audience may lose attention toward the

speech. Business Communication Precision: The oral
message must be precise enough to communicate with the
receiver effectively. Specific words should be used instead
of vague or ambiguous words in speech.

Effective Speech in Communication

 Logical Sequence: In speech, ideas should be organized
sequentially so that the receivers or audience may get clear
sense of the whole speech. No irrelevant idea should be
included in the speech.
 Natural Voice: Speech should be delivered at natural tone
of the speaker. Unnatural or unusual voice may distort the
meaning of the message. The voice of the speaker should
be clear and pleasant also.
 Speaking Slowly: The speaker should speak slowly so
that the audience can understand him easily. If the speaker
 197

delivers his speech very rapidly, the audience may fail to

understand or follow him instantly.
 Taking preparation: A person or speaker must take
necessary preparation before delivering his speech before
the audience. Before presenting something he should have
proper planning regarding the topic, audience, timing,
place, etc. A well planned or well prepared presentation
must be able to attract the attention of the audience.
 Avoiding Mannerism: The speaker must avoid
mannerism, if he has any. Because it irritates the audience.
Making unnecessary sound repeatedly, fidgeting fingers,
scratching heads, unnecessary body movement etc. must
be avoided at the time of delivering speech.
 Using Visual Aids: Visual aids can make the speech or
oral presentation more interesting and livelier. The
speaker can use slides, multimedia projector, overhead
projector, whiteboard etc to make his presentation vivid
and magnificent.
 Using Body Language: In speech or presentation, the
speaker must attract the attention of the audience through
positive body language. Eye contact, smile, nods,
fingering etc are important body movements or languages
that help to retain the attention of the audience.
 Clear Pronunciation: Clear pronunciation is an
important quality of a speaker. The success of speech
largely depends on it. Clear pronunciation means distinct
uttering of words with required pitch and intensity of
voice.
 Emphasizing on Important Topic: The speaker should
emphasize on important topic so that audience can pay full
attention to his speech. It’s up to the speaker how he will
determine the relative importance of different parts of his
speech.
 198

Effective self-presentation & facing interview

The interview process:

The interview process is an important phase in recruitment. It
helps an employer understand whether a candidate is ideal for
a job and aids the candidate in determining whether the job
suits them or not. If you are applying for jobs, you may
benefit from understanding the process of job interviews in
detail. In this article, we examine what an interviewing
process is, describe some common steps of the process and
share some tips on how to improve your performance in an
interview.
What is an interview process?
An interview process is a multistep practice that companies
use to screen candidates from a larger pool. It allows
managers and company stakeholders to gauge if candidates
are a good fit for their company. The stages and requirements
involved in this process can vary depending on the industry,
position and company for which you are interviewing.
How do you conduct an interviewing process?
If you are in a position where you have to conduct an
interviewing process, prepare a set of questions that you can
ask. Familiarise yourself with candidate resumes beforehand.
 199

You can introduce yourself and set the stage so that

candidates feel comfortable. Summarise what the job entails
and the duties and functions they have to perform if selected.
Be professional and ask relevant questions one by one. Give
candidates ample time to think before they answer. You can
start with the general questions first and move on to specific
ones regarding their resume, skills and experience. Listen to
each candidate's answers and ask follow-up questions if
necessary. In the end, you can ask the candidates if they have
any queries. Inform the candidates when they can expect a
response from the company.
How to improve your performance in an interview
Here are some tips to improve your performance in an
interview:
1. Prepare an introduction
An introduction may be the first thing an interviewer asks. It
is a great opportunity for them to evaluate you and for you to
highlight your skills. Prepare an introduction beforehand and
practise it. Keep it short, for instance, anywhere between 30
seconds and two minutes. Give a brief overview of your skills,
experience and how you may be a good fit for the job.
2. Research the company

Before any interview, try to understand more about the

company as well as the job role for which you are applying.
You can do a quick online search, go through the company
website or read more on job search websites. If you know who
your interviewer is, you can also gather relevant information
about them regarding their education, specialisations and
 200

work experience. This may enable you to interact with them

confidently.
3. Practise your answers
Try practising your answers to common questions beforehand.
You can practise them in front of a mirror or take a video so
that you are aware of your tone, body language and facial
mannerisms. Practising can help you deliver your answers in a
clear way and sound confident.
4. Arrive early
Punctuality is a virtue that interviewers appreciate in
candidates. Determine how much time it may take for you to
reach the place and plan to leave early. Reach at least 15
minutes early so that you can settle down and be comfortable
before the interview starts.
5. Dress appropriately
Make sure you have appropriate attire for an interview. Even
if a company has a casual dress code, you may have to dress
professionally for an interview. Ensure that your clothes are
fresh and ironed.
6. Bring all necessary documents

Make sure that you bring all the necessary documents for an
interview. Take copies of your resume and other relevant
documents if necessary. If you are unsure of what documents
to bring, you can ask the interviewer for this information in
your interview confirmation email.
 201

7. Ask questions at the end of an interview

Usually, the interviewer may ask you if you have any

questions for them. Be ready with some relevant questions
regarding the job, the work culture or any other area you may
have queries in. This can leave a positive impression on the
interviewer as it demonstrates your enthusiasm and
willingness to learn.
What are the steps in an interviewing process?
Though different companies can conduct an interviewing
process differently depending on their needs, protocols and
the industry, here are some of the steps you may encounter
during an interview:
Screening interview

In a screening interview, a recruiter tries to determine whether

a candidate is suitable for a job and if they should proceed to
the next stage. Sometimes, employers replace this step with an
open interview. Companies typically conduct open interviews
at an open hiring event, where they interview multiple
candidates at the same time. It usually involves a brief
discussion and straightforward questions to gauge a
candidate's suitability for a job.
Phone interview
Sometimes companies may start the process with a phone
interview. They usually use this to narrow down the pool of
candidates and select interested candidates for a job. An in-
person interview may usually follow, though interviewers
hiring for remote positions often have to rely solely on video
or phone interviews to recruit ideal candidates. An interviewer
 202

may schedule a phone interview in advance via email or

phone.
Skill assessment
Some positions can require candidates to take a skill
assessment test, which may evaluate a candidate's aptitude for
a particular job. For example, an employer might ask a
candidate applying for a writing position to take a grammar
test or write a test piece. With this, the company determines
whether a candidate has the necessary skills to perform their
jobs successfully. Companies also use a skill assessment test
to evaluate existing employees for promotions.
First interview

Also known as a pre-interview, the first usually begins with a

one-on-one interview with a hiring manager. The interviewer
typically asks questions about the candidate's qualifications,
skills, work history and relevant experience. They also try to
determine if a candidate would be a good fit for the company
culture. The company may shortlist some candidates after this
interview who can proceed to the next round of the interview.
Second interview

After an initial in-person interview, a second interview is

usually more in depth and may even be a technical interview.
A second interview is to determine whether candidates are
genuine contenders for the job and further reduce the pool of
candidates. Sometimes it may be additional meetings with the
same interviewer, or it can be a day-long meeting with various
members of the staff, like executives and supervisors.
 203

Lunch or dinner interview

Depending on the type of role you are applying for, your

interviewer may ask you to join them for lunch or dinner.
They may share information regarding the job role and ask
you relevant questions about your background. This helps
them evaluate your etiquette, interpersonal skills and
communication skills in a more relaxed setting.
Background check

At some point during the interview, the employer or an HR

executive may conduct a background check to verify the
information you have shared with them. Depending on the
results, your application can progress through the interview or
be withdrawn from consideration. Hence, always ensure that
you provide the right information to an interviewer.
Job offer

If you successfully progress through the interviewing process,

the last phase is when the employer makes you a job offer.
You are provided information regarding the terms and
conditions, compensation and benefits of the position. Make
sure that you study the offer letter carefully before accepting
it. If you would like to adjust a certain aspect of it, you can
make a counter-offer. After negotiations are over, you may
either accept or decline the job offer.

Preparing for Interview:

How To Prepare For A Job Interview: Pre-Interview

Preparation.
 204

The following are some essential steps for pre-interview

preparation:
1. Review the job description

Read the job description to thoroughly understand how the

employer has described the position and the type of candidate
they are looking for. Carefully review the keywords and key
phrases the employer uses to describe their expectations. The
more you can align your skills and qualifications with the job
description, the better chances you stand to impress the
interviewer. You may also get some clues from the job
description about the questions the interviewer may ask.

2. Consider your eligibility for the job

Think about your qualifications and experience. Ask yourself

why you are required to apply for that job and why the
employer should hire you. Assessing how the job fits into your
career path and what value you can add to the company helps
you convince the interviewer about what makes you the best
candidate for the position.
3. Learn more about the company

Get in-depth information about the company through its

website, social media pages, employee reviews and other
online sources. Find out about its mission, management, work
culture, the types of products it offers and the types of clients it
serves. Get some insight on its latest revenue, growth prospects
and business plans. Most companies display information about
the management on their "about us" page, employment-related
information on their "careers" or "work with us" page and
information for investors on their "investor relations" page.
 205

Researching the company well helps you align your CV with

its expectations. It also helps you answer questions about the
firm during the interview. If you are familiar with the
organisation, you can also ask relevant questions to the
interviewer, which shows your seriousness about the job. But,
you need not go into technical details if you are applying for a
non-technical position. The idea is to get a basic understanding
of the company's line of business.
4. Prepare a list of expected interview questions

Make a list of common interview questions for the given

position and frame thoughtful answers. Prepare impressive
responses to questions that give you an opportunity to highlight
your skills and interest in the job. In addition to position-
specific questions, here are some common questions to include
in your list:
 Tell me about yourself.
 Why are looking for a job change?
 Why do you want this job?
 What are your strengths and weaknesses?
 What motivates you?
 Where do you see yourself in five years?
5. Practice mock interviews

No matter how well you prepare, it is natural to feel anxious

and overwhelmed at the time of the interview. Mock interviews
can be a great help in this regard. They can create a real
interview-like environment and help boost your confidence.
Ask your friends or family to conduct a mock interview for you.
Consider recording the entire process to analyse your
performance. If you cannot find anyone to play the interviewer,
you can rehearse the interview in front of a mirror.
 206

6. Organise your documents

You may have applied using a digital copy of your CV, but it
always helps to keep hard copies of all your documents with
you, just in case the interviewer needs them for easy access.
Take a printout of your resume and cover letter. Put all the
important documents including your mark sheets, certificates,
ID proofs and photographs in a folder. If the HR has asked you
to bring any particular documents like salary slips, relieving
letter from previous employer or bank statement , be sure to
keep them ready as well.
7. Update your social media profile
If you are on LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter or any other social
media platform, make sure you have an updated profile.
Employers often check your social media presence to get an
idea about your personality and background. Search for your
name in Google to see what results turn up. If there is anything
unpleasant, prepare yourself for a response if the interviewer
asks about it.
8. Make travel arrangements

Familiarise yourself with the location map that the company

has sent you. You can also check directions to the venue using
Google Maps. Based on the distance and the time it would take
to commute, plan your timing and decide on the mode of
transport. Have contact information of the HR department
ready with you just in case you need any help locating the
company.
 207

9. Decide on your interview dress

Choose a formal dress that you would be wearing for the

interview. Make sure the clothes are clean and wrinkle-free. If
you plan to spray deodorant or perfume, make sure it is mild.
Overall, plan for a neat and clean look with well-cut hair and
shaved or trimmed beard.
How To Prepare For A Job Interview: During The
Interview.
Follow these steps to prepare for a job interview when you are
at the interview venue:
1. Reach the location early
Reach the venue a few minutes before the schedule. It gives
you some time to rest and relax. If it is a far-off location from
your place and the journey has been tiring, you can use the extra
time at hand to drink water, use the washroom or freshen
yourself up. Reaching early helps reduce anxiety and gives time
to mentally prepare for the interview.
2. Be polite
The way you hold yourself in the office tells a lot about you.
Many companies use CCTV footage to analyse your
personality. Sit patiently in a good posture while waiting for
your turn. Be polite to the people you meet including the
receptionist, security guard and other candidates.
3. Be mindful of your body language
Be firm and confident while speaking to the interviewer. You
can start practising it the very moment you enter the company.
Be mindful of your body language while interacting with the
 208

receptionist or HR executive. Pay attention to how you smile

and greet them.
4. Ask thoughtful questions to the interviewer

Most interviewers would give you an opportunity to clarify

your doubts and queries. Make mental notes during the
interview to ask pertinent questions to the interviewer. If you
have any doubts regarding the position, company or any other
issue, you can get them clarified towards the end of the
interview.
How To Prepare For A Job Interview: After The Interview.
The following steps can help you after you have attended the
interview:
1. Analyse your performance

After you come back from the interview, take out a few minutes
to analyse how you performed and what areas could have been
better. Ask yourself whether you forgot to mention something
or whether you could have responded to any particular question
in a better way. This goes a long way in improving your
interview skills.
2. Inform your references
If you have given any references in your CV or in the job
application, make sure you inform them so that they are not
caught off guard when the HR calls them. Call up your
references and tell them about the company and the position
you have applied for. Let them know the skills and qualities
you would like them to recommend you for.
 209

3. Follow up with HR

If you do not get to hear from the company within the expected
time, you should follow up with the HR department on the
outcome of the interview. You can do so through phone or
email. Irrespective of the mode you use, be sure to mention
your name, position applied for, interview date, name of the
interviewer and other relevant details to help the HR staff recall
your meeting.

The presentation skills

Presenting information clearly and effectively is a key skill in

getting your message across. Today, presentation skills are
required in almost every field, and most of us are required to
give presentations on occasions. While some people take this
in their stride, others find it much more challenging.
It is, however, possible to improve your presentation skills with
a bit of work. This section of SkillsYouNeed is designed to
help.

These can all be considered presentations.

They do not, however, all require the same approach. You
would not, for example, use PowerPoint to thank a colleague
who was leaving. It would be unusual (though it has been done)
to use it in a speech at a wedding. However, a conference
audience would be somewhat surprised NOT to see slides
projected onto a screen.
It follows, therefore, that there is no single set of rules that
apply to all presentations. There are, however, some things that
every presentation opportunity has in common. These include:
 210

 You will present better if you have prepared effectively.

This does NOT necessarily mean that you have written out your
speech verbatim and rehearsed it until you know it off by
heart—although that might work for some people. It does,
however, mean that you have to be confident that you are
saying the right thing, in the right way, to the right people.
 You need to be clear about your audience and your
message. Every presentation will be better if you have clearly
considered the message that you want or need to convey, and
how best to convey it to your audience. These two pieces of
information drive your style, structure, content, and use of
visual aids.
 You must never overrun your allocated time. In other
words, don’t outstay your welcome. Almost every speech or
presentation is better if it is shorter. Nobody minds going for
coffee early or finishing before they expected to do so.
Everybody minds being held up.
 Generally speaking, your audience starts on your side. As a
rule, your audience is there (more or less) voluntarily. They
have chosen to listen to you, and they want to enjoy your
presentation. The occasion is yours to lose.